3. Modality and modal verbs

Syntactic properties of modal verbsModals add to the lexical verb a special semantic component such as ability, obligation,

permission, possibility. From a syntactic point of view, modal verbs have certain properties that make them similar to auxiliary verbs. These properties are known in the literature as NICE properties. NICE is an acronym (negation, interrogation, coordination, emphasis).1. The negator NOT is attached to the modal verb to form a negative sentence.2. Modal verbs are inverted with the subject in yes or no, wh-, and tag-questions just like auxiliary verbs.3. The modal verb can be used in coordinate clauses beginning with AND SO followed by inversion to avoid repetition.4. Modal verbs can be used for emphatic purposes in affirmative sentences.

Both auxiliaries and modals appear in the same type of constructions and have the so called NICE properties.

Modal verbs cannot appear in certain constructions. They are incompatible with non-finite forms (present/past participle, infinitive). Modal verbs are incompatible with agreement; they are always followed by a short infinitive. They have no passive form and no imperative. Modal verbs cannot co-occur with the exception of certain dialects in southern USA, where two modals in the same sentence are acceptable. Some modals have two tense forms (present and past: can-could, may-might).

Modal verbs are a distinct class of verbs that share syntactic properties with auxiliary verbs (NICE properties) and which have a certain semantic value like the lexical verbs.

Semantic propertiesWe distinguish 2 main kinds of meanings for modal auxiliaries:

a. INTRINSIC: permission, obligation, volitionb. EXTRINSIC: possibility, necessity, prediction

CAN/COULD: possibility, ability, permissionMAY/MIGHT: possibility, permissionMUST: necessity, obligationNEED, HAVE TO: necessity, obligationOUGHT TO, SHOULD: tentative inference, obligationWILL/WOULD: prediction, volitionSHALL: prediction, volition

4. Types of predication

Copulative predicationA copulative predicate consists of a linking verb and a predicative which may be

adjectival or nominal. The adjectival predicative may be realized by an AP. The nominal predicative may be expressed by a NP, PP or a clause.

The role of the link verb BE as part of the copulative predicate:a. it connects the subject NP to the NP/AP functioning as predicativeb. it enters into a relationship of agreement in person and number with the subject of the sentence.

c. it provides information concerning tense and aspect.There are 2 classes of link verbs:

a. semantically empty link verbs: BEb. semantically poor verbs: BECOME, APPEAR, GROW, REMAIN, GO, STAND, FALL, FEEL, GET, RUN, SMELL, TASTE.

Some of these semantically poor verbs can also be used as transitive or intransitive verbs.The predicative is referentially dependent on the subject of the sentence to which it

gives an attribute or an identity. The main property of the identifying predicative is that it is reversible that is it can change positions with the subject.A. The adjectival predicative

Adjectives that are used predicatively may be non-derived or derived. Some predicative adjectives are derived from transitive verbs by means of suffixation. The DO of the transitive verb becomes a PO in the copulative predication.

There is a special group of predicative adjectives which indicate state/condition and which are prefixed by ‘a-’: alike, averse, afraid, akin. These predicative adjectives may take clausal complement.The classification of the predicative adjectives according to the type of subject they select

Predicative adjectives may be classified according to the semantic features of the subject they select:a. predicative adjectives that select a [+animate] subject [+-human] include: hungry, attentive, eager, sleepy, tired, playful, alive, wickedb. predicative adjectives that only combine with a [+human] subject are: sorry, imaginative, ingenious, kindhearted, polite, sincereAntonymic pairs: clever/dull, careful/careless, sincere/hypocritical, silent/talkativec. predicative adjectives that take [+concrete] subject include adjectives denoting colour, shape, and antonymic pairs of adjectives such as: big/small, long/short, thick/thin, new/old.d. predicative adjectives that select a [+abstract] subject are: obvious,easy/hard/difficult, simple, advisable, necessary, natural, likely.B. The nominal predicative is expressed by a NP, PP or a clause. The nominal predicative expressed by a NP is always indefinite. The nominal predicative expressed by a PP may be preceded by the preposition OF or by other prepositions. All prepositions in the English language can be part of a nominal predicative.

Intransitive predicationVerbs with one argument have been traditionally known as intransitive verbs. Intransitive

verbs obligatorily take a NP in subject position which receives the thematic role of Agent or Patient. Intransitive verbs are of 2 types: simple and complex.

Semantically simple intransitive verbs express events of all types. From a syntactic point of view intransitive verbs may optionally take an adverbial modifier.

Classes1. Phrasal intransitive verbs (V+particle) are followed by particles with various meanings. Certain particles of phrasal verbs show direction (go up, fly past, fall down). Most of these verbs indicate motion. Certain particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may suggest the beginning of the activity in which case the particles are called ingressive (out, about, off, in). ON and AWAY indicate the continuation of the activity. They convey a durative meaning. The particle ON may combine freely with any verb. In contrast the particle AWAY cannot be used

with all verbs. The particles OUT, UP and AWAY express the end of the action (+off, through) that is why they are also called egressive particles.2. Reflexive intransitive verbs always take a reflexive pronoun which is co-referential with the subject of the sentence. There is always a relationship of agreement in person and number between the subject of the sentence and the reflexive pronoun. Almost all reflexive verbs in English can be used as transitive or intransitive verbs (without the reflexive pronoun).Prepositional reflexive verbs: Acquaint oneself with smth; abandon oneself to smth; accustom oneself to smth, adapt onself to smth, congratulate onself on/upon smth; worry onself about/over smth; revenge onself on smb.

Complex intransitive verbs are two-place predicates that is they obligatorily take a subject and a prepositional object or an adverbial modifer to form a correct sentence. Classes:1. Prepositional intransitive verbs

Intransitive verbs belonging to this group always take a prepositional object expressed by a prepositional phrase. By passivization the object of the preposition is moved in initial sentence position, while the preposition gets separated from its object and remains attached to the verb.

