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Pfeiffer Library CD-ROMTRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT RESOURCES

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About Jossey-Bass/PfeifferSince 1968, Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer (formerly University Associates, Inc., and now an imprintof Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers) has been committed to publishing in the broad field ofhuman resource development (HRD). The organization has earned an international reputa-tion as a leading source of practical publications that are immediately useful to today’sfacilitators, trainers, consultants, and managers. These materials are designed for the HRDpractitioner who wants access to a broad range of training and intervention technologies aswell as background in the field.

Celebrating Years of ExpertiseThe Pfeiffer Library celebrates years of expertise with a compilation of bestselling Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer products, including materials from the following sources:

• 1972–1997 Annuals• Volumes I–X of the Handbooks of Structured Experiences• University Associates Training Technologies• Theories and Models in Applied Behavioral Science

These materials have been reedited and reorganized to form one comprehensiveresource, categorized according to the following topics (the design of the entire Library isrepresented graphically on the grid found in the Main Menu):

General Introduction to the Pfeiffer Library

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• Individual Development: Materials on personal awareness, growth, change, risk taking,sex roles, diversity, stress, and life/career planning.

• Communication: Materials on communication styles and approaches, coaching, con-frontation, feedback, and negotiation.

• Problem Solving: Materials that focus on techniques for generating alternatives, sharinginformation, understanding conflict, reaching consensus/synergy, and action planning.

• Groups: Materials about how groups work, competition/collaboration, conflict, andnegotiating/bargaining.

• Teams: Materials that relate to team-building and team-development issues and concerns.

• Consulting: Materials that address organization development (OD) theory and practiceand interface with clients.

• Facilitating: Materials relating to skills of the facilitator, from needs assessment throughclosing.

• Leadership: Materials involving leadership styles, ethics, interviewing/appraisal, motiva-tion, and diversity/stereotyping.

• Training Technologies: Materials that offer background and techniques for using experi-ential learning activities; inventories, questionnaires, and surveys; and presentation anddiscussion resources.

• Theories and Models in Applied Behavioral Science: Descriptions of theories andmodels that apply to individuals, groups, management, and organizations.

• Keyword Index: Index to the Library, with keywords organized alphabetically and linkedby volume.

The Pfeiffer Library can be used in a variety of ways. It can be studied for its collectedinformation on HRD. Trainers and consultants can use it for design ideas for workshops,

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seminars, and OD or HRD interventions. All types of materials related in subject matter canbe easily identified and selected. For example, by consulting the grid that begins this program,a trainer who wants activities, instruments, and handouts on the topic of communicationwould learn to check the three volumes of the Pfeiffer Library that deal with communication.Individual pieces can be located in the index, either by title or by author. In addition, thekeyword index makes it possible to locate activities, instruments, and articles that addressspecific topics.

Overview of the Pfeiffer LibraryExperiential Learning ActivitiesExperiential learning activities are infinitely varied and variable. Activities should be selectedbased on the participants’ needs and the facilitator’s competence. Within a particular cat-egory, many activities might accomplish similar goals and be adapted to suit the particularneeds of a group. However, for the activity to address the needs of the participants, thefacilitator must be able to assist the participants in successfully processing the data thatemerge from that experience.

As you have seen on the grid, within the Pfeiffer Library, the following volumes andtopics apply to experiential learning activities:

1. Individual Development4. Communication7. Problem Solving10. Groups11. Teams14. Consulting and Facilitating18. Leadership21. Training Technologies for Experiential Learning Activities

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Inventories, Questionnaires, and SurveysInstrumented survey-feedback tools give the participants opportunities to develop an under-standing of the theories involved in the dynamics of their own group situations—understand-ing that will increase their involvement. Instruments allow the facilitator of a small group tofocus the energies and time of the participants on the most appropriate material and also todirect, to some extent, the matters that are dealt with in a session. In this way, the facilitatorcan ensure that the issues worked on are crucial, existing ones rather than less important onesthat the members may introduce to avoid grappling with the more uncomfortable issues.

Within the Pfeiffer Library, the following volumes and topics apply to inventories,questionnaires, and surveys:

2. Individual Development5. Communication8. Problem Solving12. Groups and Teams15. Consulting and Facilitating19. Leadership22. Training Technologies for Inventories, Questionnaires, and Surveys

Presentation and Discussion ResourcesLearning based on direct experience is not the only kind of learning appropriate to human-interaction training. A practical combination of theory and research with experiential learn-ing generally enriches training and may be essential in many types of cognitive and skilldevelopment. Affective and cognitive data support, alter, validate, extend, and complementeach other. Each facilitator needs to develop a repertoire of theory and background that heor she can use in a variety of situations.

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Within the Pfeiffer Library, the following volumes and topics apply to presentation anddiscussion resources:

3. Individual Development6. Communication9. Problem Solving13. Groups and Teams16. Consulting17. Facilitating20. Leadership23. Training Technologies for Presentation and Discussion Resources

Theories and ModelsA theory is an explanation of causal relationships; a “model,” on the other hand, refersprimarily to a graphic representation of a system or process and the relationships among itselements. Presenting theories and models in a training session provides a frame of referencefor an experience that gives it meaning and connects it with other realities.

Within the Pfeiffer Library, the following volumes describe theories and models inapplied behavioral science:

24. Individual25. Group26. Management27. Organization

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ConclusionChange remains an unchanging feature in modern life, and the rate of change continues toaccelerate faster than the human capacity for accepting and integrating it. Experientiallearning addresses how adults learn and change best—through active involvement. Researchstudies estimate that adults remember 10 percent of what they hear and 25 percent of whatthey see. However, they remember 90 percent of what they do. Seeing and hearing createthe potential for new behavior, but new behavior comes about only by taking action. Expe-riential learning consists of doing something, looking back at it critically, gaining insights,and putting the results to work.

The Pfeiffer Library represents the single most comprehensive set of experientiallybased resource materials available to human resource facilitators, trainers, and consultants. Itexemplifies a commitment to experiential learning and to providing a stimulating source ofideas and a wealth of practical and varied materials. As the preface to the 1974 AnnualHandbook for Group Facilitators noted, “In addition to our abiding belief in the wide distri-bution of human relations training materials, we also experience a constant undercurrent ofexcitement and challenge as we create, collect, collate, use, and disseminate this emergingtechnology.” This statement remains as true at Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer today as it was in 1974.

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On-Line HelpGetting StartedYour Library CD contains two types of files:1. PDF files of all the Library materials, which you can search and access via Acrobat™

Reader; and2. Microsoft™ Word files that will allow you to manipulate, customize, and print these

documents.

To utilize the Word files:• For Windows 3.X: Double-click on your “Main” program group. Double-click on “File

Manager.” Double-click on Drive “D” (or the drive where your CD is located). If youwish to manually access the Word files, double-click the “MS Word” folder. You canlaunch any of the Word files by double-clicking on them. To access the Word files whilein Acrobat, click on the “Customize in Word” button from your PDF files. This willbring up the Microsoft™ Word Files Grid. Click on any page range to access the Wordfile. Microsoft™ Word will automatically launch and open your file. Click on any vol-ume number to access the table of contents for that volume. You can access the WordGrid from anywhere in the Library by clicking on “MS Word Documents” in the Acrobatbookmarks. You may also copy the files to your hard drive. You must have MicrosoftWord 6.0 or later to utilize these files. Customized or changed files must be saved to yourhard drive.

• For Windows 95 and Windows NT: Click on “My Computer”; double-click thePfeiffer icon (CD-ROM drive). You will be presented with the opening “splash” screen.Click on the “Customize in Word” button. This will bring up the Microsoft™ WordFiles Grid. Click on any page range to access the Word file. Microsoft™ Word willautomatically launch and open your file. Click on any volume number to access the table

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of contents for that volume. You can access the Word Grid from anywhere in the Libraryby clicking on “MS Word Documents” in the Acrobat bookmarks. You may also copy thefiles to your hard drive. You must have Microsoft Word 6.0 or later to utilize these files.Customized or changed files must be saved to your hard drive.

• For Macintosh: Double-click the Library icon on your desktop. Double-click on the “MSWord” folder. If you wish to manually access the Word files, double-click on them. Toaccess the Word files while in Acrobat, click on the “Customize in Word” button fromyour PDF files. This will bring up the Microsoft™ Word Files Grid. Click on any pagerange to access the Word file. Microsoft™ Word will automatically launch and open yourfile. Click on any volume number to access the table of contents for that volume. You canaccess the Word Grid from anywhere in the Library by clicking on “MS Word Docu-ments” in the Acrobat bookmarks. You may also copy the files to your hard drive. Youmust have Microsoft Word 6.0 or later to utilize these files. Customized or changed filesmust be saved to your hard drive.

To utilize the PDF files:Once you have launched the PDF files, you will see five buttons on the Title Screen to helpyou navigate around your Library CD.• Click on CUSTOMIZE IN WORD to access the MS Word files as described above.• Click on MAIN MENU to go to the Table of Contents from which you will be able to

easily find and access any document contained in this Library.• Click on INTRODUCTION for an introduction to the Pfeiffer Library. This area will

introduce Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer and orient you to the contents of the Library.• The CREDITS button will take you to the page with the copyright and credits information.• Click on HELP for this on-screen version of the step-by-step instruction manual. You will

be able to access HELP from any screen in the Library or you can refer to the printedversion included in the CD’s case.

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Moving AroundTo utilize the Library to its best advantage, you may utilize the standard Acrobat naviga-tional tools. To learn more about the Acrobat navigational tools, see the Acrobat Tutorialunder the Help item on the toolbar.

You can move forward one page by using the forward button or back one page by usingthe back button . You may move to the beginning of a file by using the back-to-startbutton or to the end of a file by using the end-of-file button . These are your mainnavigational tools. Alternatively, you can use the page-up and page-down keys on yourkeyboard to move forward and backward one page, and the home key to go to the beginningof a file, and the end key to go to the end of the file.

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SearchingMain MenuWe provide you with a complete list of the 27 volumes contained in the Library. They areorganized by topic (i.e., Individual Development, Communication, Groups). In each topic,the individual volumes are identified by the type of material contained in them (i.e., Experi-ential Learning Activities; Inventories, Questionnaires, and Surveys; Presentation and Dis-cussion Resources).

Use the scroll bar on the right to move through this list, then click on any volume titleto go to the Table of Contents for that volume of material. You can return to this page fromanywhere in the Library simply by clicking on the Main Menu button.

Keyword IndexWe have provided you with an index of keywords concerning the subjects found in theLibrary. These keywords are followed by a series of volume/page numbers where articles thataddress the appropriate subject can be found. By clicking on the volume/page number, youwill be taken to the beginning of the article that has information related to the keywordthat you have selected.

Adobe Acrobat SearchAdobe Acrobat includes a powerful search engine that allows you to search any word orword combination in these files. If you know the subject matter that you are interested in,or the author whose work you want to use, click on the Search button to open theSearch window. Type the text or name you want to find in the “Find Results ContainingText” box, and click Search. You can limit your searches by using the word AND betweenwords you would like to search. This will bring up only those results where both of the

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words appear within a few pages of each other. You can also use the “word stemming”feature to find variations on a word, for example, using “Herb” might find Herbert andHerbal. Click word-stemming off if you want an exact match. You can also search forinstances of words with the same meaning by clicking on the “Thesaurus” feature.

When searching the Library, you will be presented with a list of all documentsmatching your search query in order of relevance. The small round icon at the left of eachdocument in the list indicates how frequently the search word(s) appear in the document. Asolid circle indicates highest level of relevance, an empty circle, the lowest. Double-clickany document name in this list to open that document. Acrobat will show you only thosepages in the document that contain your search word(s), and they will be highlighted. Youcan move through the document viewing each occurrence of the search word(s) by using theSEARCH NEXT and SEARCH PREVIOUS buttons.

To select another document in your search results, click the SEARCH RESULTSbutton and select another document from the list.

Acrobat provides a comprehensive tutorial about performing searches in this pro-gram. If you would like more tips on how to search these indexes click HERE.

Materials ScanTo review all of the activities of a particular type, in a particular category (i.e., ExperientialLearning Activities in Individual Development), click on the volume number listed in theMain Menu. You will see a page that lists the titles with authors of each article/activity inthat volume. The index in the window on the left (bookmarks) allows you to click any titleto go to the full-text view of the PDF file for that title. Bookmarks are arranged so that you

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can quickly move to any volume or to any article within the current volume. At the top ofthe bookmarks are links to the Help, Introduction, Copyright, Credits, Keyword Index,and Main Menu files.

You can also use Acrobat’s search capability to do a limited search for keywordsin the volume you are viewing only.

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Modifying/Printing DocumentsDocuments can be printed directly from the PDF files. Click on File in the Acrobat tool barand then choose Print. To print only an individual article, you will need to specify the pagerange for that article. You can find the page range in the Table of Contents for each volume.Page numbers are visible in the bar at the bottom of the Acrobat screen and look like this:

. In order to see the page numbers, you will need to minimize yourWindows Taskbar. To modify or customize a document you can double-click on any of theWord files (see instructions for utilizing Word files above). You must have MS Word 6.0 orlater installed on your machine to utilize the Word files.

After opening the Word files, you can edit the document as you would any otherWord document, making whatever changes are necessary to customize it to fit your needs.You can save it with changes on your hard drive by selecting File > Save As... from the menubar and assigning the modified document a new name so that you can easily identify andaccess it again at a later time. Be aware that if you use the Save option instead of Save As...,you will be prompted with a dialog box for a new name. You cannot overwrite or modify thefiles on this CD-ROM.

NOTE: Graphics will display differently depending on your monitor. In addition, somecomplex tables may not copy well. You may wish to re-create the graphics or tables that donot display well. Some graphics may take longer than others to appear on-screen.

In Case of TroubleIf you experience difficulty using the Pfeiffer Library CD-ROM, please follow these steps:

1. Make sure your hardware and operating system configurations conform to the systemrequirements specified on the printed booklet.

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2. Review the installation procedure for your type of hardware and operating system. It ispossible to reinstall the software if necessary.

3. You may call Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer at (415) 433-1740 between the hours of 8 A.M. and5 P.M., Pacific Time and ask for Pfeiffer CD-ROM Technical Support.

Before calling, please have the following information available:•␣ Type of computer and operating system•␣ Version of Windows or Mac OS being used•␣ Any error messages displayed•␣ Complete description of the problem.

(It is best if you are sitting at your computer when making the call.)

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ExperientialLearningActivities

InventoriesQuestionnaires

and Surveys

Presentationand Discussion

Resources

Theories &Models

IndividualVolume 24

GroupVolume 25

ManagementVolume 26

OrganizationVolume 27

Volume 1

Volume 7

Volume 21

Volume 14

Volume 4

Volume 10

Volume 11

Volume 18

Volume 2

Volume 5

Volume 15

Volume 19

Volume 8

Volume 12

Volume 22

Volume 3

Volume 9

Volume 13

Volume 6

Volume 16

Volume 17

Volume 20

Volume 23

IndividualDevelopment

Communication

ProblemSolving

Groups

Teams

Consulting

Facilitating

Leadership

TrainingTechnologies

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The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ i

Experiential Learning Activities:

Communication

AwarenessBall Game: Controlling and Influencing Communication ........................................1

Ronald D. JorgensonHelping Relationships: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication ..............................3

Clarke G. CarneyOne-Way, Two-Way: A Communication Experiment ..............................................5

Adapted from H.J. LeavittThink-Feel: A Verbal Progression..............................................................................11

John E. JonesMixed Messages: A Communication Experiment....................................................13

Branton K. Holmberg and Daniel W. MulleneBlindfolds: A Partners Experience.............................................................................19

James I. Costigan and Arthur L. DirksLetter Exchange: Focus on Feelings ..........................................................................23

Arthur G. KirnRe-Owning: Increasing Behavioral Alternative .......................................................27

H.B. KarpSynonyms: Sharing Perceptions Between Groups ...................................................30

Phil LeamonWords Apart: Bridging the Communication Gap.....................................................32

Mark MaierE-Prime: Distinguishing Facts from Opinions..........................................................37

Gilles L. TalbotSupportive Versus Defensive Climates: How Would You Say . . .? .....................41

J.C. Bruno TeboulFeelings: Verbal and Nonverbal Congruence ...........................................................53

Stella Lybrand NormanBlivet: A Communication Experience.......................................................................58

Ken Myers, Rajesh Tandon, and Howard Bowens, Jr.Dominoes: A Communication Experiment ...............................................................66

Stephan H. PutnamGestures: Perceptions and Responses ........................................................................70

Stella Lybrand Norman

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeifferii ❘❚

In Other Words: Building Oral-Communication Skills...........................................77Editors

Maze: One-Way and Two-Way Communication.....................................................84Gilles L. Talbot

Pass It On: Simulating Organizational Communication..........................................89Linda Costigan Lederman and Lea P. Stewart

Babel: Interpersonal Communication ........................................................................97Philip M. Ericson

Taking Responsibility: Practice in Communicating Assumptions.........................99Gilles L. Talbot

Shades of Difference: Exploring Metaverbal Communication.............................104Arlette C. Ballew

Meanings Are in People: Perception Checking ......................................................112Jack N. Wismer

Let Me: Introducing Experiential Learning.............................................................118J. Allan Tyler

Bugs: Improving Customer Service .........................................................................123James W. Kinneer

Building TrustNonverbal Communication: A Collection of Activities ........................................126

EditorsDisclosing and Predicting: A Perception-Checking Activity................................128

Jacques LalanneDimensions of Trust: A Symbolic Expression........................................................131

