(s\sfaPEOBLEMSLIFEAND MINDfSIXTEOBY BALLAXTVXEAXDCCFD1XBVKGHAKDLONDONExLibrisC.JLOGDENPROBLEMSOPLIFEANDMINDTHE FOUNDATIONS OF A CREEDVOL. LLONDONTRUBNER &CO.,LUDGATE HILL1874AllRightsreservedTJTJRAKY-SANTABARBARAPREFACE.THEwork,of which this is the firstvolume,hasbeenmanyyearsinpreparation;indeed itsorigin maybesaid togosofarbackas1836,whenwith therashnessof ambitiousyouthIplanneda treatiseonthePhilo-sophyof the Mind in which the doctrines ofReid,Stewart,and Brownwere to bephysiologicallyinter-preted.In 1837 Igavea course of lectures on thesubjectin Fox'sChapel, Finsbury.The scheme wasabandoned,partlybecause of agrowingdissatisfactionwith the doctrines of the ScotchSchool,andpartlyperhapsfromamisgivingastomy physiologicalknow-ledge.Other studies and other laboursoccupiedmeuntil1860,whenIbelievedthatmyresearchesintothenervoussystemhadplacedinmyhandsacluethroughthelabyrinthofmentalphenomena;andmisledbytheplausible suppositionthat thecomplex phenomenainManmightbebetterinterpreted byapproachingthemthroughthesimplerphenomenainAnimals,Ibegantocollect materials for a work on AnimalPsychology.This alsoprovedto bepremature. Rightlytounder-stand the mental condition of Animalswe mustfirstgaina clear vision of the fundamentalprocessesinVIPREFACE.Man; since, obviously,it isonly throughour know-ledgeoftheprocessesinourselvesthat wecaninterpretthe manifestations of similarprocessesinthem;andhere we arehampered bytheanthropomorphicten-dencywhich leadsustoassignexclusivelyhumanmo-tivestoanimalactions.In 1862 Ibegantheinvestigationof thephysiolo-gicalmechanism ofFeelingandThought,and fromthat time forward havesoughtassistance in a widerangeof research.Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology,Insanity,and the ScienceofLanguage,havesuppliedfacts andsuggestionstoenlargeand directmyownmeditations,and to confirm and correct themanyvaluableindicationsfurnishedbypreviouspsychologicalinvestigators.Let me not bethought ungratefultomypredecessors,some of whose contributions are ofimperishablevalue, if,whileacknowledgingtheillumi-nationIhavereceivedfromtheirlabours,I declaremyconvictionthatinspiteof alltheyhaveachievedPsy-chologyis still withoutthefundamentaldatanecessaryto its constitutionasascience;it isverymuchintheconditionofChemistrybeforeLavoisier,orofBiologybefore Bichat. Isolateddiscoveries,howevervaluable,do not suffice. Ascience is constituted thatis,hasreceived its definitiveconstruction,andplacein thehierarchyofPhilosophy,when itsobjectis circum-scribed,itsphenomenadefined,itsMethodsettled,anditsfundamentalprinciplesestablished,sothathencefor-ward thedevelopmentisprogressive,thediscoveryofto-dayenlargingand notoverturningtheconceptionofyesterday,each workerbringinghis contributionPREFACE.VUto a commonfund,notpresentingit as a reversal ofall thatpredecessorshaddone.Tonoteadeficiencyis onething,anothertoremedythatdeficiency. Clearlyas thewant of fundamentalprinciples appearedtome,I was under no illusionas tomybeinginpossessionof thenecessaryinduc-tions;and I thereforeonly contemplatedworkingatspecial questions,without reference to their commonconnections. Avaried set of detachedinvestigationshadgrowninto ahugemass ofheterogeneousMS.beforeanycentrallight appearedtoshapethe chaosintoasystem.When Ibegantoorganisethese ma-terials into abook,Ionlyintended it to be a seriesofessays treatingcertainproblemsof LifeandMind.Butoutofthis arosetworesults,littlecontemplated.Thefirst resultwassuchamutualilluminationfromthevariousprinciplesarrived atseparatelythatIbegantofeel confidentofhavingsomethinglike aclearvisionof thefundamental inductionsnecessaryto the consti-tution ofPsychology;hence,althoughI do notpro-posetowrite acompletetreatise,Ihopeto establishafirmgroundworkforfuture labours.The secondresult,which wasindependentof thefirst,arosethus:Findingtheexpositionobstructedbythe existence of unsolvedmetaphysical problems,andbythe toofrequent employmentof themetaphysicalMethod,andknowingthattherewasnochanceofgen-eralrecognitionof thescientificMethodandits induc-tions while the rival Method wastolerated,and theconceptionsofForce, Cause, Matter,Mindwerevacil-latingandcontradictory,Iimaginedthatit would beVlll PREFACE.practicablein anintroductorychapter,not indeed toclearthepathoftheseobstacles, butatleast togive suchpreciseindicationsoftheprinciplesadoptedthroughouttheexpositionaswouldenable the readertofollow ituntroubledby metaphysicaldifficulties. That intro-ductorychapterhasgrown insensiblyinto a substan-tivework;and the twovolumesof which it consistsarebutaportionofwhathas beenwritten. Notonlyhas thechapter growninto awork,the work itselfhasgrownintoasystematicintroductiontothephilo-sophyofScience;andwhatwasintendedmerelyas apreparationfor aPsychology,discloses itself as theFoundationsofa Creed.Thisbriefsketchofitshistorymaynotonlyexplainandpartly justifythesomewhatambitiouspretensionsofthiswork,it will alsoexplainandpartlyjustifycer-tain defects in itscomposition. Having grown upheterogeneously,its structure isheterogeneous.Sec-tionsnowbrought togetherhave beenwroughtout atthe distance ofyears,and without reference to eachother;whileduringrepeatedrevisionsandremodifica-tionsmanyrepetitionsand cross referenceshavebeeninserted,and sentencesbearingthe obvious trace of1872or 1873appearinpages originallywrittenper-hapseightor tenyears previously.Thereaderis alsosometimes calledupontoacceptresultsforwhichtheevidencecanonlybeproducedinsubsequentchaptersorvolumes. I have so farguarded againstthis evilthat in such cases I haveonlyasked forprovision; ilassent.PREFACE. IXTheFoundationsofaCreedoughttohavesufficientstanding-roomforantagonisticschools. Thegeneralconsideration thatevery philosophical opinionmusthave some truthsustainingit,is hereadopted;andtherefore dueweightisattemptedto beassignedtoadverseargumentsforexample,those which affirmand those whichdenythepossibilityofMetaphysics,ortheexistenceof InnateIdeas;thefactswhichfavour,andthefactswhichexclude,thespiritualisthypothesisandthematerialisthypothesis.Whilecordiallyagree-ingwiththosephilosophers whorejectbothSpiritualismandMaterialism,I do notagreewith them in theirconclusionthatweknownothingwhateverof MindorMatter. I holdwiththeirantagoniststhat weknowagreatdeal of both. I cannotagreethatPhilosophygains anyrefugefromdifficultiesbyinvokingtheUn-knowable;thoughitmayadmit the existence of theUnknowable,this admission istranscendental,andleaves all thepurposesofPhilosophyunaffected.Deep-lyaswemayfeelthemysteryofthisuniverseandthelimitationsofourfaculties,the Foundationsof aCreedcanonlyrestupontheKnownandKnowable.The secondvolume,completingthis FirstSeries,isnowunderfinal revision.THEPRIORY, Sept.1873.CONTENTS.INTEODUCTIOKPART I. THEMETHOD OFSCIENCE ANDITS APPLICA-TION TO METAPHYSICS.CHAPTER I.PAGETHE CONFLICT OF OPINION AND THEISSUE,, . 1CHAPTER II.THE CONDITIONSSTATED,13CHAPTER III.THEMETHOD,29CHAPTER IV.OBJECTIONS TOMETAPHYSICS,61CHAPTER V.THEPLACE OF METAPHYSICS AMONGTHESCIENCES,. . . 71PAET II. THE RULES OFPHILOSOPHISING,88PSYCHOLOGICALPRINCIPLES,. .107BIOSTATICS,.115PSYCHOSTATICS,....118THE METHOD OFPSYCHOLOGY,.......125THE BIOLOGICALDATA,128PSYCHODYNAMICS,134XllCONTENTS.PAOKTHEPSYCHOLOGICAL SPECTRUM 146THE SOCIOLOGICALDATA,.'152REASONEDREALISM, ...... 176PROBLEM I. THE LIMITATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE.CHAPTER I.THE PRINCIPLE OFRELATIVITY, .......199CHAPTER II.THE SENSATIONAL AND A PRIORIHYPOTHESES,.... 207(Instinct], '...'.226CHAPTER III.THESENSIBLE,THEEXTRA-SENSIBLE,AND THESUPRA-SENSIBLE,249(TlieExtra-SensibleWorld),. . . .'-. . 259(TheSupra-Sensible World],264CHAPTER IV.THE REALITY OP ABSTRACTIONS. . 275(Co-ordination),279CHAPTER V.IDEAL CONSTRUCTION INSCIENCE,285(MoralTypes),304CHAPTER VI..WHATARE LAWS OF NATURE I307CHAPTER VII.THE USE AND ABUSE OFHYPOTHESIS,... . 314CHAPTER VIII.THE PASSAGE FROM THE ABSTRACT TO THECONCRETE,. 342CHAPTER IX.IDEAL CONSTRUCTION INMETAPHYSICS,. ..... 347CONTENTS.XlllCHAPTER X.PACKTHE SEARCH AFTERCAUSES,356(TheIdeasof CauseandSubstance),. .. 358(The HowandtheWhy),362(TheTwoConceptionsof Law),365CHAPTER XI.INTUITION ANDDEMONSTRATION,368CHAPTER XII.AXIOMS AND THEIRVALIDITY,384CHAPTER XIII.NECESSARYTRUTHS,390CHAPTER XIV.MATHEMATICS AN EMPIRICALSCIENCE,415CHAPTER XV.SOME OBSERVATIONS ONKANT,437CHAPTER XVI.THE PLACE OF SENTIMENT INPHILOSOPHY,....455INTBODTJCTION.PART I.THE METHOD OF SCIENCE AND ITSAPPLICATION TO METAPHYSICS.PART II.THE RULES OF PHILOSOPHISING."England'sthinkersareagainbeginningtosee,whatthey hadonly temporarilyforgotten,that the difficulties ofMetaphysicslie attherootof all Science;thatthose difficulties canonlybequieted bybeing resolved,and that untiltheyareresolved, positivelywheneverpossible,but atanyratenegatively,weare neverassuredthatanyknowledge,evenphysical,standsonsolidfoundations."STUART MILL."Ich erkiihne mich zusagen,dass nicht eineeinzige metaphysische Aufgabesein miisse,diehiernichtaufgelost,oderzuderenAuflosungnichtwenigstensderSchlusseldargereichtwordeu." KANT.INTKODUCTION,PART I.THE METHOD OF SCIENCE AND ITSAPPLICATION TO METAPHYSICS.CHAPTEK I.THE CONFLICT OF OPINION AND THE ISSUE.1. Noonemeditatingonthepresentcondition of theintellectual world can fail to be arrestedbythe evi-dences of itsdeep-seatedunrest. Yeast isworkingeverywhere.Ancient formulas and time-honoured creedsareyieldingasmuchtointernalpressureas to externalassault. Theexpansionofknowledgeislooseningtheveryearthclutchedbytherootsofcreedsandchurches.Rejoiceoverthis ordeploreit,thefact is unmistakable.Sects andparties,in the endeavour to sustain theirpositions,arid topreserveat least their watchwordsand the outward semblanceof theircreeds,nowadayssnatcheagerlyatcompromiseswhich a fewyears agowouldhavebeen scoutedasheresies. Scienceispene-tratingeverywhere,andslowlychangingmen'sconcep-tion of the world and of man'sdestiny.Doctrineswhich once were damnable are nowfashionable,andVOL. I.A2 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.heresies areappropriatedas aidsto faith. Oursis nolongertheagedescribedbyCarlyle,"destituteoffaith,yetterrified atscepticism."It is anageclamorousforfaith,andonlydissatisfied withscepticismwhenscepticismis aresting-placeinsteadofastarting-point,aresultinstead of apreliminarycaution. ThepurelynegativeattitudeofUnbelief,onceregardedasphilo-sophical,is nowgenerallyunderstood to beonlylaudable in the face of thedemonstrablyincredible.2. Thegreatdesire of thisageis for a Doctrinewhichmayserveto condenseourknowledge,guideourresearches,andshapeourlives,so that Conductmayreallybe theconsequenceof Belief. Wearegrowingimpatientof futilecompromisesand half-beliefs;weseethat it willnotdotobelieve,orpretendtobelieve,onetheoryof theuniverse,yetshow,inevery waywherein confidence canshowitself,that our lives areruledbyanothertheory.Inconsequenceofthisdesire,whilethinkingmenappear,on asuperficialview,tobedailyseparatingwider andwider from eachother,theyare,onadeeperview,seen to bedrawingclosertogether differinginopinion, theyareapproximatinginspiritandpurpose.There is aconspicuouseffort to reconcile the aimsandclaimsofReligionandScience thetwomightiestantagonists.Themanyandpiteouscomplaints,old asReligionitself,againstthegrowing infidelityof theage, mightbedisregardedweretheynot confirmedonall sidesbythe evidence thatReligionisrapidlytendingtooneof twoissues either towardsextinction,ortowardstransformation. Someconsiderablethinkersregardthe former alternative as