When we want to emphasize the prepositional object we move it to pre-subject position. This rearrangement of the constituents of the sentence is called topicalization.2. Prepositional phrasal verbs

By passivization the object of the preposition becomes subject of the passive sentence while the particle and the preposition remain in situ. The prepositional object is emphasized by means of topicalization. The particle remains in situ.3. Intransitives with IOs

All these verbs take an IO marked by the preposition TO. From a semantic point of view these verbs are of several types:-eventive: happen-verbs of seeming: see, appear-verbs of mental processes: occur-verbs of perception: taste, sound-relational verbs showing possession: to belong and inferiority relations: surrender, submit4. Intransitives with two PO

A number of complex intransitive verbs may be followed by 2 PP. the 1st PP may function as an IO or as PO with the semantic feature [+human]. The 2nd PP functions as a PO and it indicates the topic of discussion.5. Complex intransitives with adverbial modifiers: of place, manner; quantifiying adverbials of place, time, that indicate price.

Transitive predicationMost transitive verbs in English express human activities/events in which human play the

Agent role. Transitive verbs typically take 2 arguments to form a correct sentence: one in subject position and the other one in object position. The subject NP can be Theme, Patient or Experiencer. Transitive verbs are of two types: simple and complex. Simple transitive verbs are of 2 types: two-place predicates or three-place predicates.

Various classifications of simple transitive verbs1. according to the meaning of the DO selected

a. Certain simple transitive verbs indicate activities associated with affected object: decorate a house, break a window, brush a hat, burn paper, carry a box, drink milk.b. simple transitives with resultative objects include verbs that show that the NP functioning as DO is the result of the action: cook cakes, manufacture goods, produce, create a model, erect a monument, make a toy. Some transitive verbs with resultative objects may have a [+abstract]/[+concrete] DO. A special type of effected object is the so called cognate object which is actually a repetition of the verbal form: smile, drink, love.c. a small number of simple transitive verbs take a DO which denotes the instrument used to perform a certain activity: use force/terrorism/backmail; manipulate peole/power/event; play a record/tape.d. another group of simple transitive verbs take [-animate] DOs: approach a place/topic; claim a object/right, analyze a substance/idea, examine a paper/theory.2. according to the verbal meaning

From a semantic point of view simple transitive verbs may be grouped into three classes:a. psychological verbs express emotional states, they take an experiencer argument either in subject position (like, adore, admire, dislike, hate, despise, appreciate, respect) or in object position (amaze, astonish, surprise, upset, scare, embarrass, bore). Object experiencer verbs may take a subject which is [+human] or [+abstract].b. relational verbs express symmetric or asymmetric relations between the subject and the object of the sentence. Symmetric relations are expressed by reciprocal verbs: resemble, meet. The asymmetric relations are those expressing inclusion, possession or acquisition. Inclusion relations are expressed by transitive verbs such as: contain, hold, comprise, include, cover. Verbs such as: have, own, possess indicate alienable or inalienable possession. With verbs of acquisition (get, acquire, receive, appropriate) the subject denotes the Beneficiary and the DO shows the Patient/Theme of the action.c. causative verbs are transitive verbs that express direct causation of an event or an event in which causation is implied. From a syntactic point of view causative constructions are all transitive owing to the fact that causation implies 2 participants: a causer and an affected/effected entity. They are of 3 types:

1. periphrastic verbs include: cause, determine, make, have, get which have a very general causative meaning. Semantically these verbs express the idea of causation quite neutrally. They are often associated with [+abstract] nouns. The verbs HAVE and GET additionally convey the idea of obligation/order.

2. lexical verbs are transitive verbs which can be paraphrased by means of the verb TO CAUSE: to teach = to cause smb to learn, to convince= to cause smb to believe, to give= to cause smb to take smth

3. morphological verbs are derived either from adjectives or from nouns. Many causative transitives are converted from adjectives. The word formation processes are:A. conversion: Adjectives→Causative verb: bare, better, blind, clean, emptyB. affixation produces causative verbs by attaching prefixes/suffixes or both of them to adjectives.Prefixation: dis+able/content/quiet; en+large/rich/tameSuffixation: happy/solid+ify; American/civil/functional/commercial/legal/popular+ize; broad/dark/short/white/hard+en

Similar causative transitive verbs can be produced from nouns by means of the same word formation processes.

A. conversion: noun→verb: age, plant, decay, cream, ornamentB. prefixation: de + colour/forest/form; dis + cart/cover/ credit/favour/ honour/illusion/ interest/order/place; en+cage/circle/code/slave/title Suffixation: person/beauty+ify; carbon/computer/robot/standard+ize.

Sometimes both prefixation and suffixation are used to produce causative verbs: deactivate, decentralize, demobilize, demolize, enlighten, disorientated, invalidate.

Auxiliary verbsIndicate aspect and voice. The auxiliary HAVE followed by the past participle of the

lexical verb shoes perfect aspect. The auxiliary BE occurs with the present participle of the lexical verbs to mark the progressive aspect and with the past participle to show passive voice.

The auxiliary DO is a verb which helps or supports certain syntactic processes of the lexical verb where there is no already available auxiliary (the the lexical verb is in the present or past simple). The auxiliary DO is required to form interrogative and negative sentences when the verb is in the present or past simple. Because inversion oo the lexical verb with the subject is not possible the auxiliary DO is inserted in the sentence to form yes or no, wh-, and tag-questions. Because the lexical verb cannot be followed by NOT we insert the auxiliary DO to form negative sentences. The auxiliary DO is used not only in interrogation and negation but also in ellipsis and emphasis.

The auxiliary DO is used to avoid repetition in short answers to yes or no questions, in coordinate clauses affirmative or negative and in comparative clauses introduced by than.