James CostiganRisk Taking: A Perception Check for Partners.......................................................133

Karl G. Albrecht and Walton C. BoshearCurrent Status: A Feedback Activity on Trust........................................................136

Robert N. GlennIntimacy Program: Developing Personal Relationships........................................140

Adapted from S.M. JourardDialogue: A Program for Developing Work Relationships ..................................144

John E. Jones and Johanna J. JonesPartners Encounter: A Program for Developing Relationships............................158

John E. Jones and Johanna J. JonesPartners Renewal: A Program for Developing Ongoing Relationships ..............174

Colleen A. Kelley and J. Stephen ColladayWork Dialogue: Building Team Relationships.......................................................200

Judith F. Vogt and Karen L. Williams

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ iii

Coal to Diamonds: Learning the Good from the Bad ............................................216Marian K. Prokop and Daryl Anne Kline

ConflictConflict Resolution: A Self-Examination................................................................219

Joan A. StepsisFrustrations and Tensions..........................................................................................225

EditorsConflict Management: Two-Person Sharing...........................................................231

Marc RobertEscalation: An Assertion Activity............................................................................240

Colleen KelleyVMX Productions, Inc.: Handling Resistance Positively......................................243

H.B. KarpThe Decent But Pesky Coworker: Developing Contracting Skills ......................252

Larry PorterDefensive and Supportive Communication: A Paired Role Play.........................257

Gary W. CombsThe Parking Space: Relationships and Negotiating ...............................................267

Larry PorterQuality Customer Service: When the Going Gets Tough .....................................273

Bonnie JamesonConflict Role Play: Resolving Differences .............................................................281

Robert P. Belforti, Lauren A. Hagan, Ben Markens, Cheryl A. Monyak,Gary N. Powell, and Karen Sykas Sighinolfi

Resistance: A Role Play.............................................................................................288H.B. Karp

Time Flies: Negotiating Personal Effectiveness Through Assertion ...................296Michael Lee Smith

The Company Task Force: Dealing with Disruptive Behavior ............................307Susanne W. Whitcomb

Alpha/Beta: Exploring Cultural Diversity in Work Teams...................................316Steven R. Phillips

Common Ground: Intervening in Interpersonal Conflict ......................................326Jason Ollander-Krane and Neil Johnson

Thumbs Up, Thumbs Down: A Conflict-Management Icebreaker......................337Roger Gaetani

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeifferiv ❘❚

FeedbackBehavior Description Trios: Reading Body Language..........................................340

EditorsA Note to My Teammate: Positive Feedback .........................................................342

Deborah M. FairbanksIntrospection: Personal Evaluation and Feedback..................................................345

Dennie L. SmithSculpturing: An Expression of Feelings..................................................................348

L.A. McKeown, Beverly Kaye, Richard McLean, and John LinhardtAdjectives: Feedback .................................................................................................350

John E. JonesThe Gift of Happiness: Experiencing Positive Feedback......................................352

Don KeyworthGroup-on-Group: A Feedback Experience..............................................................355

EditorsPin Spotter: Practicing Positive Feedback...............................................................357

M. Nicholas MannCoins: Symbolic Feedback........................................................................................361

J. William PfeifferPuzzlement: A “Mild” Confrontation ......................................................................363

Robert R. KurtzSeeing Ourselves as Others See Us: Using Video Equipment for

Feedback...................................................................................................................367Gilles L. Talbot

Cards: Personal Feedback..........................................................................................371J. Ryck Luthi

Developing Trust: A Leadership Skill .....................................................................373William J. Bailey

Feedback: Increasing Self-Perceptions....................................................................380Cyril R. Mill

Gaining Support: Four Approaches..........................................................................383Juliann Spoth, Barry H. Morris, and Toni C. Denton

I Am, Don’t You Think?: Zodiac Feedback ...........................................................388Jane C. Bryant

Two Bags Full: Feedback About Managerial Characteristics ..............................401Alan R. Carey

Feedback Awareness: Skill Building for Supervisors............................................405Robert William Lucas

Analyzing and Increasing Open Behavior: The Johari Window..........................413Philip G. Hanson

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ v

The Art of Feedback: Providing Constructive Information ..................................421Stephen C. Bushardt and Aubrey R. Fowler, Jr.

Party Conversations: A FIRO Role-Play.................................................................429Charles L. Kormanski

The Portrait Game: Individual Feedback.................................................................434Ferdinand Maire

Feedback on Nonverbal and Verbal Behaviors:Building Communication Awareness ...................................................................436Gilles L. Talbot

Giving and Receiving Feedback: Contracting for New Behavior........................439John E. Jones

Lines: Understanding Goals and Performance Feedback......................................444Michael R. Larsen

ListeningPeter-Paul: Getting Acquainted ................................................................................451

Evan L. SolleyNot Listening: A Paired Role Play...........................................................................453

H.B. KarpRumor Clinic: A Communications Experiment......................................................457

EditorsListening Trios: Building Communications Skills.................................................460

EditorsActive Listening: A Communication-Skills Practice.............................................465

Jack N. WismerPoor Listening Habits: Identifying and Improving Them.....................................471

Joseph Seltzer and Leland HoweI’m All Ears: Enhancing Awareness of Effective Listening.................................477

James I. Costigan and Sandra K. TysonIn Reply: Responding to Feeling Statements..........................................................487

H. Frederick Sweitzer and Mitchell A. KoshNeeds, Features, and Benefits: Exploring the Sales Process ................................496

Bernie JamesonLevels of Dialogue: Analyzing Communications in Conflict...............................503

Gary Copeland

StylesSubmission/Aggression/Assertion: Nonverbal Components ................................510

Gerald N. Weiskott and Mary E. Sparks

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffervi ❘❚

The Candy Bar: Using Power Strategies .................................................................513Judy H. Farr and Sandra Hagner Howarth

Building Open and Closed Relationships................................................................522Adapted from William Barber

The Human Bank Account: Practicing Self-Affirmation......................................526Based on W.C. Boshear and K.G. Albrecht

Organizational TA: Interpersonal Communication................................................530Rich Strand and Frederic R. Wickert

Stating the Issue: Practicing “Ownership” ..............................................................539Arthur M. Freedman

Enhancing Communication: Identifying Techniques to Usewith Diverse Groups................................................................................................559Robert William Lucas

Go Left, Go Right: Identifying Work-Style Preferences.......................................565Cher Holton

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ 1

❚❘ BALL GAME: CONTROLLING ANDINFLUENCING COMMUNICATION

Goals

■ To explore the dynamics of assuming leadership in a group.

■ To increase awareness of the power held by the member of a group who is speakingat any given time.

■ To diagnose communication patterns in a group.

Group Size

Six to twelve participants. Several subgroups may be directed simultaneously.

Time Required

Approximately thirty minutes.

Materials

A ball or other convenient object for each group.

Process

1. The facilitator explains that in the following discussion session, the manner inwhich the participants will interact will be limited. He or she tells them thatpossession of the ball (or other object) that he or she is holding will determine whomay speak. The facilitator further explains that the participant with the ball mustkeep it until someone signals verbally that they wish to have it. The individualholding the ball may refuse to give it to a member who requests it.

2. If process observers are to be used, they are selected and briefed.

3. The facilitator announces a topic for the group to discuss, based upon the goalsand experiences of the group. It is important to ensure that significant interactionwill be generated. (Examples: silent members, expressing negative feedback,barriers to doing one’s job, reactions to the training session so far.)

4. The facilitator hands the ball to a participant, indicating that the discussion periodis to begin.

5. After fifteen minutes have passed, the facilitator indicates that the discussion isover.

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 4, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer2 ❘❚

6. The group processes the experience in terms of the power phenomena that emergein reference to the holder of the ball, frustrations involved in attempting to gain orhold this power, and the patterns of communication that emerge during thisexperience.

7. If process observers have been used, the facilitator asks them to provide feedbackfor the group.

Variations

■ The facilitator may wish to introduce a power play (or illustrate the lack of it) in thebeginning by placing the ball in the center of the group rather than with anindividual.

■ Participants can be given pencils and paper and be instructed to make notes tothemselves on the announced topic prior to the discussion period. (This affords themthe opportunity to crystallize their points of view and heightens participation.) Thefacilitator may direct that each participant must get the ball often enough to get all ofhis or her points into the discussion.

■ Two balls can be used, so that paired interaction is possible. Alternatively, thefacilitator may invite participants to toss the ball back and forth in confronting eachother. (This process can result in more effective listening.)

■ A ball of string is passed around and unwound as the experience progresses,resulting in a physical sociogram or interactiongram.

Submitted by Ronald D. Jorgenson.


❚❘ HELPING RELATIONSHIPS:VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Goals

■ To demonstrate the effects of posturing and eye contact on helping relationships.

■ To focus group members’ attention on the impact of their nonverbal behaviors onother individuals.

■ To teach basic nonverbal listening and attending skills.

Group Size

No more than twenty participants.

Time Required

Approximately thirty minutes.

Physical Setting

Movable chairs and open space.

Process

1. The facilitator introduces the experience by discussing the verbal and nonverbalaspects of communication, pointing out that although individuals seem to relyprimarily on verbal cues in their interactions, nonverbal cues (gestures, posture,tone of voice, etc.) are also important in communication. To reinforce this point, thefacilitator demonstrates how nonverbal cues can either contradict or confirm averbal message. To demonstrate contradiction, he or she approaches a groupmember and says, “I like you,” with his voice raised in anger and his handsclenched into fists. To demonstrate confirmation, he approaches the group memberand says, “I like you,” in a warm manner, followed by a hug.

2. The facilitator announces that the activity will consist of forming pairs andexploring the effects of different seating arrangements. The members of each pairare told to sit in different positions; as they assume each position they are to remainsilent and be aware of the effect of that seating arrangement.

3. Participants form pairs, and the facilitator directs them to sit back to back withouttalking. After the pairs have been sitting in this position for about a minute, thefacilitator directs them to sit side by side. After another minute, the pairs areinstructed to sit face to face.


4. After another minute, each pair discusses its reactions to the activity. The facilitatorelicits observations about the experience from the entire group.

5. The pairs are seated face to face and silently assume three body postures (oneminute each): slouched, straight, and leaning forward.

6. Each pair then discusses its reactions to the preceding round. The facilitator elicitsobservations about the experience from the entire group.

7. One partner assumes the role of helpee; the other partner assumes the role ofhelper.

8. While seated face to face, the pairs silently experience three different eye-contactsituations (one minute each):

■ The helper attempts to look the helpee in the eye while the helpee looks downor away.

■ The helpee attempts to look the helper in the eye while the helper looks down oraway.

■ The helper and the helpee have direct eye-to-eye contact.

9. Step 6 is repeated.

10. After processing the eye-contact experience, the facilitator leads a discussion ofthe participants’ overall reactions to the sequence of activities. The discussion isfocused on the integration and application of this learning.

Variations

■ Participants can be permitted to talk at any time during the experience. The talkingmay include counseling on “real” problems.

■ In the face-to-face situation participants can be directed to move their chairs to adistance that is most comfortable for them.

■ The process can be combined with a “group-on-group” design. One pair is seated inthe center of the group and goes through the activity sequence. The other groupmembers are instructed to observe the impact of the different positionings and toreport their observations.

■ Different pairs can be formed for each round of the activity.

REFERENCES

Danish, S.J., & Haner, A.L. (1973). Helping skills: A basic training program. New York: BehavioralPublications.

Ivey, A.E. (1971). Microcounseling: Innovations in interviewing training. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Submitted by Clarke G. Carney.


Inventories, Questionnaires, and Surveys:

Problem Solving

The Cognitive-Style Inventory .....................................................................................1Lorna P. Martin

The Concept of Learning Style...................................................................................19Ronne Toker Jacobs and Barbara Schneider Fuhrmann

Decision-Style Inventory.............................................................................................34Rick Roskin

Inventory of Barriers to Creative Thought and Innovative Action ........................46Lorna P. Martin

Locus of Control Inventory .........................................................................................58Udai Pareek

Phases of Integrated Problem Solving (PIPS)...........................................................72William C. Morris and Marshall Sashkin

Problem-Analysis Questionnaire................................................................................86Barry Oshry and Roger Harrison

Role Pics: Measuring Strategies for Coping with Role Stress................................95Udai Pareek

The TEM Survey ........................................................................................................114George J. Petrello


❚❘ THE COGNITIVE-STYLE INVENTORY

Lorna P. Martin

INTRODUCTION

In organizations the quantity and quality of cognitive behaviors—those associated withthe activities of thinking, learning, problem solving, and decision making—produce adramatic impact on productivity, performance, and potential for growth. The Cognitive-Style Model and its accompanying instrument, The Cognitive-Style Inventory, provide abasis for identifying the patterns of behavior that typify people’s approaches to thesecritical activities. The instrument identifies cognitive styles that imply preferred andconsistent patterns of responses that are both habitual and unconscious as well asdeliberate.

By introducing individuals, groups, and organizations to both the model and theinstrument, the human resource development (HRD) practitioner can accomplish thefollowing:

■ Help people to identify their own cognitive styles and to understand the benefits aswell as the drawbacks of all cognitive styles;

■ Teach people how to predict their own behaviors as well as those of others withregard to thinking, learning, and problem solving;

■ Prescribe developmental strategies that people can use to enhance their own cognitivestyles and/or to build strength in styles that they do not generally use;

■ Increase people’s skill and flexibility in various problem-solving situations; and

■ Facilitate the interactions between individuals and groups.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF THECOGNITIVE-STYLE MODEL

Theories about cognitive style were developed as a result of early studies conducted byWitkin, Lewis, Hertzman, Machover, Meissner, and Wapner (1954); Witkin, Dyk,Patterson, Goodenough, and Karp (1962); and Bruner (1966). These and other studiesresulted in theories that generally assumed a single dimension of cognitive style, with anindividual’s style falling somewhere on a continuum between the extremes of thisdimension. Many of the theories assigned a positive value to one of the extremes and anegative value to the other. The two extremes are described in general terms by Keen


(1973), McKenney and Keen (1974), and Botkin (1974): the systematic style (generallyviewed as “good” when a value is assigned) is associated with logical, rational behaviorthat uses a step-by-step, sequential approach to thinking, learning, problem solving, anddecision making; in contrast, the intuitive style (generally viewed as “bad” when a valueis assigned) is associated with a spontaneous, holistic, and visual approach.Subsequently, many studies, books, and journal and magazine articles on the subject ofcognitive styles have appeared, for example, Sargent (1981), Martin (1983), Buzan(1983), Wonder and Donovan (1984), and Latting (1985). Each addresses the samebasic elements identified earlier as the systematic and intuitive styles.

These theories can be linked with those of left-brain/right-brain thinking, whichfollow the same bipolarity pattern. Brain research in the late 1960s and early 1970sresulted in the discovery that the two sides of the brain are responsible for differentmental functions (Buzan, 1983). Taking brain theory one step further and linking it tothe concept of cognitive style, Wonder and Donovan (1984, p. 3) state, “Because of ourspecific genetic inheritance, our family life, and our early training, most of us prefer touse one side of the brain more than the other.” The types of behaviors associated withthe two sides are as follows (Wonder & Donovan, 1984):

1. Left brain: analytical, linear, sequential, concrete, rational, and goal oriented;and

2. Right brain: intuitive, spontaneous, holistic, symbolic, emotional, and visual.

A review of the material on both cognitive style and left-brain/right-brain theoryresulted in the following generalizations about cognitive styles:

1. There are distinct, observable, and measurable differences among people’scognitive styles.

2. Cognitive style can easily be detected through language and nonverbal behaviorpatterns. Dialogue between individuals can reveal differences and can highlightthe need for awareness and understanding of these differences.

3. Styles are frequently associated with career choices; therefore, there areconnections between behavioral styles and certain functions or divisions withinan organization. In fact, style can dominate an organization’s culture.

4, Styles take on connotations of “good” or “bad,” with one style generallyconsidered to be “better” or “best” depending on the individual interpreter orsystem evaluator.

5. There is a need to understand, recognize, and develop each area of cognitivespecialty.

6, Creativity and effectiveness can be increased when the bipolar dimensions arefused.

In addition, most of the recent studies regarding brain functioning and cognitivestyle assert the need to use each of the bipolar elements of the systematic and intuitive


styles (either by combining or alternating between them) in order to generate greaterperformance, productivity, and creativity.

EXPLANATION OF THE COGNITIVE-STYLE MODEL

Although the systematic and intuitive styles provided the foundation for The CognitiveStyle Model, these two styles had not previously been shown to reflect the entirespectrum of people’s behavior with regard to thinking, learning, and especially problemsolving and decision making. Therefore, a multidimensional model intended to reflectthe entire spectrum was created (Martin, 1983). This model consisted of two continua:(1) high systematic to low systematic and (2) high intuitive to low intuitive. Ongoingobservational studies, along with efforts to develop measurement devices for assessingcognitive behavior, have resulted in an expanded version of that original model. As aresult, the most current thinking is reflected and best illustrated by the grid presented inFigure 1.

Figure 1. Illustration of The Cognitive-Style Model

The five styles displayed on the grid in Figure 1 are described in the followingparagraphs. (The descriptions of the systematic and intuitive styles are based on Keen,1973; McKenney & Keen, 1974; and Botkin, 1974.)

1. Systematic style. An individual identified as having a systematic style is one whorates high on the systematic scale and low on the intuitive scale. According to findingsin the Harvard studies, an individual who typically operates with a systematic style usesa well-defined, step-by-step approach when solving a problem; looks for an overallmethod or programmatic approach; and then makes an overall plan for solving theproblem.