theprobableand de-sirable issue.TheyarguethatReligionhasplayeditsSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 3partin the evolution ofHumanityanoblepart, yetonlythatof aprovisional organ,which,in the courseofdevelopment,must-bedisplaced bya finalorgan.Other thinkers andIfollowthese consider thatEe-ligionwillcontinuetoregulatetheevolution;butthattodothisinthecomingages,itmustoccupyapositionsimilar to the one itoccupiedinthepast,andexpressthehighestthoughtofthetime,asthatthoughtwidenswiththeever-growingexperience.Itmustnotattempttoimprisonthe mind in formulas which nolongercontain the whole ofpositive knowledge.It mustnotattemptto force on ouracceptance,asexplana-tions of theuniverse,dogmaswhich wereoriginallythe childishguessesattruthmadebybarbariantribes.It must nolonger presentaconceptionof the worldandphysicallaws,or of manand morallaws,whichhasanyother basis than that of scientific induction.It must nolonger putforwardprincipleswhich areunintelligibleandincredible,nor make theirveryun-intelligibilityasourceofglory,andabelief in themahighervirtuethanbeliefin demonstration. Inaword,this transformedEeligionmustcease toacceptfor itstests and sanctions such tests aswould be foolishnessinScience,and such sanctions aswould be selfishnessinLife. Insteadofproclaimingthenothingnessofthislife,the worthlessness of humanlove,and the imbe-cilityofthehumanmind,it willproclaimthesupremeimportanceof thislife,thesupremevalueof humanlove,and thegrandeurof human intellect. Thosewho entertain thishope,and thisviewof aEeligionfounded on Scienceexpressingat eachstagewhat isknownof theworldandofman,believe andI sharethe belief that thepresent antagonismwillrapidly4 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.mergein anenergetic co-operation.The internecinewarfarewhichhassolongdisturbedReligionandob-structedScience,willgive placeto a Doctrine whichwillrespectthe claims ofboth,andsatisfythe needsof both.3. This futuremaybeundetermined,but it willcome. It will not come without contention. Thegroundwillbecontested inchbyinch. ThepathwayofProgresswillstill,as ofold,bear tracesofmartyr-dom;but the advance is inevitable. Thesignsofthe advent are not few.Lookingatthemwithsomecloseness,one observes that Science itself is also intravail.Assuredlysomemightynewbirthis athand.Solid as theground appears,and fixed as are ourpresentlandmarks,we cannot but feel thestrangetremorsof subterraneanagitationwhichmusterelongbefollowedbyupheavals disturbingthose landmarks.Notonlydo we seePhysicson the eve of a recon-structionthroughMolecularDynamics,we also seeMetaphysicsstrangelyagitated,andshowingsymptomsof areawakenedlife. After along periodofneglectandcontempt,itsproblemsare once morereassertingtheir claims. And whatever wemaythink ofthose,claims,we haveonlyto reflect on theimportant partplayed by Metaphysicsinsustaininganddevelopingreligious conceptions,no less than inthwartingandmisdirectingscientificconceptions,tofeelassuredthatbeforeReligionand Science can be reconciledbythereductionof theirprinciplesto a commonMethod,itwillbenecessarytotransformMetaphysics,ortostampit outof existence. Thereisbutthis alternative. Atpresent Metaphysicsisanobstacleinourpath: it mustbecrushedintodust,andourchariot-wheelsmustpassSCIENTIFIC METHOD IX METAPHYSICS. 5overit;or its forces of resistance must be convertedintomotivepowers,andwhatis anobstaclebecomeanimpulse.4. It is towards the transformation ofMetaphysicsbyreductiontotheMethodofSciencethatthesepagestend. Theirobjectis toshowthattheMethodwhichhas hitherto achievedsuchsplendidsuccess in Scienceneedsonlytobeproperlyinterpretedandapplied,andbyit the inductions and deductions fromexperiencewill furnish solutions toevery metaphysical problemthat can berational]ystated;whereas noproblem,metaphysicalorscientific,which isirrationallystatedcanreceivearational solution. Iproposetoshowthatmetaphysical problemshave,rationally,no other diffi-cultiesthanthosewhichbesetallproblems; arid,whenscientificallytreated,theyarecapableof solutionsnotlesssatisfactoryandcertainthanthoseofphysics.To one class ofreaders,this announcement willperhapsseemextravagant,andtheattemptabsurd;toanother class the limitation to scientific Method willseem narrow and insufficient. But if I succeed inshowingthe first that solutions can thus bereached,and inshowingthe second thatonlythus cananysolutionbereached,thegainwillbeobvious : notonlywillavastregionofspeculativedisorderbereducedtoorder,notonlywill one obstacle to the reconciliationbetweenKelioionandScienceberemoved,but weshallo*beinpossessionof aMethodwhichwillmakeKeligionalso theexpressionofExperience,and thusdissipatethe clouds ofmysteryandincredibilitywhichhavesolongconcealedthe clearheavens.5. Should thesepagesfall intothehandsof readerswhoonformeroccasionshavegivenmetheirattention,6 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.theywilldoubtlessfeel somesurpriseatthisannounce-ment ofmy presentaim. Imayhere seem to beunsayingwhat it has been the chiefpurposeofmylabourstoenforce. Butitisnotreallyso. I haveindeedincessantly,for somethirtyyears,triedtodissuademenfromwastingpreciousenergieson insolubleproblems;thatpurposestill animatesmyefforts.But,althoughformerlyIregardedproblemsasinsolublewhichInowholdtobesoluble,therehasbeennootherchangethanthis,that InowseehowproblemswhichwereinsolublebytheMethodthen inuse,aresolublebytheMethodofScience. This isnotaretreat,butachangeoffront.Throughout my polemicagainst Metaphysics,theattackswere directedagainsttheirrationalMethod,asonebywhichallproblemswhatevermustbeinsoluble.6. DescartesopenedModernPhilosophy byhisfamous'Discourse on Method/ It was a brillianteffort,but the consecration ofexperiencehas beenwantingto it.Historyprovesthat it was notreallycapableoffurnishinganysatisfactorysolutions.AugusteComteopenedthe new erabyhisgreatconceptionofMethod,namely,the extension to allinquirieseven morals andpoliticsof those induc-tiveprincipleswhich alone have been found fruitfulinanyinquiries.I shall not besupposedto under-ratethevalueof thePositivePhilosophy,asconceivedbyComte,inpointingoutadefect ofthatschemewhichhasoftenbeenpointedoutbyitsopponents, namely,thatitdisplaysnoefforttoapplythepositiveMethodtoonegreatbranchofspeculationthat ofMetaphysics.Heperemptorilyexcluded all researchwhateverinthisdirection,declaringmetaphysicalproblemstobeessen-tiallyinsoluble,consequentlyidle and mischievous.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 7Norcanthere beanydisputethat thespeculationshehadinviewareinane,whenpursuedon the Methodtraditionallyfollowed;but an extension of theprin-ciplesofPositivismmaylegitimatelyincludeeventhesespeculations;andScientificMethod,rightlyinterpreted,will find itsemploymentthere. It issurelymorephilosophicaltobring metaphysical problemsunderthe samespeculativeconditions as all otherproblems,thantoexclude themaltogether,sinceourignoring themwillnotextirpatethem. Theproblemsexist,andformobstacles toEesearch.SpeculativemindscannotresistthefascinationofMetaphysics,even whenforced toad-mitthatitsinquiriesarehopeless.This fact must betakenintoaccount,since it makesrefutationpowerless.Indeed,onemaysay, generally,that nodeeply-rootedtendencywas everextirpated byadverseargument.Nothaving originallybeen founded onargument,itcannot bedestroyed bylogic.Theverymindwhichadmitsyourevidence to be unanswerable willswingback to its oldpositionthe instant that thepressureof evidence abates;and theopponentwhomyouleftyesterdayseeminglyconverted,is foundto-dayno lessconfident than of old.Contempt,ridicule,argument,are all vainagainsttendencies towardsmetaphysicalspeculation.There is but one effective mode of dis-placinganerror,andthatis toreplaceitbyaconcep-tionwhich,whilereadilyadjustingitselftoconceptionsfirmlyheldonotherpoints,is seentoexplainthefactsmorecompletely.The onepermanentvictoryover afalseMethodisbyphilosophisingbetter. Thedisciplesof Descarteswerenotdrawnoverto the side ofNew-tonbyarguments exposingtheimperfectionsof theirsystem,butby examplesof thegreater sweepand8 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.efficiencyof the Newtoniansystem, interpretedonprinciplescommon to Descartes and Newton: thehypothesisofvorticesgraduallysankintoneglect whenthelawofgravitation wasseentobeequallyconsistentwith the mathematicalprinciplesadvocatedbyDes-cartes,andmorecompetenttoexplainthephenomena.7. Noarrayofargument,no accumulation of con-tempt,nohistorical exhibitionofthefruitlessness ofitseffort has sufficed toextirpate,thetendencytowardsmetaphysicalspeculation. Althoughits doctrineshavebecome a scoff(except amongthe valiantfew),itsMethodstillsurvives,stillpromptstorenewedresearch,andstillmisleadssome menof science. In vainHistorypointsto theunequivocalfailure oftwentycenturies :themetaphysicianadmits thefact,butappealstoHistoryinproofof thepersistent passionwhich nofailure candismay;and hence draws confidence inultimate success. A cause which isvigorousaftercenturies of defeat is a causebaffledbutnothopeless,beatenbutnotsubdued. The ranks of itsarmymaybethinned,itsbannerstornandmud-stained;buttheindomitableenergybreaks outanew,and thefightiscontinued.Nayinstructive fact ! even somegreatcaptainsofScience,whilestandingontriumphalcarsin thepresenceofapplaudingcrowds,are ever andanonseentocastlingeringglancesatthosedarkavenuesof forbiddenresearch,andarestung bysecretmisgivingslest after all those avenues shouldnotbeissueless,butmightsomedayopenon agrander plain. Theyarenotquiteat ease in thesuspicionthat other mindsconfessedlyofsplendid powerscandeliberatelyrelin-quishthe certaingloriesof scientific labour for thenebuloussplendoursofMetaphysics. Theyare notSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 9quiteat ease lest what to their unaided vision nowappearsa nebulamaynot oneday byaided visionresolve itself into stars. Thishesitation iscomprehen-sible;it is dueinsomemeasureto animperfectappre-ciation of thelimitsandpossibilitiesofResearch,andinmanycases dueto the fact thatmanyminds wrelltrained in Science areimperfectlytrained in Philo-sophy;hence awant ofharmonyintheirconceptionsleads them to followimplicitlyin one direction the.principleswhichtheyperemptorilyrejectinanother.8. Fewresearchescan be conductedinanyonelineofinquirywithout sooner or laterabuttingon somemetaphysical problem,were itonlythat ofForce,Matter,orCause;and since Science willnot,andMetaphysiccannot solveit,the result is apatchworkof demonstration andspeculationverypitiableto con-template.Look where wewill,unless we choose tooverlook all thatwedonotunderstand,wearemostlyconfrontedwithameshworkoffact andfiction,obser-vationcuriously precisebeside traditionspainfullyab-surd,acompoundofsunlight andmist. Thusinvariouswritings wecomeuponLawswhichcompel phenomenatoobeytheirprescriptionPlansandArchetypalIdeaswhichshapethecourseofevents,andgiveforms andfunctions toorganismsForcesplayingabout likespritesamid Atomsthat are atoncecontradictorilyin-divisible andinfinitelydivisible Bodiesactingwheretheyarenot, andNon-Being(purespace)endowedwithphysicalproperties, among othersthatof resistance(sinceForcesinspiteof theiralleged independenceof Matter aresupposedtobediminishedbythespacestheytraverse),theseandmany analogousphantoms, moreorlesscredit-ed,toofrequentlyhoveramidphenomena,and convert10 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.speculationintowhatHegelin anotherconnectionsar-casticallycallsa"truewitches' circle." *9.Whyis this 1Mainlybecause men of sciencearegenerallytrained eithertoignoreallmetaphysicalquestions,ortoregardthemas"mysterieswhichmustbeaccepted."Someof thefirst havetheirconfidenceshakenbythesteadfastfaithofthemetaphysicianthatthemysteriescanbeunveiled. Someofthesecondarefoundexpressingdecidedopinionsonthoseverymys-teries declaredtoliebeyondhuman ken. Botharguefrommetaphysical assumptionsandtraditionsasfromacceptabledata. Bothresemblethosetheologianswhosolemnlyaffirm God to beunknowable,yetneverthe-less have no hesitation inassigningattributes to hisnature,andpurposestohis creations.The continuanceofmetaphysical inquiryis,forthepresentatleast,inevitable. The continuance of themetaphysicalMethod is aseriousevil,andis evitable.It sustains andfortifies thosetheological conceptionswhich wouldbeseentobepreposterous,wereit notforthedialecticaldexteritywhichpresentstheminalightassuredlyno less rational than that in whichmanymetaphysical conceptionsarepresented.It is thiswhich causes the adhesion of somanyeminentmenof science totheologicaldogmasflagrantlyatvariancewiththeirpositiveknowledge. Renouncingallhope ofa rationalsolution,yetunable to release their mindsfromthepressureofcertainproblems,theyflytoFaithforrefuge.Oneof thesincerestofmenandoneofthe*"InderThatbefindetmansichineinerArtvonHexenkreiseworinBestimmungendesDaseynsundBestimmungenderReflexion, GrundundBegriindetes,Phaenomene und Phantome inunausgeschiedenerGesell-schaftdurcheinander laufenundgleichenRangmiteinandergeniessen."Logik,ii. 93.