The auxiliary DO is used as a means of emphasizing in the following contexts:a. DO is inserted in a positive affirmative statement which appears in contrast with a negative statement.b. DO co-occurs with the negative adverb NEVER to indicate emphasis.c. DO appears in the main clause when this clause stands in contrast with a clause of concession.d. DO co-occurs with emphatic adverbs such as: certainly, definitely, positivelye. DO is also used in emphatic imperatives especially in BrE.

5. Passivization. Existential constructions.

Passivization

The passive voice is a complex linguistic phenomenon that manifests itself at morphological, syntactic, and semantic level. At the morphological level the specialized passive voice markers are attached to the lexical verb. The auxiliary BE/GET and the affix –EN for the main verb to indicate the past participle form. At the syntactic level the active subject and the object change their position and status. The active object is moved to sentence initial position where it becomes a passive subject while the active subject is converted into a PO that is placed after the verb. Under certain circumstances these POs may be deleted. At the semantic level there is a change in the relation between the two thematic roles. The AGENT is no longer the “hero” of the sentence. The PATIENT becomes the protagonist of the passive sentence.

Classes of verbs that allow passivizationAll types of transitive verbs and a few intransitive verbs allow a passive version of their

active voice sentences.1. Passivizable transitive verbs

Both simple and complex transitive verbs allow the active DO to be promoted to the passive subject position.They decorated the house. The house was decorated. (simple transitive verb)They accused him of cheating. He was accused of cheating. (complex transitive verb)They threw the papers into the basket. The papers were thrown into the basket. (complex)They shot him dead. He was shot dead. (complex transitive with predicative)

Ditransitive verbs are also included in the group of complex transitives. Most ditransitives may appear in two alternative constructions. The double object construction allows a passive configuration with the former IO functioning as passive subject. The oblique object construction allows a passive configuration with the former DO in subject position. Only the objects that are adjacent to the verb can become subject in the passive voice.

There are some idiomatic phrases, which also allow two passive voice versions.I have taken careful notice of your remarks.Careful notice has been taken of your remarks.Your remarks have been taken careful notice of.

Similar idiomatic phrases are: to take advantage of something, to make an example of somebody, to make too much of something, to take strong exception to something.

2. Passivizable intransitive verbsPrepositional intransitive verbs allow the object of the preposition to become subject in

the passive voice. The preposition remains after the verb in its initial position that is in situ.He ran through the main points briefly. (prepositional intransitive verb)The main points were briefly ran through.They put up with these interruption cheerfully. (prepositional phrasal verb)These interruptions were cheerfully put up with.Classes of verbs the resist passivization

Most transitive verbs can be passivized. However there are a few transitive verbs that cannot be passivized because of their semantico-syntactic properties.

1. Reciprocal verbs like: to resemble, to marry, to divorce, and to meet express symmetric relations. They cannot be passivized but they allow their subject and DO to change position in the active voice.

Jane resembles Helen. Helen resembles Jane.* Helen is resembled by Jane.

2. Relational verbs that express possession also resist passivization. Examples: to have, to possess, to own.

Mary has a car. *A car is had by Mary.With these verbs the subject always has the thematic role of BENEFICIARY. In a

relationship of possession the human participant is more important that is why it must always appear in subject position. As a result these verbs can only be used in active voice.

3. Verbs, which denote a mental process or perception, may undergo passivization when the DO is a whole clause.

She knew the poem. * The poem was known by/to her.Everyone knew that Bill was clever. That Bill was clever was known by everybody.

The AGENT by-phraseCan be omitted in the following circumstances:

John was killed in war. (the identity of the agent is unknown to the speaker)Dogs are sometimes ill treated. (the agent is indefinite)Has the doctor been sent for? (not relevant to the topic)Eventually the thieves were caught and severely punished (the agent is well known)A confidential plan has been recently entrusted to me. (the speaker does not wish to name the agent)

Agentless passives are also frequently used in scientific texts and in fictional ones for rhetorical and stylistical purposes. The effect obtained by using an agentless passive is that of an objective detached point of view.

Existential constructions

Sentences containing the expletive pronoun THERE as anticipatory subject are known as existential constructions. Such constructions are produced by moving the logical subject after the verb TO BE and by inserting in initial position the expletive pronoun THERE. The resulting construction contains two subjects: a grammatical one and a real/logical one.

The main characteristic of the logical subject in existential constructions is that it should be indefinite (preceded by indefinite determiners).

The most frequently used verb in existential constructions is the verb TO BE. Additionally a number of intransitive verbs can also appear in such configurations.

Intransitive verbs used in existential constructions are of several types:a. existential verbs: to be, to happen, to occur, to exist, and to liveb. aspectual verbs: to seem and to appearc. ingressive verbs (the beginning of an action): to emerge, to burst and to arised. motion verbs: to come, to arrive and to rune. positional verbs: to stand, to lie and to hang.

There are two types of constructions that cannot be turned into existential constructions: the copulative predication and the transitive predication.

The properties of the real subject in existential constructionsThe logical subject must be indefinite. Indefiniteness is indicated by the presence of

indefinite determiners (a, an, some, any) or the zero article. The subject is considered indefinite when the determiner incorporates negation,

numerically specified, or it is an indefinite quantifier (much, many, few, all), and finally when the subject is expressed by an indefinite pronoun (something, everything, nothing, anything) followed by an adjectival phrase.

However there are certain circumstances when the logical subject is definite (that is when the logical subject is preceded by the definite determiner THE):a. when it is modified by the words SAME and OTHERb. when it is expressed by a complex NP containing besides the head a TCC or a gerundial clause.c. The logical subject is modified by an adjectival phrase in the superlative degree.

d. NPs in coordination are also definite when they appear in an answer to an existential question.