2. Intuitive style. An individual who rates low on the systematic scale and high onthe intuitive scale is described as having an intuitive style. Someone whose style isintuitive uses an unpredictable ordering of analytical steps when solving a problem,relies on experience patterns characterized by unverbalized cues or hunches, andexplores and abandons alternatives quickly.


3. Integrated style. A person with an integrated style rates high on both scales and isable to change styles quickly and easily. Such style changes seem to be unconscious andtake place in a matter of seconds. A result of this “rapid-fire” ability is that it appears togenerate an energy and a proactive approach to problem solving. In fact, integratedpeople are often referred to as “problem seekers” because they consistently attempt toidentify potential problems as well as opportunities in order to find better ways of doingthings.

4. Undifferentiated style. An individual rating low on both the systematic and theintuitive scale is described as having undifferentiated cognitive behavior. Such a personappears not to distinguish or differentiate between the two style extremes and, therefore,appears not to display a style. In fact, in a problem-solving or learning situation, he orshe may exhibit a receptivity to instructions or guidelines from outside sources.Undifferentiated individuals tend to be withdrawn, passive, and reflective and often lookto others for problem-solving strategies.

5. Split style. An individual rating in the middle range on both the systematic andthe intuitive scale is considered to have a split style involving fairly equal (average)degrees of systematic and intuitive specialization. At first glance the split style appearsto differ from the integrated style only in the degree of specialization. However, peoplewith a split style do not possess an integrated behavioral response; instead, they exhibiteach separate dimension in completely different settings, using only one style at a timebased on the nature of their tasks or their work groups. In other words, they consciouslyrespond to problem-solving and learning situations by selecting appropriate style.

Due to the fact that an assessment score identifying a split style generally indicatesan equal degree of both dimensions, it might be assumed that both dimensions would beequally exhibited. However, actual observational findings have not produced this result.As a rule, in stressful situations, one dimension appears to dominate, generally as aresult of habit. It has been significant that many individuals exhibiting this particularcognitive style have indicated that they were in the process of a cognitive transition;they were moving into a new area of cognitive specialization and were “trying out newbehaviors and skills.”

Figure 2 presents a more detailed overview of findings about the five styles fromformal as well as informal studies and data collections.

EFFECTS OF COGNITIVE SPECIALIZATION

There are indications that the result of extreme cognitive specialization in onedimension can drastically impact overall effectiveness in personal and professionalsituations. Extreme specialization may limit an individual’s or a group’s ability to think,learn, solve problems, and interact with others.


SYSTEMATIC STYLE

Descriptors ofStyle

LanguagePatterns

NonverbalPatterns

Projected CareerPositions

Convergentthinker

Concrete

Highly structured

Logical

Rational

Ordered

Linear

Step-by-stepapproach

Concrete on facts,figures, and data

Reduces problemsto workable segments

Product focused

Deductive

Very conscious ofapproach

Uses a well-definedmethod or plan forsolving a problem

Uses a highlysequential process

Handles a problemby breaking it downinto a series ofsmaller (oftenhierarchical andmanageablecomponents

“Let’s examinethe facts.”

“The dataindicate...”

“The specificobjectives mustbe measurable.”

“Here are mypoints: A, B, C,....”

“What’s yourrationale?”

“Where’s the logicin that?”

“Do the following:1, 2, 3,....”

“I have to figurethis out carefullybefore I can cometo a conclusion.”

Creates anendless list

Establishes achronologicalordering of stepsto be taken

Spends a greatdeal of time ondetail

Often belabors apoint or step of theprocess beforeproceeding to thenext step

Engineer

System analyst

Computerprogrammer

Productionmanager

Accountant

Purchasing agent

Personnelspecialist

Publicadministrator

Figure 2. Overview of Cognitive Styles1

1 This overview was inspired was inspired by Keen, 1973; McKenney and Keen (1974); and Botkin, 1974.


INTUITIVE STYLE

Descriptors of Style Language Patterns Nonverbal Patterns Projected CareerPositions

Divergent thinker

Global

Abstract

Visual

Spontaneous

Concentrates on ideasand feelings

Emotion based

Process focused

Inductive

Not consciously awareof approach, but doesuse a method that isgenerally driven byexperience

Keeps the overallproblem in mindcontinually

Frequently redefinesthe problem

Looks at ‘the bigpicture’ or the entiretyof the problem

"Somehow my gut tellsme...."

"I have a sense that...."

"Let’s look at the wholepicture."

"You’re not looking atthe big picture."

"The solution is simple."

"Common sensedictates...."

"I see the answer but Idon’t know how I got it."

Very visual approach

‘Plays’ with (pores over)data

Can appear to bedisorganized

Thinks with eyes, has tosee the problem, veryfrequently draws orgraphically displays theproblem or alternativesolutions

Advertising agent

Marketing manager

Graphic artist

Counselor

Therapist

Figure 2. (continued) Overview of Cognitive Styles


INTEGRATED STYLE


Has highly developed,dual cognitivespecialties

Is highly flexible andadaptable; alternateseasily and quickly fromone style specialty toanother

Exhibits high degrees ofinternal locus control

Looks for opportunitiesto solve problems

Creative, innovative

Proactive

“I’m just as concernedabout the process as Iam about the product."

"Before we establishmeasurable objectives,we should develop aphilosophy, a vision ofthe future. Ourobjectives should beconsistent with thatphilosophy."

"I have the answer, butneed to determine howI arrived at it."

Active

Alert

High participation andinvolvement

Frequently acts asfacilitator or interpreterof language in groups

Appears to becomfortable with"disorganizedorganization"

Entrepreneur

Consultant

Researcher

UNDIFFERENTIATED STYLE

Receptive

Is not a problem-solvingspecialist; does notexhibit a specificspecialty

Passive, reflective

Relies heavily on rules,procedures,instructions,suggestions, orguidelines

Reacts to the problemstimulus and does notimpose a process onthe problem

Has difficulty makingdecisions

Procrastinates; delaysaction

"I don’t need to knowthe whys, whens, andwherefores....Just tellme what you want meto do."

"I don’t ask questions; Ijust do what I’m told."

"Tell me exactly whatyou want to have done."

Passive, mostlynonverbal

Reflective

Low involvement

Confluent

Waits patiently forspecific directions

Bookkeeper

Administrative assistant

Clerical worker



SPLIT STYLE


Has approximatelyequal degrees ofsystematic and intuitivestyle that areaverage/medium interms of degrees ofintensity.

Styles are used ascompletely separateentities.

Styles are not at allintegrated and areconsciously selected foreach specific situation

Out of habit, one styleis used often than theothers.

Pattern changesaccording to the stylebeing used at the timeof observation.

Generally an individualwith a split style is inthe process of acognitive transitioninvolving building newstrengths and skills inthe dimension that isperceived to the weakerof the two (systematicor intuitive).

Pattern changesaccording to the stylebeing used at the timeof observation.

Generally an individualwith a split style is inthe process of acognitive transitioninvolving building newstrengths and skills inthe dimension that isperceived to the weakerof the two (systematicor intuitive).

All careers


Effects on the Individual

Cognitive style specialization—particularly in systematic, intuitive, and undifferentiatedstyles—appears to limit one’s ability to fully function in learning and problem-solvingsituations. In many cases individuals whose styles are specialized are highly successfulin most endeavors but have a blind spot in the ways in which they take in information,sort the data, and ultimately respond.

The same blind spots appear in conversations and interactions between individualsor groups that specialize in different cognitive styles. The dialogue frequently becomesstilted and often breaks down. Barriers and misunderstandings between individualsoccur due to the differences in methodologies and language or nonverbalcommunication patterns. Differences in cognitive specialization also can lead to poorperformance reviews, conflict situations, and a lack of “job fit” or match between anindividual and an organization. Indeed, the success of the “fit” between an individualand a group or an organization can be predicted by the degree to which the cognitivestyles match. Once a group or an organization becomes characterized by a particularstyle, it may begin to reward that style exclusively; for example, managers might insistthat subordinates use the same processes or approaches that they use. In such a situationpeople whose styles are different from the organization’s may be labeled “resistant,”“stubborn,” “weird,” or even “incompetent”; consequently, they may find it difficult oreven impossible to succeed in the organization.


When such a bias occurs within an organization, often it is in favor of thesystematic style, which is generally associated with the left side of the brain. Wonderand Donovan (1984) describe this phenomenon as follows:

Researchers refer to the left brain as the dominant hemisphere and the right as the nondominantone, because the skills of the left brain are dominant in our society. Money, technology, efficiencyand power are thought to be the rewards of leftbrain planning. (p. 14)

In an industrial and highly technological society, systematic ability is critical;therefore, the systematic style has become favored. Yet innovation is fostered by theintuitive style.

Effects on the Work Group

Differences in style among members of a work group can also create difficulties inachieving goals. Cognitive-specialization differences in groups frequently result inprocess and communication problems. If severe enough, the problems can causecommunication breakdowns, which, in turn, can lead to spending a great deal of time onthe process of problem solving rather than on accomplishing the task with the greatesteffectiveness. In a few isolated cases when the degree of cognitive difference is extreme,the group members sometimes experience a mental “logjam.” The group becomesimmobilized and gets stuck, actually unable to proceed. If the problem of differences issevere enough and the group has the option to do so (as may be the case with a taskforce), it may choose to terminate its efforts.

However, when differences and similarities among cognitive styles in a group arerecognized and taken into consideration, a type of synergy can be created. This synergyresults when the group honors the efforts of each of its members to use his or herparticular cognitive expertise in those stages of the problem-solving process where it ismost appropriate. For example, systematics and intuitives might work together on thefirst phase of the problem-solving process (problem identification). Then the intuitivesmight use a divergent approach by expanding all of the problem possibilities in order toidentify all potential problems. Subsequently, the systematics might employ aconvergent approach, using the intuitives’ list to identify realistic problems. Ultimately,the focus of the group’s problem-solving activity would become more and more narrowand specific until a problem statement could be generated.

Another type of synergy is created when a group’s members all share the samecognitive style and begin to work on a task that requires a methodology characteristic ofthat style. In this case members easily understand one another’s language and readilypick up on nonverbal cues. As a result they communicate and work well together.However, it is important to understand that the opposite result also could occur when themembers share one style. For example, the group might find it necessary to complete anassignment that requires behaviors characteristic of an opposite style.


Effects on the Organization

Organizational systems can sometimes experience the difficulties brought about bycognitive-style specialization of entire divisions. For example, one young, newlyappointed vice president of a well-known publishing company explained that she washaving a great deal of difficulty managing her work unit. She reported behaviors ofresistance, sabotage, and raging battles that she described as an ongoing war. She was incharge of coordinating the activities of the Production Division (a function characterizedby a systematic style) and the Marketing and Advertising Division (a functioncharacterized by an intuitive style). Her performance evaluation and position weredependent on her ability to instill and maintain peace and harmony between the twodivisions. What she did not know and was surprised to discover was the notion thatthese two groups essentially spoke different languages and thought and acted indistinctly different ways. As a result, each division perceived the other as “misfits.”Once she understood the implications of their cognitive-style differences, she couldaddress the problem.

THE INSTRUMENT

The Cognitive-Style Inventory consists of forty statements, half of which pertain to thesystematic style and half to the intuitive style. Respondents evaluate each statementaccording to the degree to which they agree with it. Subsequently, the respondentstransfer their responses to the scoring sheet, which yields a systematic score and anintuitive score. These scores are then transferred to the interpretation sheet, whichallows them to determine to what degree they specialize in systematic and intuitivestyles. Finally, they locate their scores on the scales provided in the interpretation sheetto identify their own specific styles.

Validity and Reliability

The Cognitive-Style Inventory has face validity. Because it is used primarily as a basisfor discussion of the effects of cognitive style on individual, group, and organizationalfunctioning, no attempt has been made to establish validity and reliability beyond thispoint.

Administration

The instrument, the scoring sheet, and the interpretation sheet can be completed by mostrespondents in approximately twenty to thirty minutes. It is advisable to follow scoringand interpretation with a lecturette and discussion on cognitive styles. If the HRDpractitioner prefers, respondents may be instructed to complete the instrument, listen tothe lecturette and participate in the discussion, and then predict what their styles will bebefore they complete the scoring and interpretation sheets. If the practitioner wants therespondents to practice identifying styles, he or she may distribute copies of Figure 2


from this paper; cover the contents with the respondents; and then show a videotape of agroup problem-solving session, asking the respondents to monitor verbal and nonverbalpatterns and to identify individual styles.

Uses of the Instrument and the Model

The HRD practitioner can play an important role in helping an organization tounderstand, appreciate, and expand the range of cognitive behaviors used by itsmembers. To fulfill this role, the practitioner can administer The Cognitive-StyleInventory and explain the model to organizational members for the following purposes:

1. Raise people’s awareness of the significance of cognitive styles in general and oftheir own in particular. Organizational members need to learn the benefits and liabilitiesassociated with each specific style, particularly as it interacts with other styles. Botkin’s(1974) study suggests that an individual’s awareness of his or her own cognitive stylecan improve that person’s ability to communicate and interact with others.

2. Help people to develop the skills, attitudes, and behaviors associated with stylesthat they do not typically use. According to Buzan (1983), research has shown that asynergistic effect takes place in all mental performance when an individual develops onemental area (either the systematic or the intuitive style) that was previously consideredto be weak. The HRD specialist can provide training and development activities toenhance people’s present styles and/or to build each person’s underutilized or weakerstyle. For instance, a seminar on creativity that focuses on lateral thinking and creativeproblem-solving techniques such as brainstorming and visualization would greatlybenefit people with a systematic style while supporting those with an intuitive style.

3. Train people to be facilitators and/or advisors in the problem-solving process ofa work group or a task force. These individuals would become familiar with both TheCognitive-Style Model and the inventory and would act as interpreters or evennegotiators in groups as needed in order to bridge the gap of cognitive differences. Thisstrategy would be particularly useful in helping groups to deal with conflict. In addition,these people could be trained in team-building strategies so that they could assist groupsin developing better intragroup relationships.

4. Use individual style similarities and differences in team-building sessions toexamine interaction “pinch points” and “synergy points” in order to establish groupguidelines. The HRD specialist, through process observation, could identify when andhow cognitive barriers occur in the problem-solving process and could then offerpreventive and prescriptive measures.

5. Form task forces or product-innovation groups whose members are identified asspecialists in specific cognitive styles. This approach would “champion” creativedesigns from the inception phase to introduction in the marketplace. The HRDpractitioner could help to create such groups throughout an organization (much like“quality circles”) in an attempt to foster a cultural change geared toward innovative


responses. Training and development activities could build and integrate systematic andintuitive skills, both of which are needed for creative growth.

6. Determine whether the organization as a whole, practices a cognitive-stylespecialization. The HRD specialist could provide management-development programsto address the issue and build the skill base that is needed. A single style throughout anorganization imposes limitations; consequently, the practitioner could conductinterventions designed to alter the culture to foster change.

REFERENCES

Botkin, J.W. (1974). An intuitive computer system: A cognitive approach to the management learning process.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

Buzan, T. (1983). Use both sides of your brain. New York: E.P. Dutton.

Keen, P.G.W. (1973). The implications of cognitive style for individual decision-making. Unpublished doctoraldissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Latting, J.E. (1985). A creative problem-solving technique. In L.D. Goodstein & J.W. Pfeiffer (Eds.), The 1985annual: Developing human resources (pp. 163-168). San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.

Martin, L.P. (1983). Examination of the relationship of multidimensional analytic cognitive behaviors andmultidimensional sex-role behaviors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University,University Park, Pennsylvania.

McKenney, J.L., & Keen, P.G.W. (1974, May-June). How managers’ minds work. Harvard Business Review,pp. 79-88.

Sargent, A. (1981). The androgynous manager. New York: AMACOM.

Witkin, H.A., Dyk, R.B., Patterson, H.F., Goodenough, D.R., & Karp, S.A. (1962). Psychological differentiation.New York: John Wiley.

Witkin, H.A., Lewis, H.B., Hertzman, M., Machover, K., Meissner, P.B., & Wapner, S. (1951). Personalitythrough perception: An experimental and clinical study. New York: Harper & Row.

Wonder, J., & Donovan, P. (1981). Whole-brain thinking. New York: William Morrow.


THE COGNITIVE-STYLE INVENTORY

Lorna P. Martin

Instructions: For each of the statements in this inventory, refer to the following scaleand decide which number corresponds to your level of agreement with the statement;then write that number in the blank to the left of the statement.

1 2 3 4 5Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree StronglyDisagree Agree_____ A. I get a “feel” for a problem or try to “see” it before I attempt a solution.

_____ B. I analyze a problem or situation to determine whether or not the facts addup.

_____ C. I create pictorial diagrams/visual images while problem solving.

_____ D. I have a classification system (“pigeon holes”) where I store informationas I solve a problem.

_____ E. I catch myself talking out loud as I work on problems.

_____ F. I solve a problem by first “spotlighting” or focusing on the critical issues.

_____ G. I solve a problem by first “floodlighting” or broadening the scope of theproblem.

_____ H. I attack a problem in a step-by-step, sequential, and orderly fashion.

_____ I. I attack a problem by examining it in its entirety before I look at its parts.

_____ J. The most efficient and effective way to deal with a problem is logicallyand rationally.

_____ K. The most efficient and effective way to deal with a problem is to followone’s “gut” instincts.

_____ L. I carefully solve a problem by ordering, combining, or building its parts inorder to generate a solution for the whole problem.