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 11mostcautiousofinvestigators Faradaywhen askedbyafriendhowhe could believe theastoundingpro-positionscurrent in thereligioussecttowhich hebe-longed,replied:"Iprostrate myreasoninthismatter;for if Iappliedthe sameprocessofreasoningwhich Iusein mattersof science I should be an unbeliever."It wasin alessphilosophical spiritthatPascalwrote:"Je trouvebienqu'on n'approfondisse paslesystemedeCopernic."Pascal carried even into Science histheologicalterror atthepossible consequencesof rea-soningwhen adogmaseemedinperil;Faradaykeptthetwoprovincesandtheir twoMethodsdistinct. Itisremarkablethatboththesegreat men werenotreassuredbythecertaintythat no truth in one direction canreallycontradictanother;andFaraday mighthavebeentoldthatthelegitimate applicationof thosetestsandsanctionswhichheregardedassufficientinphysicalresearch,might,ifappliedtometaphysicalortheologi-calquestions,makehimanunbeliever inthe doctrinesof hissect,butnot an unbeliever inthetruths whichreplacedthem.10. Itmaybe noted thatMetaphysics refusingtoadopttheMethodofSciencehasreceivedtheprotectionofTheology,butonlysuchprotectionas is accordedtoavassal,andwhichischangedintohostilitywhenevertheirconclusionsclash,orwheneverargumentthreatensto disturbthe secular slumberofdogma.Treatedasavassalby Theology,itistreatedbyScienceasa vision-ary.Istherenoescapefromthisequivocalposition?Wehavetwocardinalfactsto consider.First,thatcertainproblems, though incessantly grappledwith,haveyieldednopermanently acceptedsolutions.Secondly,that inspiteof constant failuretheypress12 PROBLEMS OP LIFE AND MDtt).onourattentionwithever-renewedsolicitation.Here,then,isamplejustificationfortheattempttocreate adoctrinecapableofembracingall thatMetaphysicsrationally mayseek and allthat Sciencefinds,bythereduction ofboth tocommonprinciplesand commontests. OneMethod,oneLogic,onecanonofTruthandDemonstration mustbeappliedtoboth. Whichmustit be? Xot the onehithertoemployedinMetaphy-sics : itsincompetenceismanifestintheunprogressivenature of its results. Thereis, therefore,onlythealternative ofprolongingthisuncertainty,orofadopt-ingthe Method which has beenuniformlysuccessfulwhereverrightlyemployed.CHAPTER II.THE CONDITIONS STATED.11. WHAT is hereproclaimedis thepossibilityoffindingrational solutions toquestionswhich havehitherto baffled effort. And this will be effectedbyinvokingthoseprinciples onlywhich are invoked inphysicalresearch. Theprobabilitieswhichguideus,and the certainties onwhichwe rest inScience,willguideus here. In such anattempt, preciselybecauseit is a firstattempt,there willassuredlybemuchim-perfection;butthereader'sagreementisfarlessclaimedinrespectofanyparticularsolutionshereoffered,thaninrespectof the conditions of the search. No onethinks ofdiscreditingscientific Method because theparticularconclusionsof thephysicistorbiologistareoftendebateableandsometimesfalse. AllI claimis arecognitionof thelegitimacyof theattempttoapplythe rationalprocedureof Science toevery questionwhichmayrationallybe asked. This is founded ontheconceptionthat under the two cardinalpointsofview whatis tobeknown,and hoiv it canbe knowntheobjectand thelogicthereisthe sameaccordancebetweenMetaphysicsandPhysicsasbetweenany twobranches ofinquiryMathematics andBiology,forexample.Whatisknown,whatisknowable,andwhat14 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.isunknowableintheone,andwhytheseareso,havingtheircounterpartsinthe other. The several sciencesdifferamongsteach otherbyreasonof the differencesin their sensibledata,and thecomplexityof thephenomena they investigate.With these differencesnecessarilyarise differentmeansofinvestigation,differ-enttests,and differentdegreesofcertainty.Eachsciencehasthusitsspeciallogic.Themeansandtestswhichsuffice inMathematics arenolonger sufficientlycomprehensiveforPhysics;thelogicofBiologyis,inspecialcharacters,unlike that ofChemistry.YetoneMethod,oneLogicrulesthroughout;andthisgeneralMethodmaybeappliedtoproblemssocialor meta-physicalwhich havehitherto beeninvestigatedin aquitedifferentspirit,andunderdifferent tests. Whensoapplied,it will reach resultshavingscientific cer-tainty,becauseconformingtotheconditionsofScience.More cannotlawfullybe claimed. If after all effortsthere still loom in the distance vast stretchesof un-troddenground,.andbeyondthese aregioninaccessi-bletoman,this isequallytrue ofall research. I donot claim a widerreach,nor ahigher validity,formetaphysical conceptionsthan for scientificconcep-tions;but I claim oneequivalentreach andvalidity.Tomanymindsthisholdsoutpromiseofbutameagreresult :impatienttopass beyondthelimits ofExperi-encetheywillrejecta solution which confinesthemwithinthehumanhorizon. Thatwhichfascinates themis thehopeofpassingbeyondthis horizon. Itwill,therefore,be incumbent onme to show that such ahopeisfutile;andpercontrathateveryquestion whichcanbe statedin termsofExperienceiscapableof ananswerontheExperientialMethod.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 1512. Notunfrequentlyin recent times have menprofessedtoapplythe InductiveMethodtoMetaphy-sics,andproclaimedthattheywereguided byit intheirspeculations. Nay,even theverypretensionofdeducing metaphysicalconclusions from the data ofExperiencehas notbeenwanting.But tothebestofmyknowledgeall suchpretensionshavebeenillusory,partlybecause the writersimperfectlyunderstood theMethod ofScience,andmainlybecausetheydid notconsistently applyit. The idea ofapplyingsuch aprocedureis onething;how it can beapppliedisanother. AtthispresentmomentI haveaconvictionthat the Differential Calculus could beappliedtoPsychology,and will be in some future time;but Ihaveno distinctvisionofhowtomakethebeginning,becauseI cannotyetdeterminetheco-ordinates,cannotputthequestionsin a calculableshape.It hasbeenthuswithphilosopherswho talkedofapplyingScien-tific MethodtoMetaphysics.Unless I deceivemyselfthesepageswill showhowtheproblems maybepre-sentedin a solubleshape;howtheymaybeaffiliatedtoallothersolubleproblems.13.BywayofpreliminaryI will askpermissiontocoinatermthatwillclearlydesignatetheaspectof Me-taphysicswhich renders theinquiry objectionabletoscientificthinkers,nolessthan toordinaryminds,be-causeitimpliesadisregardofexperience;byisolatingthisaspectin atechnical term wemayrescuetheotheraspectwhich isacceptableto all. The word Meta-physicsis averyoldone,andinthe courseof its his-toryhasindicatedmany verydifferentthings.Tothevulgaritnowstandsforwhateverisspeculative,subtle,abstract,remote fromordinary apprehension;and16PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.thepursuitof itsinquiriesissecretlyregardedasaneccentricity,or evenamildform ofinsanity.Tothecultivated,it sometimes means ScholasticOntology,sometimesPsychology,pursued independentlyof Bio-logy,andsometimes,thoughmorerarely,thehigh-estgeneralisationsofPhysics.Inspiteof thislaxityin itsuse,the term is sogoodaterm,and has hadgodfatherssoillustrious,that ifpossibleitoughttobepreserved.Anditmaybepreservedifweseparateitfrom itsMethod,and understand it in itsprimitivesense as TO,/^erarava~LKa,that which comesafterPhysics,and embraces the ultimategeneralisationsofResearch. It thus becomesatermforthe science ofthemostgeneralconceptions.Thisis theAristotelianviewofit,adaptedto modernthought.It is also inaccordancewiththeschemeofBacon,whichrepresentsPhilosophyasapyramid,havingthehistoryofNatureforitsbasis,an account of thepowersandprincipleswhichoperateinNature(Physics)for its secondstage,andanapexof formalandfinal causes(Metaphysics)forthethirdstage."''"LetusonlymodifytheBaconianconceptionbysubstituting"thehighestgeneralisationofResearch,"in lieu of the"formalandfinalcauses,"and we have agrand provinceto bear the ancientname.14. But whatisimpliedinthisarrangement? Thatsince wearetorisetoMetaphysicsthroughScience,wemustneverforsaketheMethodofScience;andfurtherthat,ifinconformitywithinductiveprincipleswearenevertoinvoke aidfromanyhighersource than Ex-perience,wemustperforcediscard allinquirieswhat-*Comparethepassage,toolongforextract,inSECCHI : L'unild,delleForzeFisiche.Rome, 1864,p.470.SCIENTIFICMETHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 17everwhichtranscend the ascertained or ascertainabledata ofExperience.Hence thenecessityfor a newwordwhich willclearly designatethis discarded re-mainder a wordwhichmustcharacterise the natureoftheinquiriesrejected.IfthentheEmpiricaldesig-nates theprovincewe include within therangeofScience,theprovincewe excludemayfitlybestyledtheMetempiricdl.The termsEmpiricism, Empiricist, Empirical,al-though commonlyemployed by metaphysicianswithcontempt,to mark a mode ofinvestigationwhichadmits nohighersource thanExperience (bythemoftenunwarrantablyrestrictedtoSensation), maybeacceptedwithout demur,sinceeventheflavourof con-temptonlyservestoemphasisethedistinction. Therewillperhapsbeanequivalent contemptin the mindsofpositivethinkersattachingtothetermMetempirical;butsincethistermistheexactcorrelative ofEmpirical,anddesignateswhateverliesbeyondthelimitsofpos-sibleExperience,it characterisesinquirieswhich oneclassregardsasvainandfutile,anotherasexalted abovemerescientificprocedure.Noristhistheonlyadvan-tageof theterm;it also detaches fromMetaphysicsavastrangeof insolubleproblems,leavingbehind itonlysuchasare soluble.15.Thuswhateverconceptions can be reachedthroughlogicalextensionsofexperience,andcanbe showntobeconformablewithit,arelegitimateproducts,capableofbeingused asprinciplesfor further research. Onthecontrary,whateverliesbeyondthelimits ofExpe-rience,andclaimsanotheroriginthan that of Induc-tionandDeduction fromestablisheddata,isillegitimate.Itcannever becomeaprincipleofresearch,butonlyVOL. T. B18 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.anobjectofinfertile debate. ThemetempiricalregionisthevoidwhereSpeculation roamsunchecked;whereSense has nofooting;whereExperimentcanexercisenocontrol;andwhereCalculation