linden's handbook of batteries - gbv

LINDEN'S HANDBOOK OF

BATTERIES

Thomas B. Reddy Editor

David Linden Editor Emeritus

Fourth Edition

Mc Graw Hill

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul

Singapore Sydney Toronto

CONTENTS

Contributors xix Preface xxi

Part 1 Principles of Operation

Chapter 1. Basic Concepts David Linden and Thomas B. Reddy 1.3

1.1. Components of Cells and Batteries / 1.3 1.2. Classification of Cells and Batteries / 1.4 1.3. Operation of a Cell / 1.6 1.4. Theoretical Cell Voltage, Capacity, and Energy / 1.9 1.5. Specific Energy and Energy Density of Practical Batteries / 1.14 1.6. Limits of Specific Energy and Energy Density / /. 16

References / 1.17

Chapter 2. Electrochemical Principles and Reactions Mark Salomon 2.1

2.1. Introduction / 2.1 2.2. Thermodynamic Background / 2.3 2.3. Electrode Processes / 2.4 2.4. Electrical Double-Layer Capacity and Ionic Adsorption / 2.10 2.5. Mass Transport to the Electrode Surface / 2.15 2.6. Electrochemical Techniques / 2.19

References / 2.35 Bibliography / 2.36

Chapter 3. Factors Affecting Battery Performance David Linden 3.1

3.1. General Characteristics / 3.1 3.2. Factors Affecting Battery Performance / 3.1

References / 3.22

Chapter 4. Battery Standardization Steven Wicelinski 4.1

4.1. General / 4.1 4.2. International Standards / 4.1 4.3. Concepts of Standardization / 4.3 4.4. IEC and ANSI Nomenclature Systems / 4.4 4.5. Terminals / 4.7 4.6. Electrical Performance / 4.8 4.7. Markings / 4.9 4.8. Cross-References of ANSI IEC Battery Standards / 4.9

vii

4.9. Listing of IEC Standard Round Primary Batteries / 4Л 4.10. Standard SLI and Other Lead-Acid Batteries / 4.12 4.11. Regulatory and Safety Standards / 4.19

Note / 4.20 References / 4.20

Chapter 5. Battery Design Daniel D. Friel 5.1

5.1. General / 5.1 5.2. Designing to Eliminate Potential Safety Problems / 5.1 5.3. Battery Safeguards When Using Discrete Batteries / 5.7 5.4. Battery Construction / 5.10 5.5. Design of Rechargeable Batteries / 5.14 5.6. Electronic Energy Management and Control Systems / 5.18

References / 5.23

Chapter 6. Mathematical Modeling of Batteries Shriram Santhanagopalan and Ralph E. White 6.1

6.1. Introduction / 6.1 6.2. Development of a Mathematical Model / 6.4 6.3. Building Empirical Models / 6.5 6.4. Mechanistic Models / 6.9 6.5. Kinetic Model of a Silver Vanadium Oxide Cell / 6.13 6.6. Modeling Porous Electrodes / 6.15 6.7. Lead-Acid Battery Model / 6.16 6.8. Intercalation in Porous Electrodes / 6.18 6.9. Energy Balance / 6.18

6.10. Degradation Models / 6.21 6.11. Determining the Right Model / 6.25

List of Symbols / 6.25 References / 6.27

Chapter 7. Battery Electrolytes George E. Blomgren 7.1

7.1. Introduction / 7.1 7.2. Aqueous Electrolytes / 7.1 7.3. Nonaqueous Electrolytes / 7.6 7.4. Ionic Liquids / 7.9 7.5. Solid Polymer Electrolytes / 7.10 7.6. Ceramic/Glassy Electrolytes / 7.11

References / 7.11

Part 2 Primary Batteries

Chapter 8. An Introduction to Primary Batteries David Linden and Thomas B. Reddy 8.3

8.1. General Characteristics and Applications of Primary Batteries / 8.3 8.2. Types and Characteristics of Primary Batteries / 8.4 8.3. Comparison of the Performance Characteristics of Primary Battery Systems / 8.8 8.4. Recharging Primary Batteries / 8.18

CONTENTS ix

Chapter 9. Zinc-Carbon Batteries—Leclanche and Zinc Chloride Cell Systems Brooke Schumm, Jr. 9.1

9.1. General Characteristics / 9.1 9.2. Chemistry / 9.4 9.3. Types of Cells and Batteries / 9.4 9.4. Construction / 9.6 9.5. Cell Components / 9.10 9.6. Performance Characteristics / 9.15 9.7. Special Designs / 9.33 9.8. Types and Sizes of Available Cells and Batteries / 9.36