_____ M. I carefully solve a problem by examining it in its entirety, in relationshipto its parts, before I proceed.

_____ N. All problems have predetermined, “best or right” answers in a given set ofcircumstances.

_____ O. All problems are open ended by nature, allowing for many possibleanswers or solutions.

_____ P. I store volumes of data in my memory, much like a computer, bycompartmentalizing each entry for easy recall.

_____ Q. I store a lot of data in my memory by adding to the image that is already


1 2 3 4 5Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree StronglyDisagree Agree

there and then determining how the information “fits” (like therelationship between a jigsaw puzzle and its individual pieces).

_____ R. Before solving a problem, I tend to look for a plan or method of solving it.

_____ S. I generally rely on “hunches,” gut feelings, and other nonverbal cues tohelp me in the problem-solving process.

_____ T. I generally rely on facts and data when problem solving.

_____ U. I create and discard alternatives quickly.

_____ V. I generally conduct an ordered search for additional information andcarefully select the sources of data.

_____ W. I consider a number of alternatives and options simultaneously.

_____ X. I tend to define the specific constraints of a problem early in the problem-solving process.

_____ Y. When analyzing a problem, I seem to jump from one step to another andback again.

_____ Z. When analyzing a problem, I seem to progress from one step to another ina sequential way.

_____ AA. I generally examine many sources of data, letting my eyes “play” over theinformation while searching for guiding clues.

_____ BB. When I work on a problem involving a complex situation, I break it into aseries of smaller, more manageable blocks.

_____ CC. I seem to return to the same source of data several times, deriving differentinsights each time.

_____ DD. I gather data methodically, at a chosen level of detail, and in a logicalsequence.

_____ EE. I generally sense the size and scope of a problem to produce the “wholepicture.”

_____ FF. When I solve a problem, my approach is detailed and organized; as aresult, arriving at a solution is generally a time-consuming process.

_____ GG. I am able to solve a problem quickly and effectively; I do not spend agreat deal of time on the problem-solving process.

_____ HH. I have an excellent memory and a good aptitude for mathematics.

_____ II. I am comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.

_____ JJ. I would describe myself—and so would others—as predictable andreliable.


1 2 3 4 5Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree StronglyDisagree Agree_____ KK. I have an abundance of ideas and an inquisitive nature.

_____ LL. It is my nature to avoid “making waves” with change.

_____MM. I would describe myself—as would others—as a risk taker.

_____ NN. I am comfortable with the status quo; “new ways” are not always betterways.


THE COGNITIVE-STYLE INVENTORY SCORING SHEET

Instructions: Transfer your inventory responses to the appropriate blanks below. Addthe numbers in each column, and record the totals in the blanks provided.

______ A. ______ B.

______ C. ______ D.

______ E. ______ F.

______ G. ______ H.

______ I. ______ J.

______ K. ______ L.

______ M. ______ N.

______ O. ______ P.

______ Q. ______ R.

______ S. ______ T.

______ U. ______ V.

______ W. ______ X.

______ Y. ______ Z.

______ AA. ______ BB.

______ CC. ______ DD.

______ EE. ______ FF.

______ GG. ______ HH.

______ II. ______ JJ.

______ KK. ______ LL.

______ MM. ______ NN.

_____________ _____________

Total Intuitive Total SystematicScore Score


THE COGNITIVE-STYLE INVENTORY INTERPRETATION SHEET

Place an “X” in the appropriate block to indicate your degree of cognitive specialization.


Instructions: Scan the numbers listed below, one style at a time, until you find a stylethat lists your degree of systematic specialization as well as your degree of intuitivespecialization. The style that lists both is your own cognitive style. For each style, themore extreme degrees of that style are listed at the top.

Systematic Score Intuitive Score

Systematic Style High > 81

High > 81

Medium High 71-80

Low < 60

Medium Low 61-70

Low < 60

Intuitive Style Low < 60

Medium Low 61-70

Low < 60

High > 81

High > 81

Medium High 71-80

Integrated Style High > 81

High > 81

Medium High

High > 81

Medium High 71-80

High > 80

Undifferentiated Style Low < 60

Medium Low 61-70

Low < 60

Low < 60

Low < 60

Medium Low 61-70

Split Style Medium High 71-80

Medium High 71-80

Medium Low 61-70

Medium Low 61-70

Medium High 71-80

Medium Low 61-70

Medium High 71-80

Medium Low 61-70


Presentation and Discussion Resources:

Groups and Teams

Types of GroupsTypes of Growth Groups ...............................................................................................1

John E. JonesA Look at Quality Circles............................................................................................10

H.B. KarpOutstanding Performance Through Superteams.......................................................18

Julia Pokora and Wendy BrinerQuality Circles: After the Honeymoon......................................................................26

Edward E. Lawler III and Susan A. MohrmanGeneral Inclusion Groups Versus Individual Initiative Networks .........................38

Stanley M. Herman

Group ProcessTherapeutic Intervention and the Perception of Process .........................................45

Anthony G. Banet, Jr.Interaction Process Analysis .......................................................................................58

Beverly Byrum-GawMajor Growth Processes in Groups............................................................................64

John E. JonesGroup Size as a Function of Trust..............................................................................69

Patrick Leone

Behavior and Role in GroupsDefense Mechanisms in Groups .................................................................................72

Paul ThoresenGuidelines for Group Member Behavior...................................................................74

J. William PfeifferTranscendence Theory.................................................................................................78

J. William PfeifferSynergy and Consensus Seeking ................................................................................85

John E. JonesHidden Agendas............................................................................................................88

Editors

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 13, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeifferii ❘❚

The Shadow of Organization Development..............................................................90Stanley M. Herman

Role Functions in a Group.........................................................................................101Donald Nylen, J. Robert Mitchell, and Anthony Stout

D-I-D: A Three-Dimensional Model for Understanding Group Communication .......................................................................................................104

David G. SmithStructure as an Integrative Concept in Management Theory and Practice .........108

Joan A. StepsisTolerance of Equivocality: The Bronco, Easy Rider, Blockbuster, and Nomad.......................................................................................................................121

Robert C. RodgersDiagnosing and Changing Group Norms ................................................................125

Daniel C. FeldmanHumor and the Effective Work Group.....................................................................135

Jean M. WestcottDiversity and Team Development............................................................................139

Claire B. Halverson and Guillermo CuéllarCreating and Motivating Effective Teams: The Challenge...................................147

William A. Snow

Group DevelopmentTORI Theory and Practice.........................................................................................154

Jack R. GibbA Model of Group Development..............................................................................162

John E. JonesCog’s Ladder: A Model of Group Development....................................................166

George O. CharrierYin/Yang: A Perspective on Theories of Group Development ............................172

Anthony G. Banet, Jr.Accelerating the Stages of Group Development ....................................................192

John J. SchererGroup Energy, Group Stage, and Leader Interventions.........................................203

C. Jesse Carlock and Beverly Byrum-GawIssues Present when Entering a System...................................................................215

Richard HensleyA Situational Leadership® Approach to Groups Using the Tuckman

Model of Group Development...............................................................................218Chuck Kormanski

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 13, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ iii

Stages of Group Development..................................................................................229Peter P. Fay and Austin G. Doyle

Fostering the Effectiveness of Groups at Work......................................................233Patrick J. Ward and Robert C. Preziosi

Team Building and Team DevelopingTeam Building.............................................................................................................247

Anthony J. Reilly and John E. JonesTeam Development: A Training Approach.............................................................263

Lawrence N. SolomonTeam Building from a Gestalt Perspective..............................................................279

H.B. KarpA New Model of Team Building: A Technology for Today and Tomorrow......284

Chuck Kormanski and Andrew MozenterThe Search for Balance: Team Effectiveness .........................................................300

Tom Noonan

Techniques to Use with GroupsContracts in Encounter Groups.................................................................................306

Gerard EganCybernetic Sessions: A Technique for Gathering Ideas........................................320

John T. Hall and Roger A. DixonCommon Problems in Volunteer Groups ................................................................327

Ed BancroftThe Delphi Technique: A Projection Tool for Serious Inquiry............................332

Richard L. BunningVideotape Techniques for Small Training Groups.................................................342

Jerry L. FryrearMeeting Management.................................................................................................348

David R. NicollA Structured Format for Improving Meetings........................................................353

Jack J. RosenblumToward More Effective Meetings.............................................................................357

Mike M. MilsteinVideo-Enhanced Human Relations Training: Self-Modeling and Behavior

Rehearsal in Groups ................................................................................................362Jerry L. Fryrear and Stephen A. Schneider

From Vision to Reality: The Innovative Process....................................................375Michael Stanleigh

❚❘ TYPES OF GROWTH GROUPS

John E. Jones

In the field of human relations training there is considerable confusion overterminology among both professionals and the public. The most obvious exampleof a failure to use a common language is the term, “sensitivity training.” To somepeople that term connotes brainwashing, manipulation, and a host of other horridactivities. To others the term refers to a technology of helping people to grow inself-understanding from analyzing their experience in social situations. To othersthe term carries the meaning, “feel and reveal.” There are many otherconnotations attached to the term sensitivity training, and, because it has suchsurplus meaning, it is for all practical purposes a garbage term. There is a need forconsumers of groups—that is, prospective participants and people who hiregroup consultants—to have realistic expectations when they elect to invest inthe group approach. There are important differences among various categories ofgroups commonly found in the human potential movement, and it is very usefulfor the public to understand what those differences are.

A major reason why making distinctions among the various types of groupscan be useful is that the various group strategies are not equally appropriate in alllearning situations. The counseling group can be highly appropriate as anintervention in the lives of young people in school, where the emphasis is on theirpersonal development; whereas, a more therapy-oriented approach may place toogreat an emphasis on personal deficiencies or may be inappropriate for a varietyof other reasons. There are also political reasons why distinctions among differenttypes of groups are important. The counselor in the school is taking a large risk ifhe describes his counseling groups as T-groups, since most parents are notequipped to understand the distinction and may have been propagandized by themass media to think negatively of the T-group experience.

Some of the distinctions among the more common types of groups found inthe human-potential movement today are very real in practice, and some have anaura of arbitrariness about them; that is, the distinctions are in terms of degreerather than kind. An analogy may help. There are two times during the day whenwe cannot say for sure whether it is day or night: At dawn and during thetwilight hours we cannot say with complete confidence that it is day or that it isnight. Nevertheless, we find the two terms, day and night, to be enormouslyuseful. While there are rather large commonalities among T-groups, counseling

Originally published in The 1972 Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators by J.W. Pfeiffer & J.E. Jones (Eds.), San Diego,

CA: Pfeiffer & Company.

groups and other kinds of groups, there are some differences that are useful toexplore. These very often represent differences in the degree of emphasis on aparticular method or a particular learning goal, and often different types of groupslook similar and are experienced very much alike.

The dimensions that will be considered to differentiate the selected types ofgroups are goals, time orientation, the settings in which they are found, the rolesof facilitators, and the usual clientele to whom the group experience is offered.

MAJOR TYPES

The major types of groups that have been selected for analysis are the T-group(training group), the encounter group, the marathon group, the therapy group,and the counseling group. Figure 1 represents a summary of the major distinctionsbetween these types of groups. There is no attempt to make exhaustive lists ofthe variety of types of groups that are available in the human-potential movementtoday, such as developmental groups, emergent groups, transactional-analysisgroups, etc.

Figure 1. Summary of Types of Growth Groups

Training Groups

The major objectives of a T- or training group are awareness and skill building.The objectives center around helping the individual participants to grow inincreased awareness of their feeling experience, of their reaction to other people,of their impact on other people, of how others impact them, and in their awarenessof how people interrelate and of how groups operate. In terms of skills, theobjectives are to improve one’s ability to listen to people, to understand themempathically (to put oneself in their shoes, so to speak), to be more effective in

expressing what is going on with oneself, and to improve one’s own skill inresponding to other people when attempting to give them feedback. The majorgoals, then, are increased awareness and increased skills in interpersonal relations.The goals also include understanding group process (i.e., becoming morecognizant of trends, unacknowledged relations and communications, functionalroles, and so on). There are two major types of T-group trainers: those whoemphasize the personal growth of the individual participant in terms of awarenessand skills and those who take as their primary objective helping people to learnabout how groups operate, how societies form, and how communities develop.

In terms of time orientation, the T-group is distinguished from all the rest ofthe types that will be discussed in this paper by a rather rigid adherence to whatis called the “here and now.” There is no history-taking, no story-telling, and nofuture-planning activity. The entire energy of the group is focused on theimmediate present, trying to find that reality, and discussing it openly with eachother.

T-groups are most commonly found in educational and business settings. Theeducational settings are usually in teacher training, in-service education, andhigher education. Very little T-group work is done, as such, with elementary andsecondary school students. In fact, it can be argued that the T-group is largely aninappropriate intervention into the lives of children and early and middleadolescents. It is generally felt that the giving and receiving of open, honestfeedback about feeling reactions to one’s behavior requires that the participantshave a certain amount of ego strength and stability in their view of themselves. T-groups have long been a part of managerial training; however, in recent yearsthere has been a retrenchment from wide (occasionally indiscriminate) use of T-groups in industries. Managers and other people in business and industryexperienced subtle coercion into participating in T-groups, and the effects of T-groups on managerial development were sometimes negative, or at least notpositive. The development of a set of theories and strategies called organizationdevelopment has largely supplanted the misuse of T-groups in business andindustry; however, the appropriate use of them can be found as a part of therepertoire of organization development specialists and consultants in the businessand industrial arena.

The role of the facilitator in a T-group is to participate and to provide someleadership in helping people to get in touch with themselves and to share openlywith each other. Two major approaches that T-group trainers use are modelingand scanning. These ideas are described most aptly by Schein and Bennis (1965).The T-group trainer who models is a person who tries to be as open as he or shecan be, gives feedback, solicits feedback, and tries to be, in short, an idealparticipant. This trainer does not run things, but simply attempts to be as openand sensitive as possible. The T-group trainer who adopts the role of scanner is aperson who participates less as a person and more as a professional. This is aperson who monitors the dynamics of the group’s development and comments on

the processes that he or she sees. This trainer is more aloof from the interaction,more authoritative in approach, and likely to be a person whose major interest ismore in getting people to learn some model of social interaction than in gettingpeople to be more open and sensitive. Both modeling and scanning are necessaryto group training to various degrees, depending on the needs of the individualgroup, and many T-group trainers assume both roles with varying emphasisduring the life of the group.

The clientele for T-groups is that broad range of people who are colloquiallycalled “normal.” Egan (1970) describes some of the psychopathology of beingnormal in Encounter. For purposes of this discussion, the term “normal”describes that person who gets along in everyday existence without significantassistance from other people. His or her level of coping is sufficient to accomplishhis or her objectives. In addition, this is a person who does not ordinarily distortthe reality of the situations in which he or she finds himself or herself. There is noprecise technical definition of normality that has been agreed on by those in thehelping professions. What we are concerned with in the T-group are people whoencounter and respond appropriately to everyday concerns. The T-group is not aplace for a person who is under a great deal of psychological stress or who isincapable of understanding reality the way most people do.

The T-group, then, functions primarily toward the individual’s developmentand awareness of interpersonal skills and is restricted to the immediate present. Itis found primarily in educational and business settings. Facilitators tend to be apart of the process as people and focus by modeling and scanning oninterpersonal issues and group development. The T-group experience is designedprimarily for the broad range of people called normal. It consists of ten to fifteenpeople who begin work for about twenty to thirty hours in a highly unstructuredway, usually with no ground rules. They develop and discuss a structure as itemerges in the group. The kinds of interactions that take place are encountersbetween people and the sharing of feeling reactions to the interpersonal behaviorthat occurs. The attempt is to get people to try new behavior, to try new ways ofrelating to one another, and to share emotional reactions to the behavior thatspontaneously occurs in the group setting. The technology that is often usedconsists of lectures, skill-building games such as listening activities, process-observation experiences, games, simulations, and other activities. But the core ofthe learning experience is the unstructured T-group meeting, in which memberstake responsibility for their own learning and participate in a free, give-and-takeof feeling reactions to one another’s behavior. There is little or no attempt to tryto discover why people behave the way they do; rather the emphasis is onstudying the effects of behavior and exploring alternative behaviors that mightbe more effective.

A major distinction is made within T-groups between content and process:what is talked about and what happens in the group. Another major distinctionthat is drawn within T-groups is between thinking and feeling. Participants learn

that what they think and what they feel may not be highly correlated. The majoreffort of the T-group is to help people share their feeling experience of eachother.

Incidentally, the intent of the T-group is diametrically opposed to the intentof brainwashing in that the T-group is an exercise in democratic interpersonalrelating, in which people become more free as a result of becoming more aware ofwhat they do to one another on an impact level. The intent is not to get people toconform, to cry, or to feel alike, but to increase a person’s freedom of choice andfreedom of behavior by giving him or her an accurate reading on the way he orshe comes across to other people and what other people do to him or her. Theemphasis is on learning in order for the person to run his or her own life moreeffectively.

Encounter Groups

The major goals of the encounter group are awareness and genuineness. Theencounter group differs from the T-group in that it has a relatively high emphasison helping the person to have a real experience of other people. The flavor isexistential, that is, the concern is not so much with the application of the learningas it is with the realness of the encounter between people. The major objectivesare to help the participants to get in touch with themselves more fully, moreauthentically; to help them relate that to other people more openly; and to helpthem be with other people in the world. Being-together-in-the-world in a veryopen, level way is presumed to have a justification of its own. There is relativelyless emphasis than in the T-group on skill-building and back-home application.