endsinImpossibleQuantities.Inshort,PhysicsandMetaphysicsdealwiththingsand theirrelations,as theseareknowntous,and astheyare believed to existinouruniverse;Metempiricssweepsout of thisregioninsearchof theothernessofthings:seekingto beholdthings,not astheyare in our universe not astheyare to us itsubstitutes for the ideal constructions of Science theideal constructions ofImagination.16. Thereadermayhere ask howit is thatgreatmetaphysicians,likeDescartes, Leibnitz,andKant,who were alsogreatscientificthinkers,failed toperceivethat the Methodtheyfollowed in Mathe-matics andPhysicswasequallyapplicablein Meta-physics] The answer issimple.The traditionalin-fluence ofmetempirical conceptions,and thepotencyofcertainprejudices,which Science confessed its ina-bilitytojustifyoreradicate,preventedthesephiloso-phersfromevenconceivingthepossibilityofexcludingmetempiricaldata. Kantwho,in hisexpositionoftherelativityofknowledge,cameso near a truecon-ceptionofMethod,notonlymissedthetruth,andfellbackuponthetraditionalprejudiceofInnateIdeas,orapriori FormsofThought,as thesourceofknowledge,butexpresslydeclared that "the fountain of Meta-physiccan in no sense beempirical,its axioms andprinciplesmustneverbedrawn fromExperience,eitherinwardoroutward,"*adeclarationwhichceasestobe*KANT:Prolegomenazujederkiinftigen Metaphysik,1. ItistruethatbyMetaphysiche sometimesonlymeanstheinquiryintothelimitsSCIENTIFICMETHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 19evenplausiblewhen his unwarrantable restriction ofExperiencetomere sensationis set aside. Noris thisall.GrantingthatMetaphysiccoulddispensewiththe inductionsofExperience,allthatit couldeffectforPhilosophywould be thesuperfluous explanationofphenomenawhichlie outsidethe circle ofExperience;whereasPhilosophyaimsatanexplanationoftheworldin which we have ourbeing.Consider this : IfabstractScience,which obtains itsprinciples through'concretephenomena,isconfessedlyincapableofexplain-ingconcretephenomena,butonly capableofguidingustotheirexplanation,howmuchlesshopecan therebe of anexplanationof concretephenomenafromprinciplesthat do notpretendto anempiricalbasis!Kantdisplayed great ingenuityinprovingthat theempiricalandmetempiricalworlds(byhimcalled thephenomenalandnoumenal) having nothingin com-mon,no conclusions formedrespectingthe one couldhaveanyvaliditywhenextendedto theother.Why,then,did he continue tocoquetwithMetempirics,afterhavingstrucksuch blows at its foundation? Ibelieve itwaspartlytheconsequenceofthetraditionalconceptionthatmetempiricalknowledgewaspossible;andpartlythewant ofanyclearconceptionof howthe Method of Science could beappliedtoquestionswilichinsistedonananswer.17.Hegel,ontheotherhand,isurgentfortreatingMetaphysicsandScienceonthe sameMethod.Unhap-pilyhehasaveryerroneousviewof theconditions ofinquiry;andinpointof fact reverses theprincipleIam hereproclaiming,and instead oftreatingMeta-ofknowledge;but at others be means what isusuallymeantbytheword,namely,metempiricalinquiry.20 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.physics bythe Method ofScience,treats SciencebytheMethodofMetaphysics.Heseparatesthephilo-sophicalsciences intoempiricalandspeculative.Theempiricalembrace those which furnishaxioms, laws,theories thethoughtofwhat is actual. So far heseemstobearguingonourside;but headds,"How-eversatisfactorythisknowledge maybe in its ownfield,thereare othersubjectswhichit doesnotincludeFreedom, Mind,God." *And elsewhere( 37)hecharacterisesthetendencytoproveeverything byfiniteconsiderationas"Empiricism,whichinstead ofseekingtruth inThoughtitself seeks it ingropingamidEx-perienceinwardandoutward;"addingthatconsequentEmpiricismexcludes allknowledgewhatever of theSuprasensible.It isunnecessarytopauseandconsiderunder whataspects Hegel'sview coincides with thestrictlypositive conceptionof Research;all wehaveheretonoteistheretentionofthoseverymetempiricalelements,whichit istheaimofSciencetoexclude. Inpointoffact,whenweseeHegelatworkwefind thatthemetempiricalis notkeptapartfromtheempirical,butdominatesit;andhisinquiriesinPhysicsnolessthaninPsychologyare all vitiatedbythis.18. Thus whilemetaphysicianshave neverreallyappliedscientificMethod,becausetheyhave neverre-linquishedtheir faith in theMetempirical,men of*"Wir heissenjene "Wissenschaften,welchePhilosophic gennant\vordensind, empirische Wissenschaften,vondemAusgangspunktedensienehmen. AberdasWesentlichedassiebezwecken und hervorschaffensindGesetze,allgemeinesatze,eineTheorie;die Gedanken desVorhan-denen. ... Sobefriedigendzunachst diese ErkenntnissinihrenFelde1st,sozeigtsichfurserstenocheinanderer KreisvonGegenstandendiedarin nicht befasst sindFreiheit, Geist,Gott. Sie sind aufjenemBodennicht darum zu finden weil sie derErfahrungnichtangehoreiisollten. HEGEL:EncyklopadiederPhilos.Wissensc/taften, 7,8.SCIENTIFIC METHOD INMETAPHYSICS. 21sciencehaveneverthoughtthattheirMethodcouldbeappliedtoMetaphysics,becausethey imaginedthatMetaphysicswasinseparablefromMetempirics.Itis thismisapprehensionwe mustrectify by showingthat theproblems rightlystated,areempirical pre-ciselyin thedegreethatphysical problemsare so;and that both are in anequal degree metempiricalwhenimproperlystated. Scientificthinkers',viewingcertainquestions solelyin thelightin which meta-physicianswereaccustomed toplacethem,andseeingthat to these noapplicationofordinarytests wasapplicable,declared and the declarationrapidlybe-came adogmathat "all suchquestionsrelate tomysteries beyondhumanken." Withthismagisterialphrase they justifiedtheirneglectofproblems theywere unable to solve.19.- Such lavishhumilityis far from admirable,Suchreadiness to admitmysteriesismisleading."Wehave noright byself-abasementtoabaseHumanity,andthuspresentour ownincompetenceas thestandardofpower. Particularlyobjectionablearetheseprofessionsofhumilitywhenaccompanied,andtheyoftenare,byexaggeratedpretensions,sothatthemanwhoconsidersitalmost areligious duty humblytoavow hiseternalignoranceofCause, Force,Mind,and thelike,has nohesitation inexpressingdecided andprecise opinionsrespectingtheirnatureandmodes ofoperation.It istherebymanifest that theignoranceon which heeloquentlyinsists isyour ignorancerather than his.Nayeven when this is notso,and he avows hisignorancesincerely,he is tooapttoregardtheavowal as an act ofpietya confession of his"no-thingness."22PROBLEMS OF LIFE AXD MDsD.Philosophythusboastingof itsownimpotence,is atraditionofthattheologicalspirit which,terrifiedatthefreeexerciseofDoubt,yetconsciousofthenecessityofDoubtfortheactivityofEeason,excommunicatedtheIntellectas anheresiarch,afterhavingvilifiedthislifeas a theatre for Satan. There was a timewhen allknowledgewasconsidereddangerous,exceptfor theo-logiansandlawyers;forothersitwasof thenatureofMagic.Thetraditionstilllingers;and avaguehor-rorhangsover all"pryinginto themysteriesof theuniverse." Itmaybenoticedinfluencingaudiencesatalmosteveryscientificlecturenotaddressedtostudents.Ludicrous,were it notpainful,wouldbetheeagernessofdelightwithwhicheveryacknowledgmentofigno-ance andincompetenceis salutedbythe listeners.Althoughtheyare seatedthere tolearnwhathasbeendiscoveredrespectingtheprocessesofNature,theyareneversowellpleasedaswhentoldthatwhathasbeendiscoveredisnothing compared withtheundiscoverable.Letbutthelecturersayand he must oftensayit"Here Sciencepauses. Beyondthis we cannotgo.Beyondthis liemysteriesbefore which the wisestphilosopherisnobetter thanachild"immediatelyaroundofapplausebursts forth: numerous feetstampapproval;flatteredIgnorancefeelsatease,andshakesits headsignificantly."Ah!yousee,Scienceisvainthere. Inspiteof itsproudboasts,therearemysteriesit cannotpenetrate!". . .Nowsurelyitis nomatter ofexhilaration,but ratherofdeepregret,thatwefindourselves in a universe ofmystery,compelledtogropeourwayamidshadows,with terriblepenaltiesaffixed to each falsestep.ToSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 23resignourselvestothis conditionis onething;anotherto exult init,and claim the exultation asanactofpiety. Amongthemany strangeservilitiesmistaken forpieties,one of the leastlovelyis thatwhichhopestoflatter Godbydespisingtheworld,andvilifyinghumannature."''"20. There is no intention here ofapplaudingtheunthinkingconfidence which leadsmanyminds topursue inquiries beyondtheirpowers;nor of under-ratingthe lessons which dissuadeusfromsuchefforts.It is ofsupremeimportancethatwe should ascertainthelimits ofEesearch. Butthese limitsmustbeascer-tained,notarbitrarilyassigned.Beforedeclaringanysubjectinaccessible,toothersno lessthantoourselves,we mustclearlysee thegrounds whyit is so;andbeforeattemptingto reach one that is accessible wemusthavesomevision ofthepathbywhichitmaybereached.tInaccessibilityisrelative,and science hasansweredquestionswhich,to minds unfamiliar withits dataandprocedures,mightseemhopelesslybeyondhumanpower;whichindeed,in the absence of suchdataandprocedures,would bebeyondit.What,forexample,couldbe moreabsurdthanforoneofthelaitytoattempttomeasure andweighstarsmanymillionsof millions of miles removed from hisgrasp\ or toascertain thevelocityofLightor of the1translation*TheAuthor of Creationis theontyauthor who issupposedtobeflatteredbyourlavishassurancethathisworksareimbecile.tThepadre SECCHI,noticingthe readinesswithwhichmenconcludethatnothingis knownon certainsubjects,quietlyremarks that thisisaconclusion"che se onora il filosofo ove manchifondamento alia dedu-zione,lodegradaove derivi dalnonsaperintendere illinguaggiodellaNatura." L'UnitaddleForzeFisiche, 1864,p.51.24PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.of our solarsystemtowardsthe constellation of Her-cules?Yet,Geometry, Trigonometry,andDynamicsrender thesethings possible.Webelieve the state-ments that thesensation ofviolet isproduced bythestrikingof theetherealwavesagainstthe retinamorethansevenhundredbillions oftimesin a second andthat our sun and itsplanetsaremoving throughspacewith avelocityofmanymillions of miles in ayear;butthesestatementsareacceptedontrustbyuswho knowthat there are thinkers forwhomtheyareirresistibleconclusions;the factsbelongtomysteriespenetrable only througha mathematical initiation.21. It is thus also withMetaphysics.Itspro-blemsareinaccessible,and mustremain so to mindswhichwill notapproachthemthroughtheonlyac-cessiblepath.Butthereis apaththroughwhichtheymaybeaccessible;alldependsonourselectingit. Afewyearssince it would have beenpreposteroustospeculateonthepresentchemical constitution of thesun'satmosphere;it wouldhavebeenoneofthemys-terieswhichnoastronomer wouldconsiderinvestigable.Why\Simplybecause therewereno accessible data.Thequestionwasonewhollybeyondthe knownpaths.Itwassoobviouslymetempiricalthatevenmetaphysi-ciansabstainedfromspeculatingon it.Suddenlythediscoveryofspectrumanalysisplacedan instrumentinourhands,bywhichthepresenceofgasesandvapoursin the sun'satmospherecould be ascertainedasrigor-ouslyastheirpresencein our laboratories. Themys-terysubmittedto demonstration. Newton'sfeatofin-terpretingcelestial Mechanicsbythe laws of motiondetected on ourplanet (withtheconsequentreflectedSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 25improvementinthe definition ofthoseverylaws)wassupplementedbythe identification ofthechemistryofthestarswith that ofourplanet,and theconsequentrevelation of newsubstancesin our earthsandwaters,whichmightotherwise have remainedunsuspected.Inlike manneronemayhopethat theapplicationofscientific Methodtoproblemshithertoinaccessiblemayreflectlightonquestionsof Science otherwisehope-lesslyobscure.