The properties of the grammatical subject THEREAlthough the expletive pronoun THERE functioning as a grammatical subject has no

meaning, it behaves like an ordinary meaningful subject.Just like ordinary subjects, THERE undergoes inversion with the verb in all types of

questions. Just like ordinary subjects THERE occurs in relative clauses and non-finite clauses of

two types: infinitival and participial. The pronoun THERE can be moved from the TCC into the subject position in the main

clause when the main clause contains the verb SEEM. Just like ordinary subjects THERE appears in coordinate clauses introduced by AND SO. THERE just like ordinary subjects is inverted with the auxiliary in negative emphatic

sentences. The pronoun THERE has most of the properties of ordinary subjects except one. There is

no agreement relationship between the grammatical subject THERE and the verb. Agreement in number exists only between the verb and the logical subject.

6. Interrogative sentences

The classification of questions is based on the type of answer which is expected.The yes or no questions are derived from simple declarative sentences by moving the

inflection into the head position of the complementizer phrase.To derive a wh-question we replace the question constituent with a suitable word which

is then moved into the specifier position of the complementizer phrase.

A negative yes or no question has in initial position the auxiliary and the negator in a contracted form. In very formal BrE some speakers allow the uncontracted form to appear in such questions: Has not the prime minister attended the press conference? Such a question is more likely to be rhetorical rather than information seeking.

*Has J not attended the course?If the auxiliary and the negator do not appear in a contracted form, then the auxiliary

moves to the initial position in the question without the negator and the result is an ungrammatical question.

Tag-questions consist of a declarative clause followed by a tagged-on yes or no question. The tag contains a repetition of the auxiliary verb from the declarative clause and a pronoun referring to the subject of the declarative. If the declarative clause has no auxiliary then the emergency operator DO is inserted in the tag. If the declarative clause is affirmative then the tag is normally negative and the other way round.

Following the analogy of positive and negative poles in electricity the clauses and their tags are sometimes said to have affirmative/negative polarity. If the declarative clause has negative polarity then the tag must have affirmative polarity and vice versa.

If this restriction is not observed the sentence is likely to be interpreted not as a question but as a reflective statement to oneself or perhaps a sarcastic/threatening remark.

However, native speakers often use tags with a simpler structure: She left yesterday, right?

An echo-question is used as a reaction to a declarative sentence by a speaker who wishes the interlocutor to repeat part of the declarative sentence. Echo questions are formed by simply substituting a wh-word for a constituent. The speaker may question a part of the sentence, a verb or even a whole sentence.

Wh-questions are also called constituent questions because the wh-element questions one constituent which can be an argument (subject or objects of any kind) or an adjunct (adverbial modifiers of any kind).

Wh-words belong to several categories:A interrogative pronouns: what, which, whoB interrogative adverbs: when, where, why, howC quantifier/quantifying phrases: how much/many

1. Questioning the subjectIn a question addressed to the subject there is no movement of the auxiliary or of the wh-

word. The subject is simply replaced by a wh-word which remains in situ.2. Questioning the DO

The DO may be questioned in sentences containing simple/complex transitive verbs.3. Questioning the PO

The PO is questioned in sentences that contain the following types of predicates.A. prepositional transitive verbs: to accuse smb of smth, to blame smb of smthB. prepositional intransitives: to apply for, to insist on, to rely onC. prepositional adjectives: afraid of, ashamed of, interested inD. idiomatic constructions: to take advantage of smth, to get to the bottom of smth

When the PO is questioned English provides a choice between two constructions. In more formal style the preposition moves with the wh-word to the beginning of the question in the so called pied-piping construction. In informal English only the wh-word moves, leaving the preposition behind, stranded in the so called preposition stranding construction.

The label pied piping was inspired by a medieval legend. The general idea behind this metaphor is that prepositions can’t follow wh-words to the front of the question in much the same way that rats followed Pied Piper out of Hamlin.

These two types of questions are possible when the preposition is part of a PO. If the preposition is part of an adverbial modifier then we cannot derive these two types of questions.

If a sentence contains an idiomatic construction with an obligatory preposition then we can question only the object and the result is a preposition stranding construction. Pied-piping is not acceptable with idioms.4. Questioning the IO

When a sentence contains a ditransitive verb the IO can be questioned only in OOC (because it has a preposition) and in this case two questions are possible.

There are certain ditransitive verbs which cannot be used in both these constructions. Verbs like donate can only be used in the OOC in which we can ask questions to the IO. Ditransitive verbs like spare can only be used in the DOC in which the IO cannot be questioned.

Multiple wh-questions contain more than one questioned constituent. When a sentence contains several wh-words these remain in situ. In subordinate clauses with 2/3 wh-words only one of them can move to the beginning of the subordinate clause.

Indirect questions are questions embedded in the structure of another clause. The main difference in structure between direct and indirect questions is that in indirect questions there is no inversion between the auxiliary or the modal and the subject of the sentence. However speakers of certain American dialects allow inversion in indirect questions.

Yes or no indirect questions are introduced by the conjunctions whether/if. However the use of IF is more restrictive than the use of whether. When the indirect question functions as the subject for the main clause IF cannot replace WHETHER. Only WHETHER can introduce NF indirect questions.

The common characteristics of yes or no questions and wh-questions are:1. the rules of the SQT must be obeyed just like in all other reported speech contexts.2. there is a change in pronouns from the 1st/2nd person to the 3rd, and there is also a change in the adverbs of time.Alternative yes or no questions

IF can replace WHETHER in indirect alternative questions, the result being less formal. Sometimes alternative questions may contain a repetition of the first alternative in the negative. The reduced negative alternative OR NOT can appear either at the end of the sentence or at the beginning of the indirect question between the conjunction whether and the first alternative. The reduced negative alternative OR NOT is only allowed in final position when the indirect question is introduced by the conjunction IF.

Long wh-movementComplex sentences with multiple subordination can be turned into wh-questions, cleft

constructions or relative clauses by using long wh-movement.The distinction between short wh-movement and long wh-movement is that wh-

movement is short when the wh-word remains inside the boundaries of the same clause. When the wh-word crosses several clause boundaries to get to initial position in the main clause then we speak about long wh-movement. The moved wh-word leaves behind a co-indexed trace which indicates the basic position of the displaced constituent (wh-word).

Cleft sentence structures are used to focus attention on certain constituents. If we want to emphasize a constituent we place it after the copulative verb BE while the rest of the basic sentence is attached as a RC to the emphasized constituent. The relative pronoun WHO moves to the front position of the RC crossing several clause boundaries.

When the RC is successively subordinated to other TCCs, the relative pronoun WHO moves from its basic position to the front position in the RC again by means of long wh-movement.(leaves a co-indexed trace)

7. Complementation

That complement clauses are introduced by the complementizer THAT. TCCs have a number of syntactic properties that indicate that these clauses are similar to NPs:1. just like NPs, TCCs may have the syntactic functions of subject, DO, PO, predicative or attribute.

2. TCCs pronominalize like NPs that is just like NPs, TCCs can be replaced by the pronoun IT or by the demonstrative THAT.3. sentences with the structure: Grammatical subject + BE +emphasized constituent + RC (cleft sentences) are often used for the purpose of emphasizing a constituent.

The NP can be emphasized in a pseudo-cleft sentence (RC + BE + emphasized constituent). TCCs may appear after the copulative BE in pseudo-cleft constructions just like NPs.4. TCCs may appear in constructions with the word THAN which is typically flanked by constituents of the same type.5. Extraposition is a syntactic process by means of which a TCC is moved to the end of the sentence leaving an empty position which is occupied by the expletive pronoun IT. Extraposition is of 3 types depending on the position from where the TCC is moved: from subject position, from DO position, from PO position. As a result of this movement of the TCC the sentence has 2 subjects/DOs/POs one of them formal (IT) and the other one logical.Heavy NP shift involves movement of a very ‘heavy’(long) or complex NP to the end of the sentence (without inserting the pronoun IT). The TCC can be moved over an adverbial phrase or over a PP (this PP can be either IO or PO).

Syntactic functions of TCCs1. TCC=DO for simple transitive verbs in the main clause. E.g.: assume, believe, consider, know, realize, understand. (These verbs actually allow the deletion of THAT) TCC functioning as DO can take part in passivization and can be extraposed.TCC can function as DO for ditransitive verbs(explain, confess, declare, describe)TCC ca function as DO with prepositional intransitive verbs: blame smth on smb.

2. TCC= Subject with several types of predicatesa) intransitive verbs: seem, appear, happen. These verbs obligatorily extrapose the TCC from Subject positionb) a number of adjectives which function as predicatives in the main clause also take sentential subject. All these adjectives express the speakers comment or point of view concerning some activity expressed by the TCC. They are also called evaluative adjectives: odd, fortunate, essential, good, bad, important, incredible.c) certain adjectives always take sentential subjects: un/likely, un/certain, im/possible.d) A TCC may function as Subject for nominal predicatives in the main clause expressed by [+abstract] nouns.(wonder, problem, thing, fact, idea, surprise, miracle, mystery) e) TCCs also occur with bisentential verbs: prove, show, imply

3. TCC=predicative when the main clause contains a [+abstract] subject followed by the copulative verb BE

4. TCC=attribute for [+abstract] nouns in the main clause. The attributive TCCs may be separated from the abstract noun in highly emphatic statements. These are rare constructions. As a result of the separation the abstract noun moves to the beginning being interpreted as an emphasized constituent and the lexical verb is inverted with the subject.

5. TCC = PO with several types of predicates:

a) prepositional intransitive verbs such as: ask for, admit of, testify to, worry about, vote for, answer for. The preposition must be omitted; it can only be preserved in extraposition and in cleft sentences.b) prepositional transitive verbs: accuse of, inform of, convince of.c) intransitives with 2 POs: agree with smb about smth, argue with smb about smth, pray smb for smth. The preposition reapers in extraposition and pseudo-cleft constructions.d) prepositional adjectives: afraid of, ashamed of, annoyed at, angry about, confident in.

The complementizer THATTHAT is a purely syntactic word showing embedding. It has virtually no meaning, being

occasionally deleted. Omission of THAT is typical of informal speech. Deletion is more acceptable when the main clause contains a verb, an adjective or a noun frequently used in daily conversation (know). Deletion of THAT does not occur when the TCC is separated from the main clause by some intervening material. The complementizer cannot be omitted when the TCC is a non-extraposed subject.Topicalization = syntactic process by means of which a constituent is moved to initial position for the sake of emphasis.Deletion of THAT is blocked when the TCC is a topicalized object.

The sequence of tensesThe use of tenses in complement clauses is normally explained in terms of the rules of

SQT. The SQT is considered to be a set of formal rules which automatically ‘backshifts’ tenses after a past introductory verb. The TCC represents its situation as temporally related to the situation of its matrix and therefore uses a relative clause.

The choice of the tense in the TCC: past, perfect or future-in-the-past suggests an action which is simultaneous, anterior or posterior respectively in relation to that expressed by the verb in the main clause.

When the introductory verb is a present tense, a different array of tenses are used to express the same temporal relationships (past or present perfect for an anterior action, present for a simultaneous action and future for a posterior one).

However the SQT cannot account for the grammaticality of the following sentences in which the complement clause does not use the expected tense.

B said that J will arrive tomorrow.He has always admitted that he had made a mistake.Such exceptions to the traditional SQT rules are accounted for in terms of switching from

one time-sphere to the other. Consider the following example containing a subordinate clause of cause: I am sad because my dog died.

The matrix clause refers to the present time-sphere and the subordinate to a past domain. The same can be argued for TCCs: B said that J will arrive tomorrow.

Sometimes the reason why the speaker does not incorporate the TCC into the current past domain is that he wants to represent the situation as somehow still relevant at the time of utterance. In order to do so he relates the situation directly to the times of utterance, he locates it in the present time-sphere rather than in the past one.

B told me yesterday that he has a house in NY.

Reported Speech is characterized by a series of formal features which distinguish it from direct speech. They have the effect of shifting all deictic elements away from direct reference to speech situation. The shifts involved are as follows:1. the reporter is generally someone other than the original speaker. The receiver of the report is likely to be different from the person who received the original message.2. reports are often given in a different place from where the original words were spoken, and at a later time. It is therefore necessary to change adverbs of time and place, so that words like today, tomorrow, here, mean the same at the time and place of the report as in the original utterance.3. reported statements are introduced by a reporting verb. The most frequently used reporting verb, say, is immediately followed by a TCC, although that is frequently omitted. The verb tell must be followed by a NP denoting the person spoken to. Some verbs used in indirect speech cannot be used in reported speech, and have to be expressed with say and an appropriate adverb of manner indicating the way in which something was said: brutally, callously, patiently, fiercely.4. depending on whether the reporting verb in the matrix is in the present or in the past, then the sequencing of actions or situations has to be done by means of appropriate tense forms in the complement clause.

8. NF clauses. RC.

Infinitive Complement ClausesICCs represent a complex type of non finite clauses. The characteristic marker of the ICC

is the particle TO which converts a finite clause into a non finite one. ICCs have both verbal and nominal properties. Verbal properties: the infinitive has aspect distinctions; the infinitive is also marked for voice.

The position of adverbs in ICCs. Depending on the position of the adverb, the infinitive is of 2 types: split or non-split. In the non-split infinitive the adverb is at the end of the construction while in the split infinitive the adverb is inserted between the auxiliary and the lexical verb or the particle and the verb when there is no auxiliary. The following adverbs are allowed to split an infinitive: ever, always, just, utterly, slowly, clearly.

The subject of the ICC can be preserved or deleted. The subject of the TCC can be preserved in the ICC with a change in case. The subject is no longer in the nominative, it is in the accusative case and it is preceded by the preposition FOR. Such infinitive constructions with a preserved subject are called FOR TO infinitives.

The subject of the ICC can be omitted when it is identical with a constituent of the main clause or when it is co-referential with a NP from the main clause. This invisible /absent subject of the infinitive is conventionally represented in syntax by PRO.

Contexts in which the deletion of the subject of the ICC is possible1. when it is co-referential with the S of the main clause.2. when it is identical with the DO in the main clause.3. when it is co-referent with the IO in the main clause.4. when it refers to the same person as the possessive attribute of the subject in the main clause.The NP from the main clause which is identical in meaning with the subject of the infinitive is called controller. The controller may have different syntactic functions in the main clause (S, DO, IO, Attribute).

The syntactic functions of the ICC (nominal character)1. ICC=subject for the copulative predication in the main clause. In the copulative predication the predicative can be an adjective (possible, likely, necessary, right, wrong, safe) or a noun (custom, advantage, pleasure). Sometimes the copulative predication in the main clause may include an indirect object preceded by the preposition FOR, TO, OF.

Sentences with extraposed ICC functioning as logical subject serve as bases for the exclamative sentences.TOUGH movement

When the ICC functions as subject for the copulative predication in the main clause, then the constituents of the sentence can be rearranged. The objects (DO, IO, PO) from the ICC can be moved to subject position in the main clause (BE must agree in number with the new subject). This type of syntactic process is called TOUGH movement. The name of the movement comes from the first example analyzed by linguists. The first example contained the adjective ‘tough’. When the subject of the infinitive is present then TOUGH movement cannot be used. Adjectives that allow TOUGH movement: tough, easy, difficult, impossible, simple, dangerous, interesting. The ICC functions as a subject with bisentential verbs like: prove, show, imply.

2. ICC=DO with transitive verbs.Simple transitive verbs with an ICC functioning as DO can be classified from a semantic

point of view into the following groups:a) aspectual verbs: being, start, continue, stop, ceaseb) verbs that express responsibility/control/success of an action: attend, seek, manage, arrange, refusec) verbs of dis/liking, intention: desire, expect, like, intend, plan, want, wish, proposed) verbs that express a mental state (remember, forget, regret) and verbs of linguistic communication (suggest, claim, ask, conclude)

3. ICC=PO when the main clause contains a verb/adjective with obligatory preposition.Verbs: apply for, consent to, insist on, bother about, long for, care for, fail inWhen the ICC=PO then the preposition must be deleted.Adjectives: sorry for, careful about, afraid of, anxious about, angry at.

4. ICC=predicative for the copulative verb in the main clause.

5. ICC=attribute for the [+abstract] nouns in the main clause: ability, capacity, wish, idea, power, right, instinct.

6. ICC=adverbial modifiers

Gerundial clausesTraditional grammars acknowledge the existence of at least two homonymous ING

forms: the gerund and the present participle. Present participles have verbal and adjectival features while gerunds have verbal and nominal features. Gerunds are further subdivided into: verbal gerunds (gerunds proper) and nominal gerunds (verbal noun).

The syntactic analysis of verbal gerunds identifies 3 gerundial constructions: an older one whose subject is in the genitive case called possessive-ing (full gerund); a construction which appeared later in the history of English language whose subject is in the accusative case which is called Accusative-ing (half gerund); the subjectless gerund whose PRO subject is interpreted as arbitrary called PRO-ing complement.

Nominal gerundThe Ingof is actually a noun derived from a verb by means of the nominalizing suffix

ING. INg turns a verb into a noun just like all the other nominalizing suffixes in English (-tion, -ment,-ance). The Ingof has all the characteristics of nouns. The structure of the nominal gerund resembles the structure of nominalizations. The verbal noun is preceded by a determiner, adjective just like ordinary nouns and it takes the object in a phrase introduced by the preposition of (of-phrase). Semantically the verbal noun denotes an action/activity that is why it is also called action nominalization.

Verbal gerundVerbal gerunds have the structure of clauses (S+V+DO). Gerunds have aspect which is a

typical verbal property. In contrast nominal gerunds do not have aspect.

The subject of the ING complementThe subject of the verbal gerund may be:

-preserved from the TCC when it is not identical with the subject of the main clause.-deleted when it is co-referential with the subject of the main clause.-absent when its reference is interpreted as arbitrary.

Subjectless gerunds and subjectless infinitives have a similar behaviour. Both the subjectless gerund and the subjectless infinitive can have the syntactic functions of DO, S and Adverbial modifier of purpose. In all these cases the absent subject of the infinitive or the gerund is controlled by some constituent in the main clause or it is arbitrary. The arbitrary subject is not controlled by any constituent in the main clause that is why it is considered to be free.

There are instances when the infinitive and the gerundial complement clause can be interpreted differently. The subject of the infinitive is controlled while the subject of the gerund is either controlled or free.

Syntactic functions of the gerundial complement clause1 ING compl = DOAll 3 types of verbal gerunds function as Dos for transitive verbs in the main clause.2. ING compl = subject when the main clause contains copulative predication3. ING compl = object of the preposition when the main clause contains an adjective/verb with obligatory preposition.4. ING compl = attribute for [+abstract] nouns with obligatory preposition in the main clause (condition of, reason for, opportunity of, pleasure of, belief in, idea of).5. ING compl = predicative for copulative verbs6. ING compl = adverbial modifiers of manner, time, cause

The participleThe participle has verbal and adjectival properties.

The syntactic functions of the participle1. predicative

2. attribute coming from a reduced RC are allowed to appear either in pronominal or postnominal position.3. the present/past participle can be part of the complex object construction (traditionally known as the Acc+Present/past pasticiple)[this is the result of SOR].4. adverbial modifiers of 3 types coming from the reduction of adverbial clauses of time, cause or manner.5. participles can be used in parenthetical phrases which express the speakers point of view/opinion.

The distinction between participles and gerundsParticiples may be easily distinguished from gerunds if the following facts are taken into

account:1. When the participial clause has a subject it is in the nominative case in contrast the subject of the gerundial clause can only appear in the genitive/accusative case.2. Participial clauses are precede by conjunctions and gerundial clauses by prepositions.3. Only the participle can be part of the complex construction based on raising (Acc/No+present/past participle). In contrast gerunds can never be used in raising constructions.4. Participles occur as modifiers of nouns or verbs (nominal/verbal modifier)in contrast gerunds cannot be used as modifiers.

Relative clausesRC also called adjective clauses are embedded clauses linked to a noun from the main

clause frequently by means of a relative pronoun. The noun described by the RC is analyzed as an antecedent of the relative pronoun. The relative pronoun and the antecedent have the same referent. That is they are co-referential and this is indicated by the common index attached to them.

The antecedent and the RC form a complex NP in which the RC functions as adjunct (optional constituent).

Types of RCsRC can be classified on semantic and syntactic criteria.Semantically RCs are of 2 types:

a) RRCs also known as defining RCs are clauses which delimit or identify the antecedent. Reference is made only to the things described in the RC.b) NRRCs also known as appositive RCs add suplimentary information about an already identified antecedent. The identity of the person is given, the RC only gives additional information about him.

Syntactically RCs are of 2 types:a) with an expressed antecedent (dependent RCs). Both RRCs and NRRCs have expressed antecedents in the main clause.b) without an expressed antecedent (independent RCs). They are understood as describing an antecedent expressed by an indefinite pronoun. Because this indefinite pronoun is vague it is omitted an that is why this RCs have an omitted antecedent.

The syntactic process of relativizationTwo short sentences that contain a common noun can be combined to form a complex

sentence with a RC by means of the syntactic process of relativization. Steps to be followed:

1. replace the 2nd identical NP by a suitable relative pronoun.2. we subordinate the 2nd clause into the structure of the first by means of the complementizer that3. we move the relative pronoun to the front position of the RC4. we delete either the complementizer that or the relative pronoun or both of them and we obtain 3 grammatical version of the same RC.

The wh-phrase used in the RC has the same syntactic functions as the NP which was replaced by it. RCs can be introduced by:a. relative pronouns (who, what, which)b. possessive determiner ‘whose’ used before nounsc. the complementizer that d. adverbs: when, where, why

When the RC contain a prepositional verb then there are 2 versions of the same RC: one in which the preposition accompanied the relative pronoun to the front position in the RC(pied-piping) and the other one in which the preposition remain in situ only the relative pronouns moves to the beginning of the RC (preposition stranding).

Depending on the verbal form RCs are finite and non-finite.NFRCs1. Infinitival RCs are obtained by deleting/omitting the relative pronoun and the auxiliary from a full finite RC.2. Participial RCs are derived by omitting the relative pronoun and the verb BE as an auxiliary from a finite RC with the verb in the progressive aspect.Participial RCs may also correspond to verbs in the present/past simple from the FRC. Participial RCs may also correspond to verbs in the passive voice from a full FRC. NFRCs containing a past participle are reductions of FRCs with the verb in the passive voice.

The distinction between RCs and complement clause1. TCCs depend on an [+abstract] noun in the main clause while RCs depend on a [+concrete] noun.2. The complementizer THAT can be replaced by the relative pronoun WHICH only in the RC.3. A RC functions as an adjunct in the structure of the complex NP while TCCs function as complements inside the complex NP. The result is that RC are optional constituents while TCCs re obligatory. A second consequence is that the complement clause is closer to the head than the RC which is further away in the structure of the NP.

When a complement clause and a RC co-occur, the complement clause is place near the noun while the RC comes further away.

The distinction between RRCs and NRRCsThese 2 types of RCs may have the same structure but they can be distinguished

according to the following 7 criteria.1. First there is a difference in function between RRCs and NRRCs. While the major function of RRC is to identify the referents, NRRCs simply add suplimentary information about a reference whose identity is known.

2. At the phonological level RRCs are linked to their antecedent by unity od intonation and by continuity of the degree of loudness. In contrast NRRCs are characterized by a diminution of the degree of loudness and interruption. NRRCs are usually separated from their antecedents by commas in writing.3. The 3rd distinction concerns the information structure. If we think about constructions as information units then a noun + RRC form a single information unit while a noun followed by a NRRC form 2 distinct information units. Sometimes the additional information unit provided by the NRRC is added to continua a narrative line. The relative pronoun who could just as well be replaced by the coordinating conjunction and. This continuative usage of NRRCs occurs more often in literary works and less often in formal spoken narrative.4. Only NRRCs can depend on or modify proper names.5. Only RRCs can be extraposed.6. RRCs can be introduced either by a relative pronoun or by the complementizer that while NRRCs can only begin with the relative pronoun.7. RRCs allow the deletion of the relative pronoun or of the complementizer THAT. RRCs can appear in a complex sentence without a connecting element that is why they are also called unconnected RC or contact RC. The relative pronoun cannot be ommited from RRCs when it has the syntactic function of subject in the RC. Sometimes the NRRC may take the whole preceding clause as its antecedent. The main clause becomes the antecedent for the relative pronoun.

Free RCs do not have an expressed antecedent in the main clause. They perform all the syntactic functions of the NPs (S, DO, IO, PO, predicative, attribute). Free RCs are introduced by simple pronouns/adverbs or by compounds with EVER: indefinite relative pronouns (whichever, whoever,whatever) and indefinite adverbs (whenever, wherever, however). RCs are also used in cleft and pseudo-cleft constructions. Cleft constructions rearrange the constituents of a simple declarative sentence for the purpose of emphasizing one of the constituents and drawing attention.

9. Speech Act Theory

How to do things with words, Austin 1955. Austin argued that some ordinary declarative sentences, contrary to logical positivist assumptions, are not used with any intention of making true or false statements. These sentences are used to do things. Austin refers to them and the utterances realized by than as perfomatives. Performatives, unlike constatatives which can be assessed in terms of truth and falsity, cannot be true or false. They can be unhappy or infelicitous.The felicity conditions are:A. (i) There must be a conventional procedure having a conventional effect. (ii) The circumstances and persons must be appropriate, as specified in the procedure.B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.C. the person must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions as specified in the procedure, and if consequent conduct is specified then the relevant parties must do so.

Performatives are first person indicative active sentences in the simple present tense.In terms of structure, Austin isolates three basic senses in which in saying something

one is doing something, and hence three kinds of acts that are simultaneously performed:(i) the locutionary act, having a locutionary meaning, ca be defined as the utterance of a sentence with a specific sense and reference.

(ii) the illocutionary, having an illocutionary force is the making of a statement, offer, promise in uttering a sentence by virtue of the conventional force associated with it, or with its explicit performative phrase.(iii) the perlocutionary act, having a perlocutionary effect, is the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence.Searle’s taxonomy – 5 types of illocutionary acts:Representatives/assertives – represent a state of affairsDirectives – direct the addressee towards doing somethingCommisives – speakers commit themselves to some future actionExpressives – state what the speaker feelsDeclarations – change the world via their utteranceIndirect speech acts

10. Presupposition

Constancy under negation: In order to identify the presupposition, we simply take a sentence, negate it and see what inferences survive, what inferences are shared by both the positive and the negative sentence.1 John managed to stop in time. 2 John stopped in time. Entailment for 13 John tried to stop in time. Presupposition for 1 and 24 John didn’t manage to stop in time.

Types of semantic presuppositions1. The existential presupposition is assumed to be present in possessive constructions and more generally in any definite NP. By using any of the following expressions the S is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named: the cat >> there is a cat2. The presupposed information following a verb like know can be treated as a fact and is referred to as factive presupposition. A number of other verbs such as realize, regret as well as phrases involving be and aware, odd, and glad have factive presuppositions: she realized he was ill>> he was ill.3. In lexical presuppositions, the use of one form with asserting meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another non-asserted meaning is understood. Lexical items that trigger lexical presuppositions: manage, stop, start, again.4. In structural presuppositions certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure that is already assumed to be true.When did he leave? >> He left.Is there a boy in the garden? >>Either there is a boy in the garden or there isn’t.

Non-factive presuppositions are associated with verbs like dream, imagine, pretend. This verbs are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true. I dreamt that I was rich. >> I was not rich.

Second type if-clauses are associated with counter-factual presuppositions, meaning that what is presupposed is not only true, but it is the opposite of what is true.If you were my friend, you would have helped. >> You are not my friend.

Presupposition triggersa. definite descriptions: john saw the man with two heads. >> There exists a man with two heads.b. factive verbs: Martha regrets going to john’s party. >> Martha went to john’s party.c. implicative verbs: john managed to open the door. >> John tried to open the door.d. change of state verbs: john stopped beating his children. >> John had been beating his children.e. iteratives: Clinton returned to power. >> Clinton held power before.f. temporal clauses: Since C. died we’ve lacked a leader. >> C. died.g. NRRC: H., who climbed the everest in 1953, was the greatest explorer of our day. >> H. climbed everest in 1953.

Pragmatic presuppositionPragmatic presuppositions are related to the context of utterance. Pragmatic presuppositions are determined by a combination of linguistic item and what we know about the world.Tell Madonna I’m at lunch. >> Madonna is likely to appear soon. H knows who she is. H will pass the message on.