In terms of time orientation, the encounter group may be described as “hereand now plus.” A great deal of attention is spent looking at the immediate reality,but there is some story-telling. There is some sharing of one’s psychologicaldevelopment. It is permissible in the usual encounter group to talk about peoplewho aren’t there; ordinarily in the T-group that becomes forbidden. In theencounter group the major emphasis is on the present, but one may look at thepast and the future.

Encounter groups can be found almost anywhere. They are used in business,industry, schools, clinical settings, teacher training, and parent-effectivenesstraining, and they are independently offered by growth centers and others asisolated personal experiences.

The facilitator’s role in the encounter group is to model and to confront. Thefacilitator engineers confrontations in the sense of encouraging people to be moreopen than they ordinarily would be, more genuine, and more level in lookingdirectly at the interpersonal reality that emerges. He or she also participates in theinterchange, giving and receiving feedback.

The usual encounter-group facilitator would exclude no type of personarbitrarily. All sorts and conditions of people can be found in encounter groups,

from “normals” to therapy patients. On occasion encounter facilitators willrequire therapy patients to obtain prior permission from their therapists, butgenerally that is for legal protection rather than because of any design for thekind of interaction that will take place.

The encounter-group meeting tends to be emotionally charged. There isperhaps more attention given to extreme feelings of loving and aggression in theencounter group than in the T-group. The technology of the encounter grouptends to be more in the area of pair confrontation, touching, and nonverbalcommunication than in the T-group. Encounter group facilitators very ofteneschew T-group games and lecturettes and tend to use a wide variety ofnonverbal and fantasy techniques to generate the interpersonal-confrontationdata.

Marathon Groups

The major goal of the marathon group, as opposed to the major goals of either theT- or encounter group, is to deliberately strip away from the participants theirordinary defensive behavior, so that they are able to look at themselves moregenuinely than they might ordinarily.

The time orientation could be described in a manner similar to that of theencounter group (i.e., “here and now plus”). A good bit of attention is placed onlooking at the participants as they interact with other people in the marathonsetting, but the participants often develop histories of their psychologicaldevelopment and explore those with one another. The major distinguishingfeature of the marathon group is the time that the group consumes. Marathongroups take place in uninterrupted meetings generally of twenty or more hours.Some facilitators conduct marathons of less than twenty hours, but ordinarily atleast twenty hours of continuous interaction is planned. The rationale behind themarathon is that fatigue can serve to lower one’s need for defensiveness and thatgenuine, real behavior is more possible if one is able to stick with the task over along period of time. Meals are brought in, people excuse themselves to go to thebathroom, sometimes the facilitator reserves the right to take a break for briefperiods of rest, but the participants stay with the group throughout the time thatthe group is together in continuous meeting.

Marathon groups can be found in a variety of settings and are often not aseparate group experience but rather one phase of a total training design.Sometimes a marathon group is an intervention in a school, in a hospital, or with atherapy group. Some facilitators like to begin groups with a marathon session,and some teachers begin a course the same way. There is almost no limit on theportability of the idea.

The facilitator takes a slightly different role in a marathon group than in a T-group or encounter group. The facilitator is more likely in a marathon group toengage in direct confrontation. Depending on his or her theoretical persuasion, he

or she may also interpret some of the behavior of the participants in an analyticalway. At any rate, the facilitator’s major style tends to be to use direct, sometimesaggressive, confrontation.

The clientele of marathon groups can be almost anyone, since they may beintegrated into designs for other types of growth groups. The marathon groupcan be used as a very powerful intervention for therapeutic purposes, or it may beused to enhance the growth of essentially normal people. Sometimes groups aremade up of combinations of people who are psychotherapy patients and peoplewho are there primarily for their own personal growth and not for “treatment.”

Therapy Groups

There are endless varieties of approaches to group therapy, but there are somemajor distinctions between group therapy and other groups that have beendiscussed. One major distinction is that the goals of therapy groups generallyfocus on the increased coping ability of members. That is, the participants are ledin a therapy group to explore themselves in ways that will permit them to be moreeffective in their daily living, so that they will be less anxious, more capable ofmaking decisions, more capable of accepting responsibility for their behavior, lessdepressed, etc.

The time orientation of the therapy group differs from the three groups thathave been discussed in that in a therapy group a great deal of life-history data isdiscussed. The time orientation of the therapy group is primarily past and present.People talk through unresolved difficulties in their pasts and talk about their livesin the present because the goal of the therapy group is typically to improve thelife situation of a person in the immediate present.

Therapy groups are most commonly found in clinical settings (i.e., inhospitals, mental health centers, medical clinics, student health centers, etc.).

Ordinarily the therapy group is conducted by a doctoral-level therapistwhose role is to treat the participants or patients. The usual interaction that takesplace in the therapy group is for the therapist to treat people one at a time, withother group participants watching and helping. Some group psychotherapistsfunction differently by using group-process observations and interventions as atreatment strategy, but the usual procedure is individual treatment in a groupsession.

The clientele of therapy groups could be considered those people who aresignificantly below par in their level of ordinary, everyday coping. These peoplewould be considered non-normal in the sense that they require significantassistance from other people for them to solve their everyday problems.

Counseling Groups

There is probably as much variety among counselors as there is among grouppsychotherapists in the approaches that are used in their groups, but some broad

differences exist between counseling and any of the other four types of groupsthat have been discussed. On the dimension of goals, the counseling group isusually distinguished by its emphasis on effective planning. The counselinggroup has as its major objective helping people to learn to manage their lives moreeffectively. Members develop increased awareness of who they are, awareness ofwhat opportunities are available to them, and increased ability to make decisionsin planning their own development.

The time orientation of the counseling group is generally present and future.Persons talk through their normal development problems, but a great deal ofattention in counseling groups is placed on, “Where do we go from here?”

Counseling groups most commonly are found in educational settings fromthe elementary school through higher education. The facilitator in the counselinggroups has the job of helping group members to learn how to be helpful to oneanother. The facilitator perhaps does more teaching of effective groupmembership than do facilitators in other types of groups. He or she may also injectinto counseling groups a great deal of educational and vocational information.His or her job as an intervener in group meetings is to help people to acceptresponsibility for helping their peers. Counseling groups are designed to facilitatethe orderly development of normal people who are experiencing the same kindsof problems that most people do.

NEW DEVELOPMENTS

These broad distinctions among the most common types of growth groups are notintended to be precise but to be illustrative of trends in the human-potentialmovement. It is significant that there is overlap among such groups. Suchcommonalities stem in large part from the major commitment among groupfacilitators to find new ways to enhance the personal growth of the generalpopulace.

Four streams of activity are taking place in the human-potential movement. Anumber of people are doing some highly creative work in developing groupapproaches that will facilitate sensory awakening, sensory awareness, and self-expression on the part of people whose adult-life situations do not permit themthe freedom of learning about themselves and being genuine with one another. Asecond stream is in education—both within institutions and in the free educationmovement—to find new ways of using group approaches to get away fromteacher-centered, highly structured classroom interaction. A third area ofconsiderable activity is in finding new ways of working with clinical populations,those people who are hospitalized, those who are out-patients in various clinics,and so on. A number of people are working on ways of borrowing fromeducation models and from the experimental work that is being done in growthcenters ideas that may be useful in accelerating the treatment of persons whoneed interpersonal assistance to develop effective coping. A fourth stream of

activity that is a vital part of the human-potential scene is the infusion of all theseactivities into organization development and into working with people withintheir work settings. A number of business and industrial officials are now comingto see that there are responsibilities on the part of the corporations for thepersonal development of employees, and a number of corporations areexperimenting with life-planning laboratories, counseling, career development, T-groups, encounter groups, and so on, with people in their natural workenvironments, with the people that they interact with day by day.

There will be a continuation of confusion within the human-potentialmovement as new group models are developed, but the person who is thinkingabout participating in a group or hiring people who work in groups asconsultants can make some order out of what appears to be chaos by taking intoaccount the dimensions that have been stressed in this paper. Of thosedimensions the single most important is goals. The consumer of groups needs tohave a good sense of what the learning goals are of the group he or she iscontemplating. The technologies of groups are nothing but means toward ends.The ends, or goals, vary depending on the facilitator and the type of group withwhom he or she is working.

Perhaps the most significant commonality among the types of groups that arebeing experimented with today is that they are all designed to be helpful toparticipants. It may be that we are on the verge of redeveloping the culture in away that permits groups of people to be supportive of each other.

REFERENCES

Egan, G. (1970). Encounter: Group processes for interpersonal growth. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Schein, E.H., & Bennis, W.G. (1965). Personal and organizational change through group methods. NewYork: John Wiley.

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 27, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ i

Theories and Models:

Organization

OrganizationalAction Research..............................................................................................................1Applied Strategic Planning............................................................................................6Attraction-Selection-Attrition .....................................................................................17Bureaucracy...................................................................................................................21A Causal Model of Organizational Performance......................................................24The Congruence Model of Organizational Behavior...............................................36Designing Organizations To Cope with Task Uncertainty......................................40Differentiation-Integration Theory of Organizational Design................................46Excellence......................................................................................................................53Faster Cycle Time.........................................................................................................60The Hawthorne Studies................................................................................................66Information-Processing Theory of Organizational Design .....................................70Job Enrichment .............................................................................................................74Matrix Management .....................................................................................................76Mayo and the Human-Relations Movement .............................................................84A Model for Innovation ...............................................................................................86Open Systems................................................................................................................94Open-Systems Theory..................................................................................................98Organizational Climate ..............................................................................................103Organizational Culture...............................................................................................109Organizational Neuroses............................................................................................112Organizational Roles..................................................................................................117The Organizational Universe ....................................................................................121Organizationally Centered Structure........................................................................131The Origins of Organizational Hierarchy................................................................133Participative Diagnosis, Design, and Implementation...........................................136The Pluralistic/Political Model .................................................................................145Productivity-Potential Model....................................................................................152Scientific Management ..............................................................................................156The Seven-S Framework ...........................................................................................158The Six-Box Model....................................................................................................160Sociotechnical Systems..............................................................................................167Strategy and Structure................................................................................................175

The Pfeiffer Library Volume 27, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeifferii ❘❚

Stream Analysis ..........................................................................................................181Superleadership...........................................................................................................186System 4.......................................................................................................................190Task Analysis..............................................................................................................194Wellness Benefits in the Workplace ........................................................................201Work-Redesign Model...............................................................................................207

ChangeAquarian Change ........................................................................................................211Functional Roles of Change Agents.........................................................................215Models for Designing and Implementing Change..................................................223Open-Systems Planning for Change ........................................................................232Organizational Change...............................................................................................236Organizational Renewal.............................................................................................241Strategic Management of Change.............................................................................247Strategies of Change...................................................................................................252

ConsultingDepth of Interventions ...............................................................................................263Five Types of Management-Consulting Firms .......................................................267Flawless Consulting ...................................................................................................274A Gestalt Approach to Consulting ...........................................................................278The Lippitts’ Consulting Model ...............................................................................284The Organization-Development Cube .....................................................................290Types of Organizational Consulting ........................................................................293

❚❘ ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is a time-honored procedure for systematically improvingorganizations. As early as the 1940s, Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier(1945) described his use of the action-research model in interventions forimproving race relations. Social-psychology pioneer Kurt Lewin (1946) usedaction research in projects to improve intergroup relations and to promote theconsumption of less-desirable cuts of meat during the food-rationing years ofWorld War II.

To this day, action research is an essential tool for behavioral scientists whoare conducting organizational-improvement interventions. In their classictextbook on the technology of organizational improvement, Wendell L. Frenchand Cecil H. Bell (1984) call action research “the basic intervention model thatruns through most organization development efforts.”

French and Bell define action research in two ways, as “organizationdevelopment” and as “expert.” They define the organization-developmentapproach as:

...the application of the scientific method of fact-finding and experimentation topractical problems requiring action solutions and involving the collaboration andcooperation of scientists, practitioners and laypersons. The desired outcomes of theactionresearch approach are solutions to the immediate problems and a contribution toscientific knowledge and theory. (pp. 109-110)

One way in which organization-development (OD) consulting can bedistinguished from expert consulting is OD’s requirement that members of theorganization identify and solve their own problems. The OD consultant resists thetemptation to offer expert advice on how to solve the problems, therebyempowering members of the organization and gaining their commitment tosolutions. (People tend to support solutions that they have created more stronglythan they support externally imposed solutions.) Action research is an idealinstrument for consultants who are encouraging groups to take responsibility fortheir problems because the methods of action research allow the consultants tohold objective mirrors before the organizations as their members experiment withsolutions. Action research is more than action to solve problems, and it is morethan abstract research; it is a hybrid of both.

ACTION RESEARCH AND OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCHPeter A. Clark suggested a taxonomy of research that gives some perspective tothe concept of action research. Clark’s taxonomy (1972, p. 10) identifies fiveclasses of research:

1. Pure Basic, which deals with a “theoretical problem arising in basicdiscipline”;

2. Basic Objective, which concerns a “general practical problem arising inmany contexts”;

3. Evaluation, which tackles a “practical problem (e.g., the success oftraining schemes)”;

4. Applied, which explores a “practical problem (e.g. job enrichment)”experienced by the organization that is sponsoring the research; and

5. Action, which studies a “practical problem with theoretical relevance” onbehalf of the organization that is sponsoring the research, the scientists,and the OD practitioners.

Clark’s fifth category is consistent with the second definition of actionresearch offered by French and Bell. Viewing action research as a process, Frenchand Bell (1984) define it as:

...the process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing systemrelative to some objective, goal, or need of that system; feeding those data back into thesystem; taking actions by altering selected variables within the system based both on thedata and on hypotheses; and evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data.(pp. 107-108)

USING THE ACTION-RESEARCH MODEL FORINTERVENTIONSNot all changes are improvements. The action-research model is a practical toolfor ensuring that planned changes in organizations actually are improvements.The figure on the next page illustrates how the action-research model could beused to structure the steps of an organization-development intervention.

In the first step, the consultant conducts preliminary research. (The action-research model refers to the “consultant,” which often connotes an outsider, butthe change agent for an organization-development project can be either anexternal consultant or an internal consultant.) In the case of an external changeagent, some of this preliminary research might amount to a marketing study inorder to find clients, but it also would include the casual and formal informationgathering that occurs during the initial meetings between client and consultant.For internal consultants, preliminary research occurs during the period of trustbuilding required to obtain managerial commitment to the change process. Duringthis period, the consultant learns about the organization’s problems and

opportunities and informs the client about the methods and anticipated benefitsof the action research process. The preliminary research terminates with thepotential client’s decision about whether to engage the consultant’s services forthe change effort. If the potential client does not accept the consultant’s offer,the intervention stops. If the client says “yes,” the climate-setting phase begins.

The Action-Research Model

During the climate-setting phase, the organization and the consultantbecome acquainted; and the action research is designed by the client and by thechange agent, who acts as a behavioral-science-process expert. The action-research design is similar to that of an experiment, except that the subjects of thisstudy (the members of the organization) obtain much more advance knowledgeabout research treatments and hypotheses than do the subjects of conventionalexperiments. The members of the organization, as subjects, also will participate inperiodic revisions of the experiment’s design—another point of departure fromconventional research methodology.

After the climate-setting and design phases, members of the organization andthe consultant cooperate to collect data about the organization and its interfacewith its environment. These data can take many different forms. For example, in acomprehensive organization-development project that was conducted in adepartment of a city in southern California, the OD team collected data aboutemployee satisfaction, supervisory practices, job design, productivity (efficiency),performance (output), and citizen satisfaction with the department’s services(Gross, 1979; Paul & Gross, 1981).

Next, the data are communicated to the members of the organization. Often,the data feedback will take place in team-building sessions. This allowsorganization members to view the organization’s problems and opportunitiesobjectively. Ideally, the data feedback will lead to concrete problem identificationand analysis.

Using the data feedback, members of the organization plan actions to solveproblems and to maximize the organization’s opportunities. Finally, theorganization implements the recommended actions.

The action steps are intended to improve the functioning of the organization;however, there is no guarantee that plans will accomplish their intendedpurposes. Organizations’ social and physical environments probably will change;today’s solutions are not necessarily adequate responses to tomorrow’schallenges. Therefore, the next step of the action-research process is to evaluatethe effects of the intervention, particularly to determine how well the interventionworked and whether future changes are advisable.

The action-research model is a closed-loop system; that is, after theevaluation, the next step is to recycle through the process. The action-researchintervention then begins again with a contracting phase to determine whetherthe client wants to continue through another full cycle of the process.Presumably, if the process was cost-effective (returning greater benefits than itsmaterial and nonmaterial costs), the organization would want to repeat theprocess. Clearly, action research is not a “quick fix” or a “patch up” for ailingorganizations. Instead, action research is an ongoing process of renewal fororganizations that wish to optimize their health.

REFERENCESCollier, J. (1945, May). United States Indian administration as a laboratory of ethnic relations. Social

Research, 12, 275-276.

Clark, P.A. (1972). Action research and organizational change. London: Harper & Row.

French, W.L., & Bell, C.H. (1984). Organization development: Behavioral science interventions fororganization improvement (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gross, A.C. (1979). Human factors in productivity improvement: Vol. 1: Case study. San Diego, CA:City of San Diego.

Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 34-46.

Paul, C.F., & Gross, A.C. (1983). Increasing productivity and morale in a municipality: Effects oforganization development. In J. Straussman (Ed.), New directions in public administration. Monterey,CA: Brooks/Cole.