(Compare62a.)22. Insayingthatalldependsontheselectionof therightpath,Imayappearto beutteringatruism,theverydifficulty beingpreciselythisselection. Itis,how-ever,onlyatruism to thosewho believe such apathmaybe found. Themajoritydo not believeit,butinsistthatMetaphysicsisessentially removedfromanyaccessthroughExperience.Thereissomethinggained,then,if wegaintheadmissionthatapathwaythroughExperienceispossible.To effect this itmaybe re-quisitetoshowthatunlesssomestringentproofbead-vanced insupportof theassumptionthat thehumanmindis endowedwithaspecialorganfor theperceptionofmetempiricalrelations,theremust eitherbea totalabandonmentofmetaphysicalSpeculation,oranadop-tion of theempiricalMethod. And Ihopeto showthatthereis nosuchspecialorgan.Meanwhilelet ushereconsider twofavouriteargumentsfor the continu-anceoftheoldspeculations,with whichmetaphysiciansvindicate theirneglectofscience.23.First,it is saidthat"anobleimpulsemovestheBOU! to rise above the sordid aims ofScience,whichismainlyanxioustosatisfyourvulgarneeds." Thisascriptionof a nobler aimmust berejected,notonly26 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.because of its unwarrantableself-complacency,*butbecauseof itsmisrepresentationof the truepositionofScience which aswillhereafterappear(PptOB.I.chap,v.)ispurelythat of anIdealConstruction. Scienceisanidealist,moving amidtheworldof realities asiftheywere butfleetingshadows,andas if theonly perma-nent existences were Abstractions. But were thisotherwise,andwerethesatisfactionofour commonestneedstheonlyaim,theobjectionwould be none thelessmisplaced.There is nogreater vulgaritythanthatofdespisingthecommon needs of life asvulgar.It is thegreatnessofScience thatwhilesatisfyingthespiritualthirst forknowledge,it satisfies thepressingdesireforguidanceinaction: notonlypaintingapic-tureof thewondrouslabyrinthofNature,butplacinginourhandstheAriadne-threadtoleadusthroughthelabyrinth.24. The secondpleaurgesthat,grantingthestudytobedoomed tofailure,the mereenergyit evokesissostrengtheningandennoblingthatMetempiricsmustalwaysbean admirablecourseof intellectualgymnas-tics. Theanswertothis issimple.Withoutdenyingthatintellectual athletesmayfindinit anarenafortheexerciseanddisplayoftheirpowers,wemayurgethatthereareotherandnoblerarenasthantheGymnasium,*Itisinthis sense thatHEGEL likensapeoplewithoutMetaphysictoatemplewithout itsHolyof Holies."Thesebe braveJorts,"asSirHUGHEVANS wouldsay;andwouldbejustifiedif thepretensions01Metaphysicwerejustified;but when we examine these we come toTRENDELENBURG'SconclusionrespectingtheHegelianprocedure:"Manfragtnicht mehrwasmit menschlichenMittelngeschehen kann,sondernwasnach hoheren Idealgeschehensollte. MannimmtdieAbsichtderDialektikfurdie That. Aberweilsiehochgreift,hatsienichtdasHoheergriffen;und weil sie mehrverspricht,ist dasVersprochenenochnichtdsi."LogischeUntersuchunyen,1862,i. 105.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 27wherethegreatestpowersmaynotonlybefreelyexer-cised,but exercised for thewelfareof mankind. Themeasurelessregionof scientific Kesearch is notonlycapableofcallingouteveryintellectualfaculty,but isoneinwhichnoexercise is sterile.""Incapableofap-plicationtoconcretephenomena and thepracticalneeds,incapableofdemonstration becauseincapableofverifi-cation,the mostsplendidachievementsinthemetem-piricalarenaare steriledisplays.25.Althoughit is true thatonlythoseproblemswhich arecapableof solution canprofitably employmankind,the common assertion thatmetaphysicalproblemsareincapableof solution is true whenthere is atacitassumptionthatthey canonlybeinves-tigatedon theMetaphysicalMethod. But thewholesubjectchangesitsaspectdirectlyweinstitutethe dis-tinction betweenMetaphysicsandMetempirics.Un-lessthisdistinction beclearlymaintained allproblemswhateverbecomehopeless,andweareincapableofex-plainingthesimplest phenomenon;with this distinc-tion,allproblemswhateverbecomecapableofsolution,underempiricallimits.26. Theobjectionwill doubtlessberaised thatsuchaprocedureasthatofexcludingallmetempiricaldata,andrejectingallmetempiricalinquiry,isanobliterationofthe characteristicpeculiarityofMetaphysics,andanevasionofthedifficulty.It willbeurgedthatanem-piricalanswertospeculativequestionscanneversatisfythemindyearningforinsightintothe worldofthingsbehindphenomenaforknowledgeof theothernessofthingsforglimpsesof"thelightthat never ivasonseaorshore." Thisisso. But wemustremember that*CompareonthissubjectCOMTE:PolitiquePositive,iii.13,14.28PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.whateverspeculative curiosity may prompt,our realandlastinginterest is inascertainingthe orderofthethingswe know. A sublimeaspirationafter theotherness ofthingsissublimelyirrational. To knowthingsastheyaretous,is all weneed toknow,allthat ispossibleto beknown;aknowledgeof theSuprasensiblewereitgainedwould,bytheveryfactofcomingunder theconditions ofknowledge,onlybeknowledgeof its relationstous,theknowledgewouldstillberelative,phenomenal.**"WhatProf.TAITsaysofQuaternionsmayhere bemadetoillustratesthedistinctionbetween theempiricistandmetempiricist,if weallowthepuremathematician to stand forthe latter :"In theeyesof thepuremathematicianQuaternionshaveonegrandandfataldefect.Theycannotbeappliedtospaceofn dimensions; theyare contented to deal withthosethreepoordimensions inwhichmere mortalsaredoomedtodwell.Fromthephysical pointof viewthis,insteadofbeing regardedasade-fect,is thegreatest possiblerecommendation. It shows in factQuater-nions to be aspecialinstrument so constructed forapplicationto theActualastohavethrown overboardeverythingwhich is notabsolutelynecessary,without theslightestconsideration whether or not it wasthereby beingrendered useless forapplicationto the Inconceivable."Addressbeforethe Mathematical Sectionofthe BritishAssociation,1871.CHAPTER III.THE METHOD.27. AMOMENT'SreflectionwillshowthattheExperien-tialMethodisbynomeansrestrictedto thatenumera-tionofparticularsandclassificationofsensationswhichis assumed to be itsscope bythosephilosopherswhovilifyit under the name ofEmpiricism,and thoserhetorswhodeclaimagainstit asdealingwithnothingbutwhatcanbe seen and felt. It is themethodisingof whatisknown. Therangeof theknownembracesmuch morethan the sensible.(SeePROB.I/,ch.iv.)Notonlythe directpresentationstoSense,but theindirectrepresentationstheverifiableInferencesfromSense constitute itselements. Notonly theindividualexperiences, slowlyacquired,but the accumulated Ex-perienceof therace,organisedinLanguage,condensedinInstrumentsandAxioms,andinwhatmaybecalledtheinheritedIntuitions theseformthemultipleunitywhich isexpressedin the abstract termExperience.Thisbeingstated once for allbywayofforestallinghastycriticism,letusnowproceedwithourexposition.28. Whethertheobjectof research beNature,Man,orSocietyingeneral,or somespecial groupof theirphenomena,wealwaysfind itpresentingthreeaspects:1,thepositiveor known; 2,thespeculativeor30 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.unknownthoughknowable; 3,the unknowable. Thetwofirstareempirical;thethirdismetempirical.Thetwofirst resteither,1,ondirect SensationandverifiedInference,*" or, 2,on Intuition andlogicaldeductionsfromIntuition, whichareverifiablebydirect,orindirect,reduction to Sensation. The third rests on no suchbases,and is thereforedistinguishablefrom the twoformerinkind,notsimplyindegree.29.Bywayofillustration,supposetheobjectinves-tigatedis themotionoftheheavenlybodies. Thefirststepis todeterminethepositive,orknown,elementsofthequestion, namely,that all theplanetsmoveroundthe suninthesame direction and innearlythe sameplane,andthat,inasmuch as their orbits arenearlycircular,theydescribepathswhich areparallel.Thisgeneral planeof circulation isvery nearlytheplaneof the sun'sequator.The same facts are ascertainedrespectingthe motion of the satellites round theirplanets, althoughtheirequatorshavevarious inclina-tions totheplaneof the sun'sequator.Thisleadstotheinference that the two circulationsofplane'tsandsatellites,althoughindependentasfacts,dependonthesameprinciple,and have acommonorigin.Whatisthat ? Thisquestion bringsforward thespeculativeaspect.Theprinciple soughtcannot beseen,itmust*"Intheexperimentaldepartment,"saysProfessorCHALLIS, "alawisagroupingof observedfacts;in thetheoretical,thelawis showntobetheconsequenceof certainprimaryfacts.Everyfact andeverylawwhichexperimentmakesknownis aproblemforthetheoristtosolvebymathematicalreasoning"aidedbyConjecture,letusadd. Thus KEPLERdiscoveredthefactthattheradius vectorof eachplanetdescribes roundthe sunequalareas inequal times,andconjecturedthat eachplanettendedcontinuouslytowards the sun inconsequencehethoughtof amagnetic power: thiswas aconjecturesupportingaconjecture.NEW-TONgraspingthefactobserved,andthe factconjectured,solvedthepro-blembymathematicalreasoningwhichdispensedwiththehypotheticalmagneticpoweranddisclosedthelaw.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 31bededuced.Speculationisseeing withthemind'seyewhatisnotpresenttoSenseorto Intuition. It is idealconstruction,andbeginswithconjecturetoooften,alas !endingwhere itbegan.The satellitespresentalso another remarkablelaw,their rotationontheir ownaxesbeingexecutedinthesametimeastheirrotation round theirplanets(hencewealwaysseethesameface ofthemoon).Thislawispositive;it is theobservedorder. Butthecause,i.e.,thatitdependsontidal frictioninthesatellitewhile itwasstill inmotion,is atpresentspeculative.Supposenowtheastronomer,afterexpoundingthepositiveandspeculative aspectsof theplanetarymo-tions,is ledtoexpoundhisconceptionof thepurposewhich these laws were intended to fulfil increation,and his estimate of thewisdomandbenevolencein sodisposingthem,and not otherwise is it not obviousthatinthisteleologicalexplanationhequitsthegroundofExperienceto enteronthatregionwhereall sensibledata and all verifiable inferences vanish 1 His con-jectureson thispoint maybeapproximatelyright,orabsurdly wrong;nopossiblemeans ofdeterminingwhethertheyarerightorwrongexist. If heregardthemasnomore thansubjectivefancieswherewith tosatisfyhis ownfeelings,we cannotobject.Butif heregard themasinanydegreeenteringintoastronomicalscience,and if hepermit anydeductions from themtomodifythepositiveandspeculativedataor inanywaytomodifythe course of astronomicalthought,heviolatesthe firstprincipleofMethod,bysufferingtheempiricalto be controlledbythemetempirical,andallowingtheunknowableto distorttheknown.30.Havingthussharplydefined the threeaspectswhichevery question may present,and whichevery32 PEOBLEM3 OF LIFE AXD MIXD.one wouldalways presenthadnotmenlong agoquietlysetaside themetempirical aspectinmostquestionsofpracticalaim,andmostquestionsofscientificresearch,Ineedscarcelyinsistthatindealingwiththespecula-tive weoughtto followthe same canonsasindealingwith thepositive,except that weareforcedtosubstituteanalogiesforperceptions,forcedtoemployhypothesesandrelyon inferences. When aplatinumwire israisedgraduallytoawhiteheat>weseeasuccessionofcombinationsof more and moreof theprimitivecolours,but wedonotseethemotionsof thewire whichsucces-sivelydetermine thesecolours,northetremorsof theoptictractwhicharedeterminedbythesemotionsandproduce these colours. Weonlysee thechanging colours.We infer therest. Buttheseinferenceshavebeenveri-fied a thousandtimes,and are butreproductionsofanalogical experiences.Ourmentalvision isarepro-ductionof thepastandapplicationtothepresent.ItisExperienceour ownorthatofothers on which werest. WearenotatlibertytoinventExperience,nor toinferanythingcontrarytoit,only toextenditanalogi-cally. Speculationtobevalidmustbesimplytheex-tensionofExperiencebytheanalogiesofexperiences.