References / 9.41

Chapter 10. Magnesium and Aluminum Batteries Patrick J. Spellman 10.1

10.1. General Characteristics / 10.1 10.2. Chemistry / 10.2 10.3. Construction of Mg/Mn02 Batteries / 10.4 10.4. Performance Characteristics of Mg/Mn02 Batteries / 10.6 10.5. Sizes and Types of Mg/Mn02 Batteries / 10.11 10.6. Other Types of Magnesium Batteries / 10.11 10.7. Aluminum Primary Batteries / 10.12

References / 10.12

Chapter 11. Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries John С Nardiand Ralph J. Brodd 11.1

11.1. General Characteristics / / / . / 11.2. Chemistry / 11.4 11.3. Cell Components and Materials / 11.7 11.4. Construction / 11.11 11.5. Evolta™ and Oxyride™ Batteries / 11.16

References / 11.17

Chapter 12. Mercuric Oxide Batteries Nathan D. (Ned) Isaacs 12.1

12.1. General Characteristics / 12.1 12.2. Chemistry / 12.2 12.3. Cell Components / 12.3 12.4. Construction / 12.5 12.5. Performance Characteristics of Zinc/Mercuric Oxide Batteries / 12.7 12.6. Performance Characteristics of Cadmium/Mercuric Oxide Batteries / 12.12

References / 12.14

Chapter 13. Button Cell Batteries: Silver Oxide-Zinc and Zinc-Air Systems Joseph Passaniti, Denis Carpenter, and Rodney McKenzie 13.1

Section A. Silver Oxide-Zinc Batteries / 13.1 13.1. General Characteristics of the Silver Oxide-Zinc Battery / 13.1 13.2. Battery Chemistry and Components / 13.2 13.3. Construction / 13.10 13.4. Performance Characteristics / 13.11 13.5. Cell Sizes and Types / 13.15

Section B. Zinc-Air Batteries / 13.16 13.6. General Characteristics of Button Cell Zinc/Air Batteries / 13.16 13.7. Chemistry / 13.17 13.8. Construction / 13.18 13.9. Performance Characteristics / 13.21


Chapter 14. Lithium Primary Batteries Thomas B. Reddy 14.1

14.1. General Characteristics / 14.1 14.2. Chemistry / 14.4 14.3. Characteristics of Lithium Primary Batteries / 14.8 14.4. Safety and Handling of Lithium Batteries / 14.14 14.5. Lithium/Sulfur Dioxide (Li/S02) Batteries / 14.16 14.6. Lithium/Thionyl Chloride (Li/SOCl2) Batteries / 14.26 14.7. Lithium/Oxychloride Batteries / 14.42 14.8. Lithium/Manganese Dioxide (Li/Mn02) Batteries / 14.47 14.9. Lithium/Carbon Monofluoride (Li/CFx) Batteries / 14.64

14.10. LithiumAron Disulfide (Li/FeS2) Batteries / 14.75 14.11. Lithium/Copper Oxide (Li/CuO) Cells / 14.81 14.12. Lithium/Silver Vanadium Oxide Batteries / 14.88 14.13. Lithium/Water and Lithium/Air Batteries / 14.88 References / 14.88

Part 3 Secondary Batteries

Chapter 15. An Introduction to Secondary Batteries Thomas B. Reddy 15.3

15.1. General Characteristics and Applications of Secondary Batteries / 15.3 15.2. Types and Characteristics of Secondary Batteries / 15.4 15.3. Comparison of Performance Characteristics for Secondary Battery Systems / 15.9

References / 15.19

Chapter 16. Lead-Acid Batteries Alvin Salkind and George Zguris 16.1

16.1. General Characteristics / 16.1 16.2. Chemistry / 16.7 16.3. Constructional Features, Materials, and Manufacturing Methods / 16.17 16.4. SLI (Automotive) Batteries: Construction and Performance / 16.37 16.5. Deep-Cycle and Traction Batteries: Construction and Performance / 16.46 16.6. Stationary Batteries: Construction and Performance / 16.56 16.7. Charging and Charging Equipment / 16.67 16.8. Maintenance, Safety, and Operational Features / 76.75 16.9. Applications and Markets / 16.80

References / 16.85

Chapter 17. Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries Kathryn R. Bullock and Alvin J. Salkind 17.1