The Pfeiffer Library, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ 1

Index

Aabsenteeism, v23:196abstract-concrete orientation, v19:58ACHIEVE model, v26:105achievement, v6:293achievement motivation, v24:192achievement needs, v1:386; v24:192achievement of motivation, v19:25action planning, v1:366; v1:395; v1:403;

v1:407; v1:422; v1:445; v1:451; v1:470;v4:273; v4:296; v4:401; v7:420; v7:425;v7:430; v7:435; v7:445; v7:453; v7:459;v7:464; v7:497; v11:187; v11:213;v11:326; v11:334; v14:215; v14:286;v15:167; v16:515; v18:112; v18:293

action research, v27:1action-research models, v27:1active listening, v5:14Adler, v2:56Adler's theory, v3:147adult education, v25:171adult learning, v4:118; v14:326; v25:171;

v25:173adult learning cycle, v15:144adult-learning principles, v23:61advancement, v27:74adventure training, v17:349affection, v11:298affiliation needs, v1:386affinity diagram, v11:202affinity technique, v11:213affirmation, v1:375; v1:395agendas, v11:21; v11:25; v11:51; v11:244Alcoholics Anonymous, v24:187alderfer, v20:454alienation, v2:16Allport's theory, v3:1ambiguity, v13:121; v19:15; v27:40ambiguity in facilitation, v23:190ambiguity tolerance, v19:15American Sign Language, v4:118Americans with Disabilities Act, v17:349andragogy, v25:171

androgyny, v6:60; v24:1anger, v1:31; v6:318; v9:9; v24:107anger cycle, v24:107anger (dealing with), v5:111anger management, v6:318; v24:107anti-head bias, v23:1anxiety, v14:453applied behavioral analysis, v20:263applied behavioral science model, v9:243Applied Strategic Planning, v20:365;

v27:6applying, v21:2approach behaviors, v19:101approval, v3:161Aquarian change, v27:211arationality, v9:344archetypes of growth & development, v2:1Argyris' theory of action, v15:87art, v1:30assertion, v6:312assertion effectiveness, v6:312assertive response styles, v4:510; v6:312assertiveness, v4:240; v4:510; v6:312;

v6:340; v9:76assertiveness training, v6:340assertiveness-training model, v6:340assessment guidelines, v23:218assignment flexibility, v10:328; v10:333assumptions, v1:187; v1:204; v1:215;

v1:253; v1:309; v4:99; v4:112; v4:144;v4:225; v7:282; v18:127

attitudes, v12:1attraction-selection-attrition cycle, v27:17attribution theory, v6:293audiovisual aids, v23:201audiovisual aids in human resource

development, v23:201audiovisual-aids presentation guidelines,

v23:201auditory perceptions, v24:53authentic management, v26:113authoritarian behavior, v18:427autonomy, v3:161; v23:196; v27:263

The Pfeiffer Library, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer2 ❘❚

avoidance behaviors, v19:101awareness, v14:46; v24:158awareness models, v24:122Awareness Wheel, v3:50; v24:122

BBaby Boomers, v1:356bargaining, v10:442; v10:445; v10:448BARS, v18:112basic-assumption groups, v12:133behavior, v5:1; v20:284behavior modeling, v6:271; v17:56behavioral assumptions, v24:118behavioral change, v3:38; v3:119; v3:161;

v3:222; v3:252; v3:257; v3:427; v6:212;v6:328; v13:45; v13:64; v13:72; v13:90;v13:101; v13:104; v13:125; v16:18;v16:534; v20:18; v24:32; v24:118;v24:145; v24:167; v24:171; v24:173;v24:178; v24:187; v24:228; v24:237;v25:255; v26:60

behavioral clarity, v9:270behavioral contracts, v4:252behavioral models, v24:118behavioral norms, v15:100behavioral objectives, v4:37behavioral versatility, v6:105behavioral-change models, v24:178behaviorally anchored rating scales,

v18:112behaviorally based performance

appraisal, v20:183behavioral-science utilization, v16:247behaviorism, v3:157behavior-management strategies, v20:263Belbin, Meredith, v13:300benchmarking, v6:443bias, v1:187; v1:204; v1:234; v1:253;

v1:274; v1:279; v1:289; v1:299bias identification, v14:150bilateral-brain theory, v24:5Bion's theory, v12:133birth order, v3:147blind spots, v25:39body language, v6:44; v25:50boss/employee relationships, v6:293brain functions, v26:27brainstorming, v7:18; v7:110; v11:202;

v26:1

brainstorming rules, v26:1breakthroughs, v26:64Bridges, v7:492Bucket Model, v6:37bureaucracy, v27:21burnout, v2:16; v3:425business process management, v9:396business process reengineering, v9:396

Ccareer analysis, v2:160career anchors, v24:242career assessment, v1:77career change, v3:359career development, v1:482; v2:75;

v2:181; v3:359; v14:65; v20:439;v24:265

career goals, v1:494; v2:181; v7:497career management, v19:1career planning, v1:77; v1:371; v1:378;

v1:395; v1:445; v1:451; v1:470; v1:482;v1:494; v2:181; v3:296; v3:312; v3:319;v3:341; v3:359; v7:479; v18:205; v19:1;v24:242; v24:261; v24:265; v24:271

career stages, v3:319career-development systems, v2:181career-planning instruments, v24:242career-planning models, v24:242case studies, v21:39; v23:90case studies defined, v21:122case studies in human resource

development, v21:122case studies in program development,

v21:127case-study development, v21:136case-study method history, v21:122case-study notes for the facilitator,

v21:136case-study preparation, v21:127case-study presentation, v21:127case-study procurement, v21:136case-study purpose, v21:122case-study rationale, v21:122case-study releases, v21:136case-study research, v21:136case-study revisions, v21:136case-study selection, v21:127case-study writing, v21:136causal attribution, v3:137


causal models, v16:45; v27:24celebrations, v11:248centering, v3:226; v3:241CERES principles, v16:483change, v1:439; v1:470; v9:404; v10:181;

v16:509; v20:469; v23:61change agents, v9:256; v9:263; v9:270;

v9:286; v9:317; v9:324; v14:13; v14:24;v15:109; v15:266; v17:337; v27:236

change cycle, v7:492; v25:181change designing, v27:223change dynamics, v9:263; v14:449change implementation, v9:317; v9:331;

v27:223change management, v9:263; v9:307;

v9:313; v9:317; v9:344; v9:364;v27:215; v27:247

change models, v27:223change process, v9:302change readiness, v19:15change strategies, v9:286; v9:302; v9:372;

v14:13; v27:252; v27:263change-agent models, v9:256change-agent roles, v9:256; v9:324;

v27:215change-agent style, v2:1change-implementation model, v9:331change-management models, v9:313change-process transactions, v9:302change-stability dilemmas, v27:232change-strategy models, v9:270changes in management, v20:316client contracts, v16:593; v16:596client identification, v14:346client interviews, v16:581; v16:626client needs, v14:150; v16:626client power, v16:596client-centered therapy, v25:59client-consultant communications,

v16:606client-consultant relationship, v15:197;

v16:596climate, v27:103closed communication, v4:522closure, v14:590coaching, v4:421; v6:230; v6:247; v6:271;

v6:293; v18:205; v20:210; v26:121

coaching-skills training, v6:271Coalition for Environmentally Responsible

Economies, v16:483codependence, v3:169; v16:70; v24:145co-facilitating, v17:103; v23:143; v25:173co-facilitating checklist, v17:103cognition, v2:45; v6:6; v6:37cognitive behavior, v8:1cognitive dissonance, v24:102cognitive maps for learning, v23:139cognitive-affection orientation, v19:58cognitive-style model, v8:1cognitive-style specialization, v8:1Cog's Ladder model, v13:166collaborating with other facilitators, v23:99collaboration, v1:508; v7:66; v7:122;

v7:127; v7:140; v7:155; v7:183; v7:218;v7:226; v7:265; v9:127; v9:131; v9:140;v9:211; v9:227; v10:25; v10:43; v10:43;v10:83; v10:212; v10:216; v10:222;v10:227; v10:233; v10:241; v10:247;v10:251; v10:257; v10:270; v10:275;v10:284; v10:295; v10:301; v10:310;v10:320; v10:456; v10:460; v11:147;v11:156; v11:395; v11:400; v13:375;v14:206; v14:249; v14:585

collaboration methods, v9:131collaborative power, v20:307command decisions, v8:34commitment, v11:288communication, v1:14; v1:356; v2:75;

v2:193; v4:216; v4:243; v4:273; v4:503;v4:559; v5:35; v5:118; v5:174; v6:142;v6:238; v6:437; v7:116; v7:144;v10:188; v10:194; v10:233; v10:241;v10:361; v11:218; v11:277; v11:352;v11:362; v13:233; v14:305; v16:70;v17:323; v18:219; v18:475; v18:502;v20:478; v25:1; v25:44; v25:80

communication activities, v21:39communication awareness, v3:50; v4:1;

v4:3; v4:5; v4:11; v4:19; v4:32; v4:37;v4:41; v4:53; v6:1; v6:6; v6:18; v6:22;v6:37; v6:44; v6:51; v6:53; v6:60; v6:75;v6:9

communication barriers, v4:477; v6:1;v6:69; v6:123; v6:155; v6:238; v25:44


communication collusion, v6:155communication effectiveness, v4:5; v4:11;

v4:13; v4:27; v4:30; v4:53; v4:58; v4:66;v4:70; v4:77; v4:84; v4:97; v4:99;v4:104; v4:112; v4:128; v4:131; v4:144;v4:240; v5:74; v5:83; v6:1; v6:6; v6:22;v6:32; v6:44; v6:44; v6:51; v6:69; v6:75;v6:81; v6:87; v6:95; v6:105; v6:123;v6:9; v6:155; v6:161; v6:238; v6:243;v9:9; v25:1; v25:44

communication in organizations, v4:89communication model, v6:95; v13:104;

v25:1communication modes, v6:22; v6:44;

v6:51communication networks, v25:80communication patterns, v6:53; v6:95;

v6:123; v6:367; v7:285; v14:6; v14:79communication skills, v6:22; v6:32; v6:44;

v6:9; v17:318communication style, v4:522; v5:83; v6:53;

v6:60; v6:69; v6:75; v6:81; v6:87;v6:105; v6:129

communication symbols, v6:44communication training, v6:271communication-network diagrams, v25:80communication-style flexibility, v6:81competence, v25:34competence assessment, v14:522competition, v7:66; v7:122; v7:127;

v7:140; v7:155; v7:183; v7:226; v9:127;v9:140; v10:21; v10:25; v10:43; v10:43;v10:51; v10:61; v10:74; v10:107;v10:148; v10:212; v10:216; v10:220;v10:231; v10:233; v10:257; v10:263;v10:270; v10:275; v10:284; v10:295;v10:301; v10:310; v10:320; v10:442;v10:460; v11:4; v11:395; v11:400;v11:411; v14:263; v16:134; v18:184;v18:376

conceptual-input interventions, v6:230conducting games, v21:177conducting role plays, v21:89configurational learning, v9:286conflict, v1:112; v1:116; v1:210; v1:212;

v4:326; v4:503; v17:318conflict management, v1:14; v4:337;

v5:35; v5:111; v7:102; v9:176; v9:180;Continued

(conflict management, cont.)v9:186; v9:189; v9:194; v9:200; v9:211;v9:218; v9:227; v9:238; v10:194;v10:379; v10:386; v10:393; v10:428;v11:371; v11:377; v11:390; v11:425;v11:427; v13:135; v16:70; v18:238;v23:190; v25:18; v26:80; v26:86;v26:94; v26:99

conflict modes, v26:99conflict prevention, v9:211; v9:218conflict resolution, v3:24; v3:257; v4:326;

v4:539; v6:362; v7:445; v10:369;v10:370; v10:379; v10:386; v10:393;v10:417; v10:428; v10:437; v10:460;v11:371; v11:377; v11:420; v11:425;v11:429; v18:238; v26:80; v26:94

conflict sources, v9:211conflict-management models, v9:227conflict-management strategies, v9:200;

v9:218conflict-management styles, v5:27; v9:194;

v11:377conflict-mode instruments, v26:99conflict-resolution strategies, v4:219;

v4:231; v4:252; v9:176; v26:80conflict-situation consulting, v15:13confrontation, v4:363; v4:530; v5:35;

v6:312; v6:318; v6:328; v6:340;v10:437; v23:190

confrontation effectiveness, v6:302confrontation strategies, v4:530; v6:328confrontation types, v6:302confrontations, v6:302consensus, v1:107; v1:138; v1:144;

v1:242; v1:266; v1:274; v1:317; v1:336;v7:83; v7:282; v7:285; v7:290; v7:304;v7:309; v7:314; v7:321; v7:326; v7:329;v7:342; v7:346; v7:351; v7:357; v7:363;v7:372; v7:385; v7:401; v7:403; v7:415;v7:435; v7:471; v10:417; v18:325

consensus decisions, v8:34consensus seeking, v13:85consensus-seeking methods, v13:85consensus-seeking techniques, v7:309;

v7:351; v7:363; v7:372construct formation, v6:187consultant collaboration, v16:462consultant marketing, v16:606consultant style, v15:13


consultant training, v15:13consultant-client differences, v14:142consultant-client relationship, v27:274consultant-marketing models, v16:606consultants, v3:416; v9:270; v16:284;

v27:274consultation decisions, v8:34consulting, v4:326; v14:1; v14:6; v14:9;

v14:13; v14:19; v14:24; v14:27; v14:37;v14:46; v14:56; v14:65; v14:72; v14:79;v14:142; v14:150; v14:154; v14:164;v15:230; v16:377; v16:515; v16:523;v16:564; v20:307; v27:278; v27:293

consulting diagnosis, v14:142; v14:174;v14:181

consulting effectiveness, v27:274consulting firms, v27:267consulting models, v20:195; v27:284consulting skills, v14:154; v14:164;

v14:188; v14:206; v14:215; v14:225;v14:233; v14:239; v14:249; v14:263;v14:346; v16:284; v27:274

consulting strategies, v16:384; v16:400;v16:406; v16:419; v16:435; v16:462;v16:467

consulting styles, v15:1consulting techniques, v16:462; v16:472;

v16:581contact cycle, v3:24content orientation, v15:120contingency theories, v9:227continuous improvement, v3:280;

v15:132contract approaches, v6:322contract guidelines, v6:307contract models, v17:212contract problems, v6:322contracting, v13:306; v13:327; v14:239;

v16:593; v16:596; v17:212; v23:132contracting checkpoints, v16:593contracts, v6:307; v6:322control, v20:23convenience decisions, v8:34convergence strategies, v25:5convergence-strategies models,

v25:5conviction, v20:510cooperation, v7:116

coping, v19:15coping skills, v7:492coping styles, v8:95cost-benefit analyses, v17:230cost-benefit forecasting, v17:230counseling, v20:263counseling guidelines, v20:151counseling skills, v3:97counseling style, v5:55CPM, v7:425; v26:54creative conflict management, v9:200creative problem solving, v7:23; v7:31;

v7:36; v7:98; v9:30; v9:60; v9:67; v9:91;v13:135

creativity, v3:161; v7:1; v7:3; v7:13;v7:18; v7:23; v7:31; v7:36; v7:56;v7:78; v7:98; v7:342; v8:46; v9:30;v9:60; v9:91; v9:364; v10:25; v11:202;v13:375; v14:442; v14:471; v16:523;v20:464; v24:9; v26:1; v26:71; v26:76;v27:86

creativity barriers, v9:60creativity scan, v16:523Creatrix Inventory, v3:390; v24:9credibility, v19:179crisis management, v9:307; v16:509critical numbers, v14:46critical path method, v7:425; v26:54cross-cultural groups, v5:174cross-functional groups, v5:174cultural awareness, v12:204; v16:636cultural context, v5:174; v12:21cultural diversity, v1:293; v4:316; v5:174;

v6:362; v16:349; v16:636; v20:254cultural stereotypes, v24:1cultural synergy, v20:163cultural transitions, v17:182cultural values, v6:362; v10:448culture, v9:344; v27:109; v27:112culture shock, v17:182customer bonding, v16:105customer satisfaction, v16:148customer service, v4:123; v4:496; v6:403;

v7:515; v16:105customer value, v16:105customer-service strategies, v6:403cybernetic sessions, v13:320cycle time, v20:428