**"Fromastarting-pointfurnishedbyhis ownresearches,orthoseofothers,theinvestigator proceedsbycombiningintuitionandverification.Heponderstheknowledgehepossesses,andtriestopushitfurther;heguesses, andcheckshisguess;heconjectures,and confirmsorexplodes hisconjecture.Theseguessesarebynomeansleapsinthedark;for know-ledge oncegainedcastsafaintlight beyondits own immediate boundaries.. . . Theprofoundestmindsknowbest that Nature'swaysarenotatalltimestheirways,andthat thebrightestflashesinthe worldofthoughtareincompleteuntiltheyhave beenprovedto have theircounterpartsintheworldoffact. Thusthevocationof thetrueexperimentalist maybedenned as the continued exercise ofspiritual insightand its inces-santcorrectionandrealisation." TTXDALL:Fragmentsof Science,1871,p.110.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 3331. Thespeculative beginswherethepositiveends;andwhere thespeculative quitsthegroundof SenseandVerification,theregionoftheMetempiricalbegins.It ispossibletomovesecurelyonthegroundofSpecu-lation solongas wecarefully pickourway,andconsider eachpositioninsecure till what wasmerelyprobablebecomesproven.But in themetempiricalregionwehavenotevenprobabilityasaguide: it is amorassofuncertaintywhereallfooting yields,andalltests fail. Inthisregion,conjectureshoweverfantasticare asvalidasconceptionswhichseemrational.Theymaintain theirascendancyover the mind which hasonceadmittedthem,becausebeing,bythenatureofthecase,incapableofproof,theyareincapableofrefutation:theyneverapproachnearenoughto the truths ofExperiencefor us to showhowwidely they divergefrom or contradict it.32. Whenever aquestionis couched in termsthatignore Experience, rejectknowntruths,and invokeinaccessible data i.e.,data inaccessiblethroughourpresentmeans,orthroughanyconceivableextensionofthose means it ismetempirical,andPhilosophycanhavenothingto do with it. We need not troubleourselves withit,until inpossessionof therequisitemeans;it isadjourned,notsuppressed.Perilous itmaybe to set bounds to humanpossibilities,and toforejudge whatfutureinquiriesmaydisclose;butthereis noperilinstanding inflexibly bythe rule whichdeclares allquestionsto be unanswerable when themeansofansweringthem are not at hand. Hewhopropoundsanansweris calledupontoshowthathehastherequisitemeans. Whatis invisible to the nakedeye maybe madevisibleby microscopeortelescope.VOL. i. c34 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AXD MIXD.Letthesebeproduced,andtheirpowersdemonstrated.Noassertionhoweverconfident willsuffice;no"innervision "whichdispenses withverification.RogerBaconpassionatelydeclaredthathecouldconstructaninstru-ment which wouldmakeobjectsvisibleatadistanceofmanymiles;andbecause such instrumentshavebeenconstructed,he is believed to haveanticipatedthediscovery,whereas,inpointoffact,henotonlymadenosuchdiscovery,butshowed,in hisverystatementoftheconceptionhehad formed,that hehad not masteredtheelementary principleswhichwererequisite.Thetheoriesofmanyspeculatorsare inthisnotunlikethetelescopeofRogerBacon.33. While noquestionwhich cannot be couchedintermsofExperience, and answered onitsdata, oughtfor a momentto be entertained;anyquestionwhichcanbe so asked and answered is admissible. InSci-ence this haslongbeenunderstood;inMetaphysicsit isignored.Nogeologist,nobiologistwould listenpatientlyifasked, What is the successionof stratainSirius? What are theleadingcharactersofthefloraand fauna of Saturn? Yetmetaphysicians patientlylisten toquestionsofequalirrelevance;nay,confi-dentlvgiveanswerstothem.oWithouttravellingsofarasSirius,supposewepre-sentanewsubstancetothechemist,andaskhimwhatare itsproperties,and what reactions it will exhibitundergivenconditions. He will decline to answeruntil he hassufficientlyexamined the substance andclassed itamongsubstancesalreadyknown;becauseheisaware thatanyguesshemaymake before trialmustbevalueless unlessguidedbyanalogy;inasfarasit islikeknown substanceshewillinfer thatithasSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 35likeproperties. Guessingisonlyfertile inproportiontothefertilityoftheexperiencesitreproduces.If amanknowslittle,he can infer but little. Allknow-ledgeisreproductionofexperiences,thedirect,or in-direct assimilation(makinglike)of thenewphenomenatophenomenaresemblingthem,formerlyexperimentedon. Asktheprofoundestanalyst toresolveanequationnumerically,and heis silent unless the values of thecoefficients areassigned:nor can the child tell theresult ofmultiplying5by5,until he has learnedthemultiplicationtable.34. Mustnot this beequallytrueinMetaphysics1Toaskthemetaphysiciantoanswerquestionsrespect-ing things perse(orwhat isusuallyunderstoodbythem),and to tell us their nature andproperties,isaskinghim to resolveequations numericallywithoutassigningtheirseveralvaluesto the coefficients.Naymore,thesevaluescannotbeassigned,forthesymbolsprofesstobesymbolsofwhatwas neverpresentedinExperience.Butifinsteadofthis irrationalprocedurewegivethemetaphysicianverifiabledata,he candealwith them as thephysicistand chemist deal withtheirs;and his answers will be as valid astheirs,ifhis dataandmethodbelike theirs.35. Hithertometaphysicians haveasked, What isMat-ter? WhatisForce? WhatisCause? And these wordsaresymbolsofanimaginaryclass ofNoumena,Dinge-an-sich,ThingsastheyareandunderlyingtheThingswhichappealaworld behindphenomena,incapableofbeing sensiblygrasped,butsupposedtohaveamoroperfect realitythan thephenomenalworld. Be-causequestionsthusirrationally putare found toyieldnorationalanswers,one class ofthinkershurries36 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.tothe conclusionthat thisimpotenceprovesall meta-physicalinquiriesto beidle;anotherclass infersthatknowledgeof thissuperiorworld must begainedthroughanother source than thatrelied on in the in-vestigationofphenomena.Butwemayurgethatallinquiriesarenotidle becausesomeareimproperlycon-ceived;norisanyspecial organneededfor theinter-pretationofquestionsrationallyput.Sinceit is a factthatwehave ideas ofMatter, Force, Cause, &c.,andthatthesewords aresymbolsof sensibleexperiences,thegenesisof suchideasand theinterpretationofsuchsymbolsarenotlesslegitimate objectsofinquirythanthegenesisandinterpretationofourideas ofAnimal,Plant, Planet,or Cosmos. I shall hereafterendeavourtomake clear that these abstract ideas areintegrantpartsof whatI call theLogicofFeeling,beforetheyareraisedintotermsof theLogicofSigns. Theyarethreads wovenintothe webofExperience;andbecausetheyhavethiswarpandwooftheyarecapableofbeingraisedinto the tissue ofAbstractiontheyareexperi-encesbeforetheyaresigns.TheMethodwhichenablesustounravelthecomplexthreadsinthe one case willaidusintheother.36. Asalreadyhinted,the chiefsource ofperplexityis theirrationalityof thetermsinwhichthequestionsarepropounded.Butalthoughthis defect isspeciallyflagrantin the case ofMetaphysics,it isfrequentlynoticeable inPhysics.Take,forexample,thepuzzleconcerningthecommunicationofmotionfromonebodytoanother,eitherthroughimpactor"actionatadis-tance."Thiscommunicationisacceptedasafact,anddeclaredtobebeyondourcomprehension.Theincon-ceivabilityofthestatementis notallowedtosuggestaSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 37doubtrespectingitscertainty.Buttheinconceivability,whencloselyexamined,will befoundto restentirelyonthe irrational modeofexpressingthefact observed;insteadofstating whatisobservedinsimpleterms,thestatement is made in terms of anhypothesiswhichcannot besteadilyconceived. What is observed isthat onebodyinmotion,that is tosay,inchangingspacerelations,is succeededbychangesin thespacerelations ofanother,andthat there is aconstancyinthissequence.Thisnotbeingheldsufficient,thereisinventedahypotheticalMotion(notan abstractsym-bol,butaphysical, entity),which ispassedfrom onebodyto anotherlike so muchmilkpouredfromonejugintoanother;andtocompletethehypothesisthis Motionisimaginedunderthecontrolof thebody moving,sincethisbodydivides itsquantityofMotion,keepingoneportionto itself andcommunicatingthe otherportionto theotherbody! Isitstrangethathavingtravestiedtheobservedphenomenainthisway,andacceptedourmetaphorical languageasexact,we marvel that theentitythuscreatedisbeyondcomprehensionI Insteadofthrowingthe onusonhumanincompetence,supposeweaskwhetheritmaynot rest on theillusorystate-ment?Analysetherealdata,andit willthenbe seenthat the"communication of Motion"is one of thosemetaphorical phraseswhich(as Lagrangeremarks,ona somewhat similaroccasion""")aresupposedto revealthe essence of Nature'slaws,and which can"parquelquevertu secreteerigeren causesfinales,desim-plesresultats deslois connues de lamecanique."Wefirst raise adustand thenexclaim,"Impossibleto seethroughit !"*LAGEANGE:MecaniqueAnalytique, 1811,i. 245..38 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.37. Ofasimilarkindis thepuzzlerespectingForceinherentinMatter. Neither abstraction is reducedtoitsconcretes,neithertermaccuratelydefined;and thensuchquestionsasthefollowingareasked(whichI citefrom adistinguishedmathematician andphysicist,Maupertius):"Qu'estcequecette forceimpulsive?comment reside-t-elle dans lescorps? quieutpudevinerqu'elleyresideavantqued'avoirvudescorpssechoquer?La residence des autresproprie'tesn'estpasplusclaire. Commentrimpene'trabilite'etlesautresproprie'te'sviennentelles sejoindrea1'etendue "?"Whensuchquestionsare detachedfromaworkandseriouslyconsidered,it seems difficult to understandhowanythinkingmindcouldhavepropoundedthem.Yet,having puzzledhimselfwith irrationalquestions,Maupertiusevadesthemwith thecustomaryformula:"Thesemusteverremainmysteriesforus."Mysteriesnodoubt;butmysteriesquiteneedlesslyfabricated.38.Examplesneed not bemultiplied;enoughifweunderstandthateveryproblemismysteriouswhenirrationallystated; but,whenrationallystated,thereis nogreater mysteryin the existence of an externalworld,ortherelationbetweenObjectandSubject,thanintherelationbetweenactivity and wasteinthetissues,therelationbetweenheatandexpansion,ortherelationbetweenanarcand its chord. Thesuccessfulinterro-gationofNaturemainly dependsontheselection ofthequestionto beput,and theabilitywithwhichit is ex-pressedintermsthatadmitof ananswer. Hencethefirstoperationindealingwithanymetaphysical pro-blemmustbethis :*MAUPERTIUS: Sur lesfiguresdesastres. (Euvres.Dresden, 1752,p.65.