17.1. General Characteristics / 17.1 17.2. Chemistry / 17.3 17.3. Cell Construction / 17.4

CONTENTS xi

17.4. Performance Characteristics / 17.8 17.5. Charging Characteristics / /7.22 17.6. Safety and Handling / 17.32 17.7. Battery Types and Sizes / 17.33 17.8. Applications of VRLA Batteries to Uninterruptible Power Supplies / 17.36 17.9. Current Developments and Future Opportunities for VRLA Batteries / 17.38

References / 17.39

Chapter 18. Iron Electrode Batteries Gary A. Bayles 18.1

18.1. General Characteristics / 18.1 18.2. Chemistry of Nickel-Iron Batteries / 18.1 18.3. Conventional Nickel-Iron Batteries / 18.4 18.4. Advanced Nickel-Iron Batteries / 18.12 18.5. Iron/Air Batteries / 18.15 18.6. Silver-Iron Battery / 18.17 18.7. Recent Advances in Iron Anode Materials / 18.21 18.8. Iron Materials as Cathodes / 18.21

References / 18.24

Chapter 19. Industrial and Aerospace Nickel-Cadmium Batteries John K. Erbacher 19.1

19.1. Introduction / 19.1 19.2. Chemistry / 19.3 19.3. Construction / 19.3 19.4. Performance Characteristics / 19.7 19.5. Charging Characteristics / 19.12 19.6. Sealed Nickel-Cadmium (SNC) Battery Technology / 19.13 19.7. Fiber Nickel-Cadmium (FNC) Battery Technology / 19.13 19.8. Manufacturers and Market Segments / 19.19 19.9. Applications / 19.21

Bibliography / 19.22

Chapter 20. Vented Sintered-Plate Nickel-Cadmium Batteries R. David Lucero 20.1

20.1. General Characteristics / 20.1 20.2. Chemistry / 20.1 20.3. Construction / 20.3 20.4. Performance Characteristics / 20.6 20.5. Charging Characteristics / 20.15 20.6. Maintenance Procedures / 20.19 20.7. Reliability / 20.21 20.8. Cell and Battery Designs / 20.24

References / 20.28

Chapter 21. Portable Sealed Nickel-Cadmium Batteries Joseph A. Carcone 21.1

21.1. General Characteristics / 21.1 21.2. Chemistry / 21.1 21.3. Construction / 21.3 21.4. Performance Characteristics / 21.6 21.5. Charging Characteristics / 21.19 21.6. Special-Purpose Batteries / 21.25

ХМ CONTENTS

21.7. Battery Types and Sizes / 21.31 21.8. Battery Sizes and Availability / 21.33

Reference / 21.33 Bibliography / 21.33

Chapter 22. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries Michael Fetcenko and John Koch 22.1

22.1. Introduction / 22.1 22.2. General Characteristics / 22.2 22.3. NiMH Battery Chemistry / 22.2 22.4. Cell Construction Types / 22.10 22.5. Cell Design Issues / 22.15 22.6. EV Battery Packs / 22.17 22.7. Hybrid Battery Packs / 22.19 22.8. Fuel Cell Startup and Power Assist / 22.21 22.9. Consumer Batteries—Precharged NiMH / 22.21

22.10. Discharge Performance / 22.22 22.11. Charge Methods / 22.40 22.12. Electrical Isolation / 22.47 22.13. Next Generation NiMH / 22.48 References / 22.50

Chapter 23. Nickel-Zinc Batteries Jeffrey Phillips and Samaresh Mohanta 23.1

23.1. Introduction / 23.1 23.2. Nickel-Zinc Chemistry / 23.2 23.3. Cell Construction / 23.7 23.4. Performance Characteristics / 23.11 23.5. Applications / 23.20 23.6. Environmental Aspects of the Nickel-Zinc Battery / 23.24

References / 23.24

Chapter 24. Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries Jack N. Brill 24.1

24.1. General Characteristics / 24.1 24.2. Chemistry / 24.1 24.3. Cell and Electrode-Stack Components / 24.3 24.4. Ni-H2 Cell Construction / 24.5 24.5. Ni-H2 Battery Design / 24.10 24.6. Applications / 24.14 24.7. Performance Characteristics / 24.17 24.8. Advanced Designs / 24.23


Chapter 25. Silver Oxide Batteries Alexander P. Karpinski 25.1

25.1. General Characteristics / 25.1 25.2. Chemistry / 25.3 25.3. Cell Construction and Components / 25.3 25.4. Performance Characteristics / 25.8 25.5. Charging Characteristics / 25.20 25.6. Cell Types and Sizes / 25.21 25.7. Special Features and Handling / 25.24