Ddata analysis, v17:277; v23:67; v25:184;

v25:277data collection, v7:1; v7:276; v11:307;

v14:188; v16:435; v16:540; v16:581;v17:277; v17:362; v25:184; v25:272

data collection during training, v23:108data feedback, v6:168; v6:195; v13:247;

v13:263data processing, v7:1data utilization, v23:241data-collection methods, v23:241data-collection techniques, v17:277;

v23:67data-gathering techniques, v13:332;

v14:137death, v24:112decision acceptance, v26:10decision analysis, v26:49decision cycle, v26:7decision implementation, v26:7; v26:10decision making, v1:91; v1:107; v1:138;

v1:144; v1:200; v1:266; v1:279; v7:415;v8:34; v9:23; v11:213; v11:433;v14:117; v14:121; v15:197; v18:15;v18:29; v18:37; v18:127; v18:238;v18:299; v18:309; v18:376; v18:534;v26:7; v26:10; v26:15; v26:34; v26:49;v26:58

decision orientations, v24:39decision quality, v26:10decision style, v8:34; v26:10decision tree, v21:155; v26:34decision types, v26:10decision-cycle models, v26:7decision-tree models, v26:15defense mechanisms, v13:72defensive communication, v5:47defensiveness, v2:193delegating, v19:48delegation, v18:261; v18:270; v18:309;

v20:175delivery skills, v17:323dependency, v2:129; v3:6deroling, v21:89design dimensions, v23:108design skills, v23:99design skills in human resource

development, v23:61

designing organizations, v27:40design-skills bibliography, v23:260development role, v21:89development role-play techniques,

v21:112disability-awareness training, v14:272discipline, v18:54discontinuous futures, v3:341discrimination, v1:309; v17:343discussions, v23:90disruptive behavior, v9:189dissonance management, v24:180dissonance reduction, v24:102diversity, v1:91; v1:95; v1:196; v1:212;

v1:226; v1:271; v1:279; v1:285; v1:293;v1:299; v1:328; v2:141; v4:316; v4:559;v7:265; v12:1; v12:21; v12:196;v13:139; v14:272; v14:419; v14:435;v16:88; v17:318; v19:188; v20:163;v20:254; v20:284; v20:296

diversity awareness, v12:196; v12:204diversity interventions, v16:349diversity management, v6:129diversity training, v12:196; v20:296downsizing, v16:564; v20:464downsizing models, v20:392drawing, v4:5driving forces, v26:18dying, v24:112dysfunctional behavior, v3:169; v3:180;

v18:227; v23:196dysfunctional families, v24:145; v24:155dysfunctional systems, v16:77dysfunctions, v27:112

Eeconomic benefits, v17:230effective communication, v6:60effectiveness, v2:75effectiveness improvement, v16:221ego development, v3:60ego states, v4:530; v5:90; v25:63; v25:73;

v25:76ego/behavior distinction, v25:18ego-radius model, v1:403eight-systems model, v20:131emotional recovery, v24:97emotional responses, v3:129; v24:112emotional stages, v24:112


emotional styles, v25:84emotional tolerance limits, v3:129emotional-coping styles, v24:97emotions, v2:45employee assistance programs,

v20:263employee development, v6:279; v9:390;

v14:286; v18:205; v20:469Employee Effectiveness Profile, v27:152employee empowerment, v15:212employee involvement, v26:188employee morale, v9:410; v15:279;

v16:564employee orientation, v19:48employee satisfaction, v25:34; v27:74employee selection, v27:17employee self-control, v12:58empowered organizations, v15:28empowerment, v7:430; v12:58; v15:28;

v15:87; v15:279; v17:343; v18:333;v19:70; v20:397; v26:152

empowerment readiness, v15:28encounter groups, v13:306encounter-group checklist, v13:306encouragement, v6:238; v6:243energizers, v14:362Enneagram, v16:57; v20:284entrepreneurial characteristics, v19:25environmental consulting, v16:483environmental factors, v27:66environmental impact, v16:483environmental management, v16:483environmental recycling, v16:483envisioning, v11:313; v11:317equal employment opportunity, v17:349equivocality tolerance, v13:121Erikson's eight ages of man, v24:70ethical considerations in using

instruments, v22:1ethical dilemmas, v15:197ethics, v16:189; v18:1; v18:8; v18:20;

v18:24; v18:29; v18:37evaluation, v17:362; v17:373; v17:383;

v17:393; v18:119; v18:293; v25:229evaluation designs, v17:362; v17:373;

v17:393evaluation dichotomies, v23:218evaluation irrelevant, v23:218evaluation models, v17:393

evaluation predesign issues, v23:218evaluation procedures, v23:241evaluation purpose, v23:218evaluation timing, v23:218evaluation types, v23:218evaluation-planning model, v17:373evaluations, v14:519; v14:583evaluation-skills bibliography, v23:260evaluative study reporting, v22:91event-implementation considerations,

v23:67excellence, v27:53; v27:158excellence model, v16:324exclusion, v1:246executive-development training designs,

v23:122expectancy model, v17:65expectancy theory, v17:65; v24:199;

v24:199expectations, v1:518; v24:199; v24:199experience-based activities, v21:48experiencing, v21:2experiential education, v23:61experiential learning, v4:118; v17:1;

v17:11; v17:31; v17:123; v17:304;v25:171; v25:196

experiential learning cycle, v15:144;v17:149; v17:158; v21:2; v25:196;v25:222

experiential learning model, v23:183experiential lectures, v23:21; v23:90experiential training, v23:139experiential-learning designs, v17:123experiential-learning models, v17:31experiential-learning processing,

v23:183experiential-lecture guidelines, v23:21experiential-lecture uses, v23:21experiential-lecturette sample, v23:38experiential-training elements, v23:139experiential-training materials, v23:139experiential-training physical setting,

v23:139experiential-training terms, v21:59experiment results reporting, v22:91experimental investigations, v22:91experimental learning, v25:255experimental studies constituents, v22:76experimental studies in training, v22:76


experimentation, v3:24experiments to evaluate training, v22:76external consultants, v16:284

Fface-to-face selling, v16:606facilitating, v25:173; v25:196; v25:206facilitating awareness, v14:481facilitating closings, v14:569; v14:571;

v14:573; v14:579; v14:581; v14:583;v14:585; v14:587

facilitating fantasy, v17:135facilitating feelings, v14:451facilitating focus groups, v14:137; v16:540facilitating functions, v17:119facilitating imagery, v14:483facilitating learning, v14:449; v14:457;

v14:460; v14:464; v14:467facilitating methods, v17:47facilitating models, v17:47facilitating openings, v14:361; v14:362;

v14:364; v14:366; v14:368; v14:371;v14:375; v14:381; v14:383; v14:386;v14:388; v14:390; v14:392; v14:395;v14:397; v14:400; v14:404; v14:408;v14:410; v14:413; v14:415; v14:419;v14:421; v14:424; v14:428; v14:430;v14:433

facilitating role playing, v17:158facilitating simulation games, v17:193;

v21:239facilitating strategies, v17:103; v17:119;

v17:149; v17:158; v17:172; v17:182;v17:193; v17:212; v17:230

facilitating techniques, v17:115; v17:123;v17:135; v17:206; v17:221; v17:242;v17:270; v17:277; v17:292

facilitating theory, v17:1; v17:31; v17:40;v17:56; v17:65; v17:71; v17:80; v17:135

facilitating trait awareness, v14:453facilitation, v16:540; v17:323facilitation skills, v14:481; v14:483;

v14:486; v14:489; v14:492; v14:494;v14:496; v14:498; v14:505; v14:506;v14:508; v14:519; v14:522; v14:541;v14:553; v14:559; v14:562; v20:273

facilitation techniques, v16:515facilitative changes, v17:80facilitative roles, v17:71

facilitator behaviors, v25:206facilitator effectiveness, v23:143; v25:206facilitator reentry, v17:115facilitator roles, v23:183facilitator style in presenting instruments,

v22:16facilitator training, v17:119facilitator/participant interdependence,

v23:190facilitators, v23:143facilitator's role, v17:31family relationships, v24:155family systems, v16:77family therapy, v24:155faster cycle time, v27:60Fayol's principles, v27:131fear, v3:252; v9:21feedback, v1:48; v1:60; v1:63; v1:66;

v1:70; v1:98; v1:135; v1:153; v1:196;v1:403; v1:414; v1:422; v1:451; v4:66;v4:133; v4:340; v4:342; v4:345; v4:348;v4:350; v4:352; v4:355; v4:357; v4:361;v4:367; v4:373; v4:388; v4:413; v4:434;v4:436; v4:444; v6:155; v6:161; v6:168;v6:187; v6:191; v6:195; v6:212; v6:219;v7:479; v10:2; v10:17; v11:73; v11:80;v11:89; v11:222; v11:230; v11:233;v11:236; v11:240; v11:246; v11:248;v11:252; v11:256; v11:261; v11:265;v11:268; v11:272; v11:277; v11:280;v11:283; v11:285; v11:288; v11:291;v11:295; v11:298; v11:301; v11:307;v11:309; v11:313; v11:322; v11:334;v11:345; v11:349; v11:390; v14:581;v14:583; v14:587; v14:590; v18:54;v20:273; v21:89; v25:22; v25:39;v25:134

feedback checklist, v6:175feedback designs, v6:195feedback effectiveness, v4:487; v6:191;

v6:219feedback elicitation, v6:161; v6:175feedback guidelines, v6:175; v21:227;

v25:22feedback in training groups, v21:227feedback presentations, v25:22feedback process, v6:168; v6:195feedback properties, v6:168feedback skills, v6:175; v6:219


feedback solicitation, v25:39feedback styles, v6:191feedback vs. conflict management, v6:212feelings about work, v12:116feelings accommodation, v24:97feelings awareness, v3:22; v3:50; v3:129;

v3:226; v3:241; v3:252; v3:257; v3:261;v3:312; v4:11; v4:23; v4:487; v4:526;v6:6; v6:32; v6:37; v6:123; v14:451;v14:457; v14:481; v14:573

feelings ownership, v24:115feelings-accommodation models, v24:97feeling/thinking statements, v24:115fight/flight defenses, v13:72figure/ground cycle, v3:22; v3:24figure/ground issues, v24:158; v27:278FIRO, v4:429FIRO behavior, v24:13FIRO theory, v24:13fishbone diagram, v11:202fishbowls, v14:496flawless consulting, v27:274flip-chart posters, v23:201flowcharts, v26:54flow-state management, v20:347focus groups, v14:137followers, v20:94force-field analysis, v7:459; v9:5; v14:1;

v26:18forecasting economic benefits, v17:230Freudian psychology, v3:157future search conference, v16:570

Ggame construction, v21:185game discussion, v21:177game evaluation, v21:173game facilitation, v21:177game introduction, v21:177game prework, v21:177game processing, v21:177game selection, v21:173game staffing considerations, v21:173game structures, v21:163game testing, v21:185game types, v21:163games, v21:39games in human resource development,

v21:163

games rationale, v21:163gap analysis, v1:445; v16:570gender bias, v18:127gender differences, v4:32; v24:75gender issues, v18:127gender roles, v19:188gender-related attitudes, v12:1; v19:188gender-related politics, v26:134generalizing, v21:2Generation X, v1:356gestalt, v1:23; v9:404; v20:115gestalt consulting, v27:278gestalt cycle of experience, v27:278gestalt methods, v3:24gestalt team building, v26:214gestalt therapy, v24:158gestures, v4:70getting acquainted, v11:248; v14:361;

v14:362; v14:364; v14:368; v14:371;v14:373; v14:375; v14:381; v14:383;v14:386; v14:388; v14:390; v14:392;v14:395; v14:397; v14:400; v14:404;v14:408; v14:410; v14:413; v14:415;v14:419; v14:421; v14:424; v14:428;v14:430; v14:433; v14:445; v14:457;v14:464; v14:486; v14:494

getting-acquainted activities, v23:108Gibb's theory, v4:41; v5:47glass ceiling, v18:127globalization, v1:344goal analysis, v26:137goal setting, v1:375; v1:395; v1:407;

v1:445; v1:451; v1:470; v1:518; v3:365;v7:464; v10:220; v14:486; v18:164;v24:192

goal-related activities, v23:99goals, v11:349; v23:108; v26:137;

v26:159graphics for presenting research results,

v22:91group acceptance, v13:215group awareness, v10:112; v21:39group behavior, v7:116; v10:43; v10:43;

v13:72; v13:74; v13:78; v13:85; v13:88;v13:90; v13:108; v13:121; v13:135;v25:94; v25:113; v25:139

group characteristics, v10:1; v10:12;v10:161

group collaboration, v9:131; v9:140


group communication, v10:122; v13:135;v25:80

group content-style interactions, v25:104group counseling, v12:34group creativity, v26:71group decision making, v1:317; v1:336;

v7:102; v7:508; v10:194; v10:295;v10:320; v10:370; v11:4; v11:168;v11:187; v18:241; v18:325; v18:372

group decision-making patterns, v7:321;v7:326; v7:329; v7:342; v7:385

group development, v10:6; v13:38;v13:58; v13:162; v13:166; v13:172;v13:203; v13:215; v13:218; v17:40;v25:88; v25:108; v25:118; v25:160;v25:173

group discussion, v14:496group dynamics, v10:21; v10:181;

v11:352; v11:433; v13:279; v16:540;v25:143; v25:155

group effectiveness, v13:233; v20:296group effects, v10:12group facilitation skills, v12:34group feedback, v25:134group formation, v14:390; v14:392;

v14:395group function, v10:188; v10:209; v25:94;

v25:130group growth process, v23:169group interaction, v25:84; v25:130;

v25:143group intervention, v13:45; v23:169group leader competency, v12:34group learning, v1:1; v1:42; v17:40group loyalty, v10:88group maintenance orientation, v12:157group maintenance roles, v13:101group norms, v4:345; v23:169; v25:134group norms developed from instruments,

v22:42group phenomena, v13:58group problem solving, v7:7; v7:36; v7:56;

v7:83; v7:90; v7:116; v7:122; v7:127;v7:140; v7:144; v7:155; v7:172; v7:183;v7:194; v7:218; v7:226; v7:250; v7:282;v7:285; v7:290; v7:304; v7:309; v7:314;v7:321; v7:342; v7:346; v7:351; v7:363;v7:372; v7:385; v7:401; v7:403; v7:435;

Continued

(group problem solving, cont.)v7:445; v7:453; v7:464; v7:471; v8:72;v9:15; v9:21; v9:23; v9:53; v9:99;v9:180; v9:186; v9:211; v10:194

group process, v10:1; v10:2; v10:6;v10:17; v10:21; v10:78; v10:107;v10:154; v12:34; v13:45; v13:58;v13:69; v25:94; v25:101; v25:108;v25:113; v25:118

group psychotherapy, v13:45; v13:45group relations, v10:74group relationships, v12:65; v12:133group roles, v13:101group skills, v10:194; v13:233group space, v25:101group stages, v13:233group stress, v11:15group structure, v25:101group style, v16:57group task activities, v21:39group task behavior, v3:60; v10:12;

v10:138; v10:227; v11:256group task orientation, v12:157group task roles, v13:101group therapy, v13:45group training, v13:1group values, v10:88group work-style interactions, v25:104group-behavior norms, v13:74; v13:125group-communication models, v13:104group-development acceleration, v13:192group-development facilitation, v13:203;

v13:218group-development models, v13:162;

v13:166; v13:172; v13:218; v25:88;v25:166

group-development processes, v25:166group-development stages, v13:162;

v13:166; v13:192; v13:203; v25:88group-development theories, v25:160group-development training, v13:192group-facilitators requirements, v23:143group-growth models, v13:64; v25:118group-interaction instruments, v25:143group-intervention guidelines, v23:169group-leader functions, v25:211group-leader interventions, v13:203group-member roles, v25:97group-membership identity, v13:215


group-on-group designs, v14:496group-session guidelines, v13:74group-structure-and-process models,

v25:101group-task planning, v13:121group-training models, v13:342group-work elements, v10:12groups-systems theory, v25:130growth groups, v13:1growth-group types, v13:1guided imagery, v1:40; v1:89; v14:483;

v21:39

Hharassment, v20:225Hawthorne effect, v27:66Hawthorne studies, v27:66; v27:70;

v27:84helping process, v25:59helping relationships, v5:55; v26:22helping skills, v26:22helping styles, v18:380; v18:502; v18:548helping-relationship models, v26:22here-and-now reactions, v14:451Herzberg, v20:454heuristics, v7:342hidden agendas, v7:83; v7:226; v10:29;

v10:83; v18:440hidden-agenda solutions, v13:88hierarchies, v27:21high-performance groups, v15:279high-performance organizations, v16:349;

v20:110high-performance quality model, v16:148high-performance teams, v13:300Hill Interaction Matrix, v25:104hiring practices, v18:325holistic concepts, v20:67holistic HRD, v16:207holistic OD, v16:207Hoshin planning, v20:131HRD climate, v15:51HRD concepts, v16:262HRD consulting, v16:284HRD goals, v16:262HRD history, v23:61HRD professionals, v17:71HRD systems, v16:262HRD systems designs, v16:262

HRD training, v16:207HRD trends, v16:275human development, v24:75; v24:88;

v24:91human interaction, v3:43; v3:341; v4:526;

v6:1; v6:370human nature, v3:1human needs, v24:205human performance technology, v16:362human problems, v22:67human relations, v13:90human relationships, v3:1; v3:43; v3:50;

v3:55; v3:60; v3:73; v3:97; v3:147;v3:180; v25:5; v25:18; v25:34; v25:48;v25:50

human resource development, v3:114;v16:362; v17:349

human resource development history,v23:61

human resources, v10:361; v16:134human traits, v22:1human-development models, v24:91human-development phases, v24:88;

v24:91human-needs models, v24:208human-relations models, v27:66; v27:70;

v27:84human-relations movement, v27:84human-service organizations, v16:406humanism, v3:157humor, v13:135; v17:206; v17:270humor consultants, v17:270hypotheses, v23:23