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 39Todisengagethemetempiricalelements,andpro-ceedto treat theempiricalelementswith theview ofdeducingfrom themtheunknown ele-ments,ifthatbepracticable,or,ifthedeductionbeimpracticable,ofregisteringthe unknownelements as transcendental.Thisprocedureseemsverysimple.It is the ordi-naryprocedureoftheanalyst,whose firstoperationistodisengagethe unknownquantityand of thephysicist,whoalwaysseeks to eliminate whatever isirrelevantorindeterminate,replacingitbyexactdata,so thatnothing finallyremains forexplorationbutwhatisexpressibleincalculableterms. Yetsimpleastheproceduremayseem,it hasrarelybeenadoptedbymetaphysicians;andnever,Ibelieve,avowedlystatedasaprincipleof research. Onthecontrary,therehasbeenacoufusedminglingofempiricalandmetempiri-calelements,sensations andabstractions,inferencesandtraditions,exactquantitativedata,andimaginaryunquantitativedata,factsandphrases,phenomenaandphantomsandthenit isthoughtmarvellousthatsuchanetworkofcordageandcobwebshouldleteverythingrunthrough!39. Our firstoperationmust be todisengagetheunknownquantity,andendeavourtoascertainwhetherit is knowableorunknowable;andthiswilldeterminewhetherit isempiricalormetempirical.Inevery question,from thatpresented bythegrowthof a blade ofgrass,to thatpresentedin theevolutionofasocialorganism,fromthechemicalunionof twogasestotheformationofidealtypes,theremustnecessarilybe certain transcendentalelements,notde-terminablebyus,unexploredremainders after the40PROBLEMS OF LIFE AtfD MIND.most exhaustiveexploration.Thesemaybegroupedunderthreeheads:1. Elementsknowntobepresentin thephenomena,but notyet quantitatively appreciable,and thereforenowincalculable;2. Elementsnotcertainlyknowntobepresent,butassumedhypothetical^for the sake ofprovisionalexplanation;3. Elementswhichlying beyondallpossibleappre-ciation,becauseincapableofbeing broughtwithintherangeof Sense andInference,are to besetaside,andnotallowedinany wayto enterintotheexplanation.40. An illustration or twomayhere be useful.Geometersagreethattheexact ratio of thecircumfer-ence of a circle to its diametercannot beaccuratelyexpressedinordinaryfinitenumbers,althoughtherealvaluemaybeapproachedasnearlyas weplease.* TheyindicatethisratiobythesignIT asignwhichdispenseswith alongseries offiguresand anunexploredre-mainder. Thissign,althoughenteringintotheexpres-sion of thequantitiescompared,doesnotenterintothe*Theimpossibilityofsquaringthe circle is theattemptto find astraightlinethesquareon whichshallbeexactlyequaltoagivencircle.Theimpossibilityofexpressingtheratioof diameterandcircumferenceinfinitenumberswasfirstdemonstratedby LAMBERTin1761,accordingtoDEMORGAN. IimaginedfromEULER'Slanguagethat theuseofthesym-bolTT wasproposedbyhimself(Introd.&I'Analysedesinifiniments petits.TraduitparPEZZI.Strasbourg,1786,chap, viii.),but a friend informsme that this is not the case. EDLERgives128 decimalplaces ;subsequentlyVEGA carried theexpressionas far as 140places.Now,when it is considered that the first decimal involvesonlya defect ofhundreds,andtendecimalsadefectless thanoneinchcomparedwiththecircumferenceof thewholeearth,wemay saywith LESLIEthatVEGA'Swas the"luxuryofcalculation,and,thoughsuperfluous,mightconvinceanyjudiciouspersonof theimpossibilityofstatingthe ratio infiniteterms."SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 41expressionof theirratios,but'vanishes from the finalequation.Thusthesurfaceofasphere,andthesurfaceofagreatcircleofthatsphere,aretwoquantitieswhichcannot beaccuratelyexpressedinnumbers,becauseTTenters intoboth,and this TTcontaininganunexploredremaindermust remaintranscendental. Neverthelessthepresenceofthistranscendentalelementproducesnodisturbancein thecalculation;forwearecertainthatthe firstquantityisexactlythequadrupleof thesecond,whatever values thesemayhave. Thus thetranscendentalelement,whichexistsinbothquantities,disappearsfromtheratio of theonetotheother.Wethuslaydowntheimportantformula :The existenceofan unknownquantitydoes notnecessarilydisturb theaccuracyofcalculationsfoundedon the knownfunctionsofthatquan-tity.*41. If inMathematicswecanthus dealwithtrans-cendentalswithoutperiltotheexactnessof ourdeduc-tions,thequestionariseswhetherinothersciences andeven inMetaphysicsthe sameprocedure maynot be*Thus, althoughwemaybewhollyunable to answer thequestion,"Whatistheresultofadding5xto 7x1"solongas x remainswithoutanassignedorassignablevalue,we areabsolutelycertainthatthesumwillbe12#whatevervaluex mayhave.Onthispointlet EULERbecited."Onrencontrequelquefoisdes fonc-tionsalgebriquesdontonnepeutdonner unevaleur absolueetdegagee.^estunefonctiondecettenaturedez,si Z setrouve dansuneequationdecegenreZ&=azz Z3bz*Z2+cz3Z 1;maisquoiqu'on nepuissepasresoudre cetteequation,il estclaircependantqueZestegalaunecertaineexpressiondez meleedeconstantes,etqueainsi ZestunefonctiondezQuantauxfonctionstrauscendantesil est aremarqiierqu'unefonctionestdecette naturelorsquenonseulement1'operationtranscendanteyentre,maisqu'elleaffecteencorelavariable;carsi lesoperationstranscendanteaappartinmentaux seules constantes la fonctionn'enserapasmoinalge-briques."Introd.atAnalysedesinfinimcntspetits,p.4.42PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.adoptedwith similar effectMypurposeis to showthat thisprocedurecan befollowed;andthat in allinquiries, unexploredremainders must beeliminated,andourdeductionsbeconfinedtotheknownfunctionsof these unknownquantities.Theprofitlessdiscus-sionsupon SpaceandTime have beenprofitless,be-causeof thenon-recognitionof thetranscendentalele-mentsandtheirconsequentseparation fromthepositiveelements. WhatisTime? Thisphilosopherholdsit tobe anobjectiveexistence,whichmust beacceptedasultimate. Another holds it to be apurelysubjectiveForm of Sense. Athirdsaysit isaFormof Sensebecause it is aFormofThings.Others arefascinatedbyLagrange'sdefinitionofit,"afourthdimensionofSpace."Mathematicians are content with Newton'sconceptionof it as a fluent whicli has no variablefluxion,theonly independentvariable which"flowsequallywithoutregardtoanythingexternal andbyanothernameis calledDuration."*Withoutpausingto choose between theseconcep-tions,ortotracethegenesisof the abstractionanditsrelationstothe concretes itexpresses,wesimplynotethat eachconceptionleavessomethingindeterminate,noneaccuratelyconveysall thatismeantbyTime. Amystery always remainsunexplained,unexplorable.Letthis begranted,let thepresenceof a transcendentelementbeinsistedon,howyouwill,thetruthis thatintheonly use weever makeof theconceptionof Timei.e.,initsknownfunctions the measurementofin-*NEWTON:Principle,;Scholiumto tJieDefinitions."Thisconceptionoftimeastheoneabsoluteandindependentvariable isundoubtedly oneof themostsplendidandfruitfulinthehistoryof human thought."Prof.ROBERTSON SMITH: OnHegeland theMetaphysics ofthe FluxionalCalculus. TransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofEdinburgh,xxv. 495.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 43tervals this transcendentdisappears,themysteryvanishes. "WhateverTimemaybe,theintervals,whichare all we dealwith,areequalorunequal,and ourequationsarerigorouslyexact.42. It is the samewithSpace.Whetherwearetoregardit asanentity,or anabstraction,is aquestionforPsychology.WhatSpaceismaybe left undeter-mined. Thevulgar imagineit tobepureNothingwhichnevertheless doesmysteriouslycontain allthings,holdingthem like a vessel.They speakof it as ofan infiniteair-pump,emptyof all contents.TheydonotaskthemselveswhatneedBeinghasofNon-Beingto containit,what need Existence has for anotherExistenceinwhichto exist. Thepsychologistmaybecalledupontoexplainthegenesisof suchconceptions,butScience andPracticedetachthemselves fromsuchpuzzles,and withoutendeavouringtolayholdof thetranscendentalelementinSpace,are content tomeasurespaceswithrigorousprecision."""43. Matter andMotion,Force andCause,havealsotheirtranscendentalelements,andit is theprovinceofMetaphysicsto demarcate these fromthe known andknowable elements.Character,again,involvesmanyincalculableelements,organic,historic,social;yetthisdoesnotpreventourcomparisonof onecharacterwithanother,or with the different manifestations of onecharacter under different conditions.Vitality, again,*"AbsoluteSpacein itsown naturewithoutregardtoanythingexter-nal remainsalwayssimilar and immovable. RelativeSpaceis somemovabledimensionor measure of the absolutespaces,whichour Sensesdeterminebyitspositionto Bodies. Because thepartsofSpacecannotbe seen ordistinguishedfrom one anotherbyourSenses,therefore in.their stead weuse sensiblemeasures of them." NEWTON:Principia;SclwliumtotheDef.44 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.presentscertainaspectswhichifonlyfrom theirspe-cialitymustalways distinguishorganicfrominorganicexistence.Althoughmanyvitalphenomenahavebeenassignedtophysicalandchemicalconditions,there stillremainunexploredremainders after all ouranalysis.ThesewemayassigneithertosomespecialAgent,thesupposedvitalForce,orto somespecialAgency,somepeculiarcombinationofphysicalforces,notyetdeter-mined. Whicheverhypothesisweadopt,thepresenceof thetranscendental need in nowaydisturb the ac-curacyof ourcalculations,if wedealwith itproperly,andeliminate it fromtheequations.Wemay compareonevitalphenomenonwithanother,orwith its condi-tions,as wecompareonespherewithanother,oranyone functionof an unknownquantitywith another;andthecomparison mayyieldexactresults,although weremaineternallyignorantof theexcludedelements.44. Theinitial defect in transcendentalPhilosophyandallmetempirical inquiry,is not the admission oftranscendental elements*as facts andmysteries,but*KANTdesignates bytranscendentalthatwhichisanterior toallExperi-rience; transcendent,that whichisbeyondallExperience.The words thusrespectivelystandfor apriori andmetempirical. Denying thetranscend-enceofthementalformswhich KAXTassumes,Iusethewordstranscend-entalandtranscendentaccordingtotheir mathematicalanalogies."Toutefonctioninatheniatique,"saysthephilosophicalmathematicianCOURXOT,"quine se trouvepas comprisedans la definition des fonctionsalge-briquesestreputeetranscendante." Traite des Fonctions et duCalculinfinitesimal, 1841,i. 24. That is tosay,whatever cannotbeexpressedin the terms of the science is transcendental to that science :BiologycontainingphenomenanotexpressibleintermsofPhysics,istranscenden-tal toPhysics;andSociologyis transcendental toBiologyon similargrounds.Whatever isSuprasensiblecannot beexpressedin terms ofsensibleExperience,andistherefore transcendentaltoExperiencemetem-pirical.Butwheneverby any meanswhatisnowtranscendental becomesexpressiblein terms ofExperienceit willtherebycease to be metem-piricaLThe term transcendental thereforedesignatesnotonlythatSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 45theadmission of themamongthe calculableelements;and thesuppositionthatbymeans ofguessesandconstructionsinwhichtheseincalculable dataenterascomponents,man can reach ahighertruth than isattainablethrough Experience.It will indeed beurged bymetaphysiciansthatalthoughthe transcen-dentalelementsarenot calculablefromdatafurnishedbySense andUnderstanding,theyaredirectly knowableand calculablethroughthe so-calledVernunft,orIntellectualIntuition,whichdealswiththemasUnder-standingdealswiththedataofSense. I donotpausehere to consider thisargumentwhich willoccupyusfurtheron,butcontinuemyexpositionof the Methodbywhichmetaphysicalproblemsmaybetreatedwith-outtheassumptionofanysuchspecialfacultyforthediscernment of the transcendental. If I can succeedinextricatingsuchquestionsfromtheconfusion whichresults when twodiametrically oppositeMethods areemployed,and if I can thus confine themetempiricalMethod to themetempiricalaspectsof eachquestion,it will thenbetime to examinethepretensionsof theIntellectual Intuition.45. Our firststepthen is to state eachquestioninsuch awaythat the"unexploredremainder"is dis-engagedfrom thepositiveandspeculative aspects,andcarefully kept apartas atranscendental,not allowedtoenterintotheequations.Thesecondstepis theanalysis bywhichweascer-tainwhetherthisunknownquantityis to beacceptedwhichcanneverbebroughtwithintherangeofExperience,owingtotheconstitutionofthings,butalsothatwhichcannotatpresent besobrought,owingtotheconditionofourknowledge: it is theunexplorable remainderandtheunexploredremainder.46 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.as an ultimatefact,a fiction or aphrase.Weinquire,1,whether it isultimate,as initselfbeyondanalysis, incapableofreduction to somemoregeneralfact; 2,whether itmight possiblybeanalysedwerecertaindatasecured; but,these notbeingsecured,wemake aprovisional guess, throwingout somehypo-thesiswhich,ifcorrect,wouldlinkthephenomenaintointelligible unity; 3,orfailingeven thisspeculativeaid,weadoptaphrasewhich,although explainingnothing,serves at least tobaptisetheunknown,andis thus often ofadvantage (sometimesthereverse)inkeepingunder one rubricphenomenawhich haveessentialpointsofsimilarity alongwith manifolddifferences.46. Thesethreemodesofdealingwiththeunknownquantitymaybethusexemplified.Abiologist havingascertained thatorganic phenomena always requirespecialcombinationsofoxygen,carbon,hydrogen,andnitrogenfor theirbasis,and are never found wherethese areabsent,acceptsthe ultimatefactofVitalitydependentonthis combination. It is a fact no moreexplicablebyreduction to some otherfact,thanwhytheratio off is theratioofiorA.Thefact is so;isobserved to be so;whyit is so admits no furtheranswer(forthepresent)thanthat whateveris is.46a. Thespeculative biologistisdissatisfied,andthinksthisdependencemaybeexplainedbytheintro-duction of anAgent,visible to hisspeculative eye.He creates the fiction of a VitalPrinciple,whichnoonehasseen,which no one can connectwithpositivedata;and endows it with whateverpropertiesareneeded for the results observed. Heinvents an Im-ponderable,aForce,whichhasthepoweroffashioningSCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 47thePonderable,which can select and combinephy-sical and chemicalelements,and can animate lifelessmatter.Weseethatthis is afiction;butwedo notonthataccountrejectit. Fictions arepotent;and all arewelcome iftheycanjustifythemselvesby bringingspeculative insightwithintherangeofpositivevision.Whatthenmust be our attitude withrespectto thisVitalPrinciple? Wemustsubmit it to all the testsbywhichhypothesesarecontrolled,tests which whileallowingthe freestscopetotheenergyofImaginationpreventthatenergyfromdegeneratinginto licence.Thisfictionhasbeentested,andhasprovedafailure :itexplainsnothing.Neverthelessit hasleftbehind ita convenientphrase;and nowpositive biologistsarequite readytospeakofVitalForce,orthevitalforces,as briefwaysofdesignating phenomena.There isindeedalwaysdangerinthusappropriatingthephrasesofrejectedfictions : thedangerlestinsufficientvigilanceallowthephrasestobeinterpretedin their old mean-ings;and an immense service to Science would beeffectedbysomenotationwhich wouldalwaysaccom-panyhypothesesandhypothetic phrasesasort of al-gebraicx,keepingalive oursenseofthepresenceofanunknownquantity."3'47. Themetaphysical problemsofMatter, Force,Cause,Law,Soul, &c.,likewisepresentelementsposi-tivelyknown,elementsspeculativelyknowable,andelementsthatliebeyondall reduction toExperience,positiveorspeculative.Thenoveltyoftheprocedure*FOXTENELLEcharmingly says:"fl faut etrepresentementsur sesgardespournepasluiimaginerquelquerealite: onestexpos^auperildecroirequ'on1'entend."ElogedeNewton.48 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.followed in this work consists intreatingthesepro-blemsonthesameMethodasthatfollowedinScience,firstseparatingthethreeaspects,and thenseeinghowfarinductionswillcarryus.No one can have studied thehistoryofphysicalinvestigationwithoutseeingthatprogresshas beenmainlyeffectedbythe habit of more or less con-sciously eliminatingfrom eachquestionthe metem-pirical aspect.It isstrikinglymanifestinthelaboursof Galileo andNewton,whencomparedwith thoseofKeplerand Descartes. But ininstitutingthiscomparisonwemustguardagainstthecommon confu-sion of thespeculativewiththemetempiricalpointofview;a confusionexplicable enoughwhen nosharpdefinition of themetempiricalhadbeengiven.It i*aserious errortoimaginethatthetrue scientificspiritisopposedtothespeculative,because it isopposedtothemetempirical.The error arisespartlybecausetheLogicofSpeculationhas notyetbeenorganisedwithsufficientprecision,its testsand canons are left un-disciplined;hencebecauseSpeculationis conterminousat one sidewithMetempirics,it hasfrequentlybeencarriedbyits ardour over its own lawfulboundariesintothatnebulousregionwhereall testsfail;andthusthespeculativethinker isregardedwith distrustbypositivethinkers. Noristhedistrustsurprising,whenweseethediscordantminglingofunprovablefictionswithprovableconjecturesin thewritingsofevensuchsplendidworkersasKeplerandDescartes.48. To confirm our vindication of thespeculativeprocedure,it isenoughtoglanceat the laboursof thetwosupreme positive inquirers,Galileo andNewton.Illustriousjudgeshave declaredthat Galileo'sconcep-SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS. 49tionof the laws of Motionishisgreatestachievement/'5'If we examine his famousdialoguewe find that itismainlytheoretical :experimentisrarelyinvoked,thougheverywhereimplied.Letus,hesays,conceivethesimplestandmostperfectrule,andweshall formthe mostprobable hypothesis.If we follow out theconsequencesof thisrule,andexpresstheminmathe-maticaltheorems, wemaydoso withoutperil."Geo-metryhasalreadystudied numerouscurvesnevermetwithinreality,and detected in them wonderfulpro-perties;andtogeometryourconclusionalsowillbelongevenifexperimentisunable toconfirmthem." Herethere is anexplicitannouncementof thedeepestcon-ceptionofscientificMethod,and theconjunctionoftheprincipleof IdealConstruction(onwhich seePEOB. I.chap, v.)with theprincipleof Sensible Verification.Theseparationandco-operationof thespeculativeandpositive pointsof view could not be moreclearlystated. Galile'o knewthatsuchaconceptionas Velo-citywasideal;and that theproportionalitybetweenthevelocityof afallingbodyandthe time of its fallcouldneverbedirectlyverified inexperiment;butheknewalso thatit couldbeindirectlyverifiedthroughconsequencesaccessibleto observationandexperiment.Hislawsof Motionwouldhavebeenspeculativelytrue,like those ofgeometry,even couldtheynever have*ThusLAGRANGE, speakingof thediscoveryof theCompositionofMotions,saysthatalthough duringhislifetimeitbroughthim lesscelebritythanhisastronomicalobservations,"elle faitaujourd'huilapartielaplussolide etlaplusreelle de sagloire.Les decouvertes des satellites deJupiter,desphasesdeVenus,des taches dusoleil, &c.,nedemandaientquedestelescopesetde1'assiduite;maisil fallaitungenieextraordinairepourdemelercesloisdelanaturedans desphenomenes qu'onavaittoujourseussouslesyeux,maisdont1'explicationavaitneanmoinstoujoursechappeauxrecherchesdesphilosophes." -Mecanique Analytique,1811,p.221.VOL. I. D50 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.receivedpositive verification;andIsnailhereafter showthatthey areonly rigorouslytrueintheregionof Ab-straction,andarenottrueof actualmotions.49. The reader wasperhapssomewhat incredulousonfindingNewtoncitedasanexampleofspeculativegreatness.Thevenerationwhichconsecratesthe nameof Newtonhasso farfailedtodignifyhispractice,thatthesimple characterisingof thatpracticewears theairofparadox.Washenot theidealofapositivethinker\Did he notprotest against Speculation? It is true.ButalthoughNewton'slanguageis sometimesdirectlycounter to hispractice,and is vitiatedbythe mis-placedalarm which he shared in common with allthe reformers of thatday,atthechaoticconsequencesofspeculativeingenuity,this wasmainlyduetotheab-senceofacleardiscriminationbetweenspeculativeandmetempiricalinquiry.Atanyrate,it is the factthatNewton'sgloryisfoundedquiteasmuchonthepurelyspeculativeasonthepurelypositivepartofhislabours;whilenearlyall hispopularity,outsidethe mathemati-calcircle,is duetoit. Hewhodeclaredthathemadenohypotheses insistingthattheycould have noplaceinexperimentalphilosophyhasraisedhisnameoutof theverysmall circle ofmathematicians,wherehemusteveroccupyagloriousposition,intoits leader-ship among philosophers, byvirtue of hissplendidspeculativeinsight,thedaringkeennessofhisventure-someimaginationincreating hypotheses.Itwas anhypothesis,and adaringone,bywhich he institutedtheInfinitesimalCalculus,introducingvelocities,underthe nameofFluxions,wherebythe correlative valuesof two variables weresupposedto increasetogether.The element ofVelocitywas aspureanhypo-SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN METAPHYSICS.51thesis as the element of Ether in theexplanationofLight,or ofElectricity*or Nervous Fluid in theexplanationofNeurility: itwas,moreover,anaccessoryhypothesisanartifice,not an inference.Again,hisidentification of celestial and terrestrial motions wasanhypothesis;sowastheextensionofgravitationbe-yondthe solarsystem;anhypothesishisconceptionof the attraction exercisedby sphericalbodies on apointbeyondorwithin theirspheres;'*anhypothesishisconceptionof attractive andrepulsiveforcessimilartopositiveandnegative quantitiesinAlgebra,theformervanishingwhere the latterbegin;anhypo-thesisthatMotion isconstantlydestroyed,and conse-quentlythat the universerequiresactivePrinciples,"suchasthe causeofgravity, bywhichplanetsandcometskeeptheirorbits,and bodiesacquire greatmotion infalling;and the cause of fermentationbywhichtheheartandbloodof animals iskeptin con-stantmotionandheat;"anhypothesisthatLightcon-sistsofcorpusclesemittedfromthe luminoussource;anhypothesisthat"theSensesarenotforenablingthesoultoperceivethespeciesofthingsin itssensorium,butonlyforconveyingthemthither," these,and severalotherqueries propoundedin theOptics,aresurelystrangecontradictions to theoften-quotedand much-misunderstoodhypothesesnonJingo?49a. Itmaybeobjectedthat some of thesehypo-theseshehimselfbroughtsoneartodemonstration thattheyhave takenplace amongestablishedtruths,andthattheywerelegitimateconstructions on mathemati-calprinciples.This does not alter theirspeculativecharacter. And while we know that some of his*Comp.POINSOT : ElementsdeStatique,5thed. 66.52 PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND MIND.illustriouscontemporaries regardedthesehypothesesas revivals of a scholasticspirit, rejectingAttractionbecause it was an occultquality,"'wealsoknowthatSciencewhichhasacceptedsomeofthehypotheseshas?ecognisedothersasnon-verifiable,and someasfalse, nayevenabsurd. Bethis as itmay,ourpurposeissimplytorecognisethelargelatitudegiven bythismightyinvestigatortotheoperationofthatspeculativeimagi-nation which he iscommonlysupposedto have dis-credited. Inthisconnection it ispiquantto observethat in thevery passagewhich follows his famousdenunciation ofhypotheses,he has no hesitation inpropoundingaviewwhich in thesedaysmust startlethemostspeculativebyits wildness :"Andnowwemightaddsomething concerningamostsubtleSpiritwhichpervadesand lies hid in allgrossbodies;bythe force and action of whichSpirittheparticlesofbodiesmutuallyattract one anotheratneardistances,andcohere ifcontiguous;and electricbodiesoperatetogreaterdistances,aswellrepellingasattractingtheneighbouring corpuscles;andlightisemitted, reflected,refracted,inflected,andheatsbodies;andall sensationisexcited,andthemembersofanimalbodiesmoveat the commandofthewill,namely,bythe*HUYGHENSandLEIBNITZ,soeminentlyqualifiedtocomprehendthemathematicaltheoryofattraction,rejecteditasunworthyofexamination.Inwritingto LEIBNITZ before he had seen thePrincipia,HUYGHENSsays:"Iamanxious to seeMrNewton'sbook. Iamcontentat his notbeingaCartesianprovidedalwayshedoesnotthrustforwardsuchsuppo-sitionsasthatofattraction." Afterhavingreadthebookhesays:"Theexplanationofthecauseofref