CONTENTS XÜi

25.8. Applications / 25.24 25.9. Recent Developments / 25.27

References / 25.29

Chapter 26. Lithium-Ion Batteries JeffDann and Grant M. Ehrlich 26.1

26.1. General Characteristics / 26.1 26.2. Chemistry / 26.3 26.3. Construction / 26.41 26.4. Characteristics and Performance / 26.47 26.6. Safety Properties / 26.68 26.7. Conclusions and Future Trends / 26.75

Acknowledgments / 26.75 References / 26.75

Chapter 27. Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries (AmbientTemperature) Daniel H. Doughty 27.1

27.1. General Characteristics / 27.1 27.2. Chemistry / 27.3 27.3. Characteristics of Lithium Rechargeable Batteries / 27.13 21 A. Conclusions / 27.22


Chapter 28. Rechargeable Zinc/Alkaline/Manganese Dioxide Batteries Josef Daniel-lvad and Karl Kordesch 28.1

28.1. General Characteristics / 28.1 28.2. Chemistry / 28.1 28.3. Construction / 28.3 28.4. Performance / 28.4 28.5. Charge Methods / 28.12 28.6. Types of Cells and Batteries / 28.15

References / 28.17

Part 4 Specialized Battery Systems

Chapter 29. Batteries for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Dennis A. Corrigan and Alvaro Masias 29.3

29.1. Introduction / 29.3 29.2. EV Battery Performance Targets / 29.12 29.3. Batteries for Electric Vehicles / 29.15 29.4. Other Energy Storage Technologies for Electric Vehicles / 29.21 29.5. Hybrid Electric Vehicles / 29.22 29.6. Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles / 29.28 29.7. Comparison of HEV Battery Performance Requirements / 29.35 29.8. Vehicle Integration of HEV Batteries / 29.37 27.9. Other Energy Storage Technologies for Hybrid Electric Vehicles / 29.46

References / 29.46

Chapter 30. Batteries for Electrical Energy Storage Applications Abbas A. Akhil, John D. Boyes, Paul С Butler, and Daniel H. Doughty 30.1

30.1. Introduction: Energy Storage on the Electric Grid / 30.1 30.2. Historical Perspective / 30.4 30.3. Battery Energy Storage for Electricity Applications: How Storage Systems Create Value / 30.5 30.4. Landmark Battery Energy Storage Systems / 30.18 30.5. Advanced Battery Technologies for Stationary Applications / 30.22 30.6. Flowing Electrolyte Batteries / 30.35 30.7. Conclusion / 30.45


Chapter 31. Batteries for Biomedical Applications Randolph A. Leising, Nancy Ft. Gleason, Barry С Muffoletto, and Curtis F. Holmes 31.1

31.1. Applications and Requirements for Implantable Batteries / 31.1 31.2. Applications and Requirements for Batteries for Externally Powered Medical Devices / 31.7 31.3. Safety Considerations / 31.9 31.4. Reliability Considerations / 31.12 31.5. Characteristics of Batteries for Biomedical Applications / 31.15

References / 31.36

Chapter 32. Battery Selection for Consumer Electronics John A. Wozniak 32.1

32.1. Introduction / 32.1 32.2. Key Considerations in Selecting a Battery / 32.1 32.3. Typical Portable Applications / 32.2 32.4. Primary Battery Types and Applications / 32.3 32.5. Secondary Battery Types and Applications / 32.6 32.6. Specific Criteria for Battery Selection / 32.9 32.7. Decision Making and Trade-Offs / 32.17 32.8. Avoiding Common Pitfalls in Battery Selection / 32.20

Chapter 33. Metal/Air Batteries Terrill B. Atwater and Arthur Dobley 33.1

33.1. General Characteristics / 33.1 33.2. Chemistry / 33.4 33.3. Zinc/Air Batteries / 33.6 33.4. Aluminum/Air Batteries / 33.27 33.5. Magnesium/Air Batteries / 33.43 33.6. Lithium/Air Batteries / 33.44

References / 33.55

Chapter 34. Reserve Magnesium Anode and Zinc/Silver Oxide Batteries Ft. David Lucero and Alexander R Karpinski 34.1

Section A. Magnesium Water-Activated Batteries / 34.1 34.1. General Characteristics of Reserve Magnesium Batteries / 34.1 34.2. Chemistry / 34.2 34.3. Types of Water-Activated Batteries / 34.4 34.4. Construction / 34.6 34.5. Performance Characteristics / 34.10 34.6. Battery Applications / 34.22 34.7. Battery Types and Sizes / 34.24

CONTENTS XV

Section B. Zinc/Silver Oxide Reserve Batteries / 34.26 34.8. General Characteristics of Zinc/Silver Oxide Reserve Batteries / 34.26 34.9. Chemistry / 34.26

34.10. Construction / 34.27 34.11. Performance Characteristics / 34.32 34.12. Cell and Battery Types and Sizes / 34.37 34.13. Special Features and Handling / 34.37 34.14. Cost / 34.40 References / 34.40 Bibliography / 34.41

Chapter 35. Reserve Mi l i tary Batteries David L. Chua, Benjamin M. Meyer, William J. Epply, Jeffrey A. Swank, and Michael Ding 35.1

Section A. Ambient-Temperature Lithium Anode Reserve Batteries / 35.1 35.1. General Characteristics / 35.1 35.2. Chemistry / 35.2 35.3. Construction / 35.4 35.4. Performance Characteristics / 35.14 35.5. Applications / 35.19

Section B. Spin-Dependent Reserve Batteries / 35.20 35.6. General Characteristics / 35.20 35.7. Chemistry / 35.21 35.8. Design Considerations / 35.22 35.9. Performance Characteristics / 35.25


Chapter 36. Thermal Batteries Charles M. Lamb 36.1

36.1. General Characteristics / 36.1 36.2. Description of Electrochemical Systems / 36.3 36.3. Cell Chemistry / 36.7 36.4. Cell Construction / 36.10 36.5. Cell-Stack Designs / 36.13 36.6. Performance Characteristics / 36.15 36.7. Testing and Surveillance / 36.18 36.8. New Developments / 36.18


Part 5 Fuel Cells and Electrochemical Capacitors

Chapter 37. Introduction to Fuel Cells David Linden and H. Frank Gibbard 37.3

37.1. General Characteristics / 37.3 37.2. Operation of the Fuel Cell / 37.5 37.3. Subkilowatt Fuel Cells / 37.9 37 .4. Innovative Subkilowatt Designs: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells / 37.13

References / 37.14

Chapter 38. Small Fuel Cells Arthur Kaufman and H. Frank Gibbard 38.1

38.1. General / 38.1 38.2. Applicable Fuel Cell Technologies / 38.2

CONTENTS

38.3. Cell Electrochemical Operation / 38.3 38.4. Cell Stacking Configurations / 38.5 38.5. Fuel Selection / 38.6 38.6. Fuel Processing and Storage Configurations / 38.6 38.7. System Integration Requirements / 38.11 38.8. Hardware and Performance / 38.13 38.9. Prognosis / 38.20

References / 38.20

Chapter 39. Electrochemical Capacitors Andrew F. Burke 39.1

39.1. Introduction / 39.1 39.2. Chemistry and Material Properties / 39.6 39.3. Performance Characteristics of Devices / 39.10 39.4. Electrochemical Capacitor Modeling / 39.13 39.5. Testing Electrochemical Capacitors / 39.22 39.6. Cost and System Considerations for Capacitors and Batteries / 39.33

References / 39.41

Appendices

Appendix A. Definitions A.3

Appendix B. Standard Reduction Potentials B.1

Appendix C. Electrochemical Equivalents of Battery Materials C.i

Appendix D. Standard Symbols and Constants D.l

Appendix E. Conversion Factors E.1

Appendix F. Bibliography F.I

Books / El Periodicals / F.2 Proceedings of Annual/Biennial Conferences / F.2 Other Reference Sources: Handbooks and Bibliographies / F.3 Standards / F.3

Appendix G. Battery Manufacturers and R&D Organizations Prepared by Vaidevutis Alminauskas G. 1

Appendix H. Methodologies for Battery Failure Analysis Quinn Horn, Troy Hayes, Daren Slee, Kevin White, John Harmon, Ramesh Godithi, Ming Wu, Marcus Megerle, Surendra Singh, and Celina Mikolajczak H.1

Introduction / H.l Collection of Background Information / H.2

CONTENTS XVÜ

Recovery of Physical Evidence or Samples / H.3 Host Device or System Examination / H.3 Battery and Cell Examination / H.6 Battery Management and Protection Circuitry Examination / H.28 Working with Data from OEMs and Battery Manufacturers / H.30 Conclusions / H.31 Acknowledgments / H.32 References / H.32

Index 1.1

linden's handbook of batteries - gbv

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