Iicebreakers, v4:337; v14:361; v14:366;

v14:373; v14:375; v14:383; v14:386;v14:388; v14:390; v14:392; v14:397;v14:400; v14:404; v14:408; v14:410;v14:421; v14:430; v14:435; v14:442;v14:445; v14:481; v14:494

idea generation, v7:110; v14:471idea-gathering techniques, v13:320illnesses, v27:201impressions, v1:309incentives, v10:345inclusion, v17:343; v20:23inclusive organizations, v16:349individual behavior, v19:179


individual change, v7:492individual development, v1:328; v3:280;

v13:38individual effectiveness, v8:58; v16:70;

v19:101individual initiative, v13:38individual performance, v2:104; v20:115individual traits, v15:230individual values, v18:325individuality, v20:296industrial enterprises, v27:175inferential process, v6:187influence, v3:55; v3:80; v5:90; v8:58;

v14:449; v19:179; v25:26; v26:131;v26:141; v26:156; v27:145

influence strategies, v25:26information age, v3:341information processing, v27:40information sharing, v4:216; v7:122;

v7:127; v7:140; v7:144; v7:155; v7:172;v7:183; v7:194; v7:218; v7:226; v7:250;v14:368; v14:397; v14:559; v16:70

information-processing models, v27:70innovation, v9:364; v13:375; v16:148;

v26:71; v26:76; v27:86innovation model, v9:364; v27:86input-throughput-output cycle, v27:98institutionalization of change, v9:331instructional design, v25:258instructional style, v15:243instructional systemic design, v25:258instructional systems, v25:215Instructional-Design Grid, v17:292Instructional-Design Model, v25:258instructional-development models,

v25:215instrument advantages, v22:1instrument development, v22:42instrument development sequence,

v22:42instrument dimensions defined,

v22:42instrument disadvantages, v22:1instrument evaluation, v22:25instrument generation, v22:42instrument impact, v22:25instrument scaling, v22:42instrument selection, v22:25instrument validation, v22:42

instrumentation, v23:90instrumentation in human resource

development, v22:1instrumentation in human resource

development research, v22:67instrumentation learning focus, v22:25instrumentation models, v22:25instrumentation presentation, v22:16instrumentation rationale, v22:1instrumentation research, v22:67instruments as part of overall training

designs, v22:16instruments defined, v22:1instruments in laboratory workshop

designs, v22:16instruments to measure trainer/learner

styles and orientations, v23:268instruments' primary uses, v22:25intensive growth groups, v23:90intensive small groups, v23:90interaction distances, v25:50interaction matrices, v25:104interaction process analysis, v13:58;

v13:58; v25:113interaction styles, v10:251interaction-process-analysis categories,

v13:58intercultural communications, v6:53interdependence, v1:344; v10:209;

v13:154; v15:296; v25:166intergroup conflict, v4:30; v9:218; v11:429;

v26:94intergroup issues, v11:395; v11:400;

v11:408; v11:411; v11:420; v11:425;v11:427

internal consultants, v16:284internal consulting, v16:377interpersonal behaviors, v5:131interpersonal communication, v5:83;

v5:111interpersonal competence, v25:34interpersonal conflict, v4:326interpersonal contracts, v6:307interpersonal effectiveness, v2:193interpersonal feedback, v4:526; v6:187;

v6:212interpersonal problem solving, v9:76interpersonal problems, v26:60interpersonal relations, v24:28


interpersonal relationships, v2:64; v4:429;v5:74; v5:104; v5:141; v5:160; v12:65;v12:183; v13:90; v19:143

interpersonal skills, v4:200; v5:83;v13:233; v17:318

interpersonal styles, v5:90interpersonal-relations orientations,

v24:58interpersonal-relations scale, v24:13interpreting results of experiments, v22:91interrole exploration, v3:204intervention depths, v23:190; v27:263intervention evaluation, v18:119intervention modes, v27:290intervention skills, v4:487; v6:230; v12:80intervention style, v19:37intervention types, v6:230interventions, v12:34; v14:506interviewing, v4:451; v18:45; v18:51;

v18:63; v18:66; v18:78; v18:94interviews, v14:188; v14:215intimacy, v3:6introductions, v14:364; v14:435; v14:442intuitive style, v8:1inventory, v1:33; v1:50; v1:66; v1:98;

v1:112; v1:160; v1:386Ishikawa diagram, v11:202iterative feedback, v20:273

Jjargon, v6:87jealousy, v3:252job aids, v9:372job analysis, v3:348; v16:472; v27:194job attitudes, v19:86job effectiveness, v3:248; v3:266; v24:251job enrichment, v27:74job performance, v14:280; v20:263job phases, v7:515job planning, v3:348job responsibilities, v16:207job satisfaction, v2:16; v27:103; v27:207job satisfaction/dissatisfaction, v24:213job stress, v24:256job training, v9:390job-aid development, v9:372Johari Window, v1:70; v3:230; v4:380;

v4:413; v5:1; v6:161; v25:39journaling, v1:28

journals, v24:171judgments, v1:309Jungian typologies, v24:19; v24:39

Kkenepathy, v6:37kinesis, v6:44; v6:53kinesthetic perceptions, v24:53Kirkpatrick, v18:119Kübler-Ross' five stages, v24:112

Llaboratory education, v3:372; v17:11laboratory facilitating, v17:11laboratory learning, v14:498laboratory-education designs, v17:11language barriers, v4:97language structure, v24:140lateral relationships, v6:386lateral thinking, v26:27leader behavior, v19:137leader effectiveness, v19:163; v26:141leader expectations, v26:129; v26:131leader intervention, v11:58leader-effectiveness models, v26:141leadership, v1:271; v1:274; v1:279; v2:64;

v2:75; v3:60; v3:180; v3:241; v3:244;v4:373; v6:60; v6:386; v7:83; v7:90;v7:102; v7:326; v7:453; v9:23; v9:189;v10:275; v11:9; v11:156; v11:246;v11:277; v11:301; v11:390; v11:411;v13:58; v13:69; v13:88; v13:104;v13:108; v13:154; v13:203; v13:218;v13:233; v14:553; v15:279; v16:324;v18:201; v18:227; v18:261; v18:270;v18:358; v18:367; v18:372; v18:376;v18:397; v18:433; v18:440; v18:455;v18:467; v18:475; v18:487; v18:490;v18:534; v18:548; v20:110; v20:115;v20:131; v20:478; v20:499; v20:510;v25:166; v25:211; v26:117; v26:129;v26:131; v26:141; v26:144; v26:148;v26:152; v26:156; v26:167; v26:173;v26:192; v27:186; v27:236; v27:241

leadership behavior, v20:110; v26:148leadership continuum, v26:144leadership effectiveness, v20:115leadership evaluation, v12:80leadership flexibility, v20:115


leadership methods, v19:48leadership models, v20:5; v20:49; v20:94;

v20:101; v20:147; v20:244leadership motivation, v26:121leadership neutralizers, v26:156leadership practices, v26:148Leadership Practices Inventory, v26:148leadership roles, v15:212; v16:349leadership strategies, v20:147; v20:151;

v20:155; v20:163; v20:175; v20:210;v20:225; v20:244; v20:254; v20:392;v26:152

leadership style, v7:127; v7:329; v7:403;v9:404; v10:188; v12:49; v12:80;v14:72; v14:263; v14:553; v15:180;v18:193; v19:37; v19:48; v19:143;v20:244; v20:284; v25:211; v26:144;v26:192

leadership substitutes, v26:156leadership superiority, v26:117leadership techniques, v20:151; v20:183;

v20:195; v20:210; v20:244leadership theory, v19:137; v20:1; v20:5;

v20:9; v20:13; v20:18; v20:23; v20:28;v20:49; v20:57; v20:67; v20:82;v20:94

leadership transparency, v12:49learner involvement, v23:90learning, v4:216; v16:156; v25:171;

v25:181; v25:215; v25:218learning barriers, v14:449learning cycles, v3:119learning diversity, v3:189learning models, v25:222learning objectives, v25:218learning organization, v9:396; v15:87;

v16:119; v16:156learning style, v3:189; v8:19; v14:353;

v14:460; v15:144; v19:58; v23:143;v25:222; v25:267; v25:281

learning theory, v25:267learning transfer, v25:289learning vicariously, v17:221learning-cycle models, v3:119Learning-Model Instrument, v23:268Learning-Style Inventory, v23:268learning-transfer methods, v25:289lecture/lecturette differences, v23:1lecturette closings, v23:4

lecturette impact, v23:4lecturette presentations, v23:4lecturette rationale, v23:1lecturette sample, v23:38lecturette techniques, v23:4lecturette-material sources, v23:4lecturettes, v23:90lecturettes bibliography, v23:260lecturettes in human resource

development, v23:1lecturettes involving people, v23:4lecturettes that link input with participation,

v23:4left-brain/right-brain orientations,

v10:95left-brain/right-brain thinking, v8:1legal compliance, v1:166legal issues, v17:349; v18:94lemons, v1:8length of event, v23:67levels of evaluation, v18:119levels of openness, v4:503levels of training evaluation, v17:409Lewin's force-field analysis, v7:459; v9:5;

v14:1; v26:18life orientations theory, v24:28life planning, v1:249; v3:296; v3:312;

v3:319; v3:365; v18:15; v24:261life positions, v25:63; v25:69; v25:73;

v25:76life style, v2:45; v2:56; v2:160; v27:201life-style assessment, v3:147life-style theory, v3:147LIFO, v24:28line management, v20:49line-management roles, v20:49Lippitt and Lippitt consulting model,

v27:284listening, v4:451; v4:453; v4:457; v4:460listening effectiveness, v4:477listening skills, v4:13; v4:200; v4:477; v6:1;

v6:32; v6:69; v9:9; v11:244listening style, v4:487litigation, v17:349; v20:225location of event, v23:67locus of control, v3:137; v8:58; v19:25;

v24:32locus-of-control orientations, v24:32Loevinger's ego stages, v3:60


loneliness, v3:180lose/lose issues, v10:222love relationships, v5:141

MMachiavelli, v2:64maintenance roles, v25:97; v25:108male/female characteristics, v18:399management, v16:4management behavior, v26:113management by objectives, v7:464; v20:1;

v26:159management competencies, v19:195management consulting, v20:67management development, v4:401;

v15:100; v16:1; v17:383; v20:439;v27:131

management effectiveness, v19:195management levels, v26:196management models, v19:195; v20:5;

v20:9; v20:28; v20:57; v20:82; v20:175management of human resources,

v19:163management plans, v26:58management problems, v22:67management skills, v19:195management strategies, v20:151;

v20:155; v20:163; v20:175; v20:225;v20:254; v20:392; v26:177; v26:188

management style, v3:80; v6:129;v18:276; v18:309; v18:358; v18:367;v18:372; v18:376; v18:380; v18:384;v18:405; v18:411; v18:413; v18:427;v18:433; v18:440; v18:455; v18:467;v18:487; v18:490; v18:502; v18:512;v18:521; v18:534; v18:548; v19:70;v19:163; v20:244; v20:313; v20:327;v20:347; v26:164; v26:180; v27:190

management systems, v20:1management techniques, v20:183;

v20:195; v20:210management theory, v13:108; v20:13;

v20:18; v20:57; v20:67; v20:82; v20:94;v20:94; v20:101

management training, v16:1management-consulting firms, v27:267management-consulting firms'

characteristics, v27:267

management-development evaluation,v17:383

management-implementation checklist,v20:82

management-theory implementation,v20:82

manager-subordinate issues, v18:502manager-subordinate relationships,

v2:104managerial attitudes, v24:233managerial behavior, v2:104; v19:195;

v20:195; v20:313managerial coaching, v26:121managerial conflict, v26:144managerial decision making, v26:34managerial effectiveness, v26:196Managerial Grid®, v26:164managerial skills, v26:196managerial styles, v3:287; v18:397;

v18:399; v26:144managerial superiority, v26:117managerial training, v26:196managerial-styles models, v26:180managers (female), v19:188managers' work values, v19:86managing authentically, v26:113managing change, v27:181; v27:241manipulation, v13:72; v20:313marriage interaction, v5:160Maslow, v2:31; v20:454Maslow's hierarchy of needs, v14:562;

v19:173; v24:208Maslow's motivation hierarchy, v2:113Maslow's theory, v3:3; v18:156matrix management, v27:76matrix organizations, v14:37maturity-linked power motivation, v24:216MBO, v7:464; v20:131; v26:159McGregor, v20:454McGregor's model, v20:5McGregor's theory, v18:512; v18:521;

v24:233; v24:237McGregor's theory of human motivation,

v19:173mechanical systems, v27:94mediation, v4:326meeting awareness, v11:28meeting effectiveness, v10:168; v13:353


meeting follow-up, v13:357meeting format, v13:353meeting ground rules, v13:353meeting management, v4:307; v9:189;

v10:168; v18:227; v25:123meeting planning, v25:123meeting purpose, v13:348meeting technique, v13:348meeting type, v13:348; v25:123meeting-improvement techniques,

v13:353; v13:357meetings, v11:28membership identity, v13:215memory aids, v6:87; v6:95memory management, v8:114mental blocks, v7:13mentoring, v6:247; v6:279mentoring barriers, v6:247mentoring programs, v6:247meta model, v6:95metacommunication, v6:51metaverbal communication, v4:104;

v4:112microlab design, v17:172microlabs, v17:172mind traps, v3:403mission statement, v6:437; v7:479model building, v23:29model development, v23:29model sample, v23:38modeling, v16:570; v17:56; v25:267models as road maps, v23:29models bibliography, v23:260models in group activities, v23:29models in human resource development,

v23:29models vs. theories, v23:29modifying training designs, v23:99Monte Carlo method, v21:155moral development, v20:9; v24:78;

v24:82moral development in children, v24:82moral-development levels, v24:78; v24:82moral-development models, v24:78morale, v20:464morality, v20:9motivation, v1:378; v1:386; v2:45; v2:113;

v3:3; v3:38; v3:60; v3:80; v3:97; v3:137;Continued

(motivation, cont.)v3:244; v3:248; v3:266; v3:416; v6:243;v6:293; v7:357; v10:181; v10:345;v12:116; v14:72; v17:65; v17:206;v17:270; v18:156; v18:164; v18:167;v18:173; v18:180; v18:184; v18:189;v18:193; v18:201; v18:215; v18:251;v19:101; v19:115; v19:163; v20:1;v20:94; v20:101; v20:454; v20:464;v23:61; v24:192; v24:196; v24:199;v24:199; v24:205; v24:208; v24:213;v24:216; v24:224; v24:228; v24:233;v24:237; v25:139; v26:129; v26:159;v26:164; v26:173; v26:192; v27:70;v27:74; v27:207

motivational analysis of organizations,v24:196

motivational needs, v24:205motivational rewards, v24:224motivators, v24:196multichannel communication, v25:44multicultural teams, v13:139mutual-support groups, v24:187Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, v24:39Myers-Briggs typologies, v24:39

Nneeds, v2:113; v16:105; v20:454needs assessment, v11:317; v11:345;

v14:181; v14:225; v14:233; v14:239;v14:505; v16:626; v17:277; v17:292;v18:5; v23:67; v25:184; v25:272;v27:194

needs hierarchy, v3:3; v3:38; v3:60; v3:80;v3:287; v14:562; v18:156; v24:208;v24:213

needs identification, v3:287needs-assessment models, v17:277negligence, v17:349negotiating, v23:132negotiation, v1:210; v4:267; v4:288;

v4:383; v5:191; v6:307; v6:322; v6:333;v6:358; v6:362; v7:445; v9:117; v9:127;v9:162; v9:211; v10:222; v10:227;v10:284; v10:301; v10:310; v10:320;v10:437; v10:442; v10:445; v10:448;v10:456; v10:460; v11:21; v25:10;v26:44; v26:80

negotiation behavior, v6:333


negotiation effectiveness, v25:10negotiation model, v6:333; v9:117negotiation skills, v6:333; v9:176;

v10:470negotiation strategies, v9:162; v25:10negotiation styles, v10:328; v10:333negotiators, v9:162networking, v1:422; v1:508; v2:75neurolinguistic programming, v5:118;

v24:53neurotic styles, v27:112New Age defined, v17:242New Age training techniques, v17:242the new truck dilemma, v21:76New-Age training technologies,

v25:234newlink object, v3:3Nintendo generation, v1:356NLP, v24:53nominal group technique, v7:78; v7:110;

v9:15nonverbal, v1:20; v1:30nonverbal communication, v4:19; v4:53;

v4:70; v4:97; v4:126; v14:489; v14:492;v14:571; v14:585

nonverbal problem solving, v7:7norm changing, v13:125norms, v11:352; v23:108; v23:196;

v25:134; v27:109not-for-profit organizations, v16:406numbers, v6:18

Oobjective-related activities, v23:99objectives, v25:218observations methods, v14:164observed behavior, v5:104; v5:131;

v5:160observers, v21:39occupations, v1:285octapace, v15:167OD (see also organization development),

v3:47; v3:60; v3:73; v3:80; v3:114;v3:204; v3:287; v3:374; v3:384; v6:195;v6:370; v9:82; v9:117; v9:140; v14:142;v14:215; v14:239; v14:263; v16:1;v16:4; v16:14; v16:21; v16:45; v27:1;v27:181

OD approaches, v20:57; v20:67

OD assessment, v16:179; v16:189;v16:215; v16:312; v16:324; v16:334;v16:400; v16:419; v16:435

OD assumptions, v16:174OD characteristics, v16:334OD consultant's role, v16:236OD consultants, v15:197; v16:509OD consulting, v16:284; v16:377OD cube, v27:290OD defined, v16:236OD design, v16:221; v16:324; v16:400OD ethics, v16:189OD failures, v16:179OD flow chart, v16:215OD implementation, v16:221; v16:334OD intervention, v15:109; v16:570;

v27:290OD intervention types, v16:312OD models, v16:4; v16:236; v16:290;

v16:324; v16:384; v16:406OD objectives, v16:174OD planning, v16:215OD process, v16:4OD programs, v16:174OD readiness, v16:179; v16:198OD skills, v16:179OD strategies, v16:14; v16:198;

v16:236OD structure, v16:290OD technology, v16:174OD theory, v16:247; v16:262; v16:290;

v16:302; v16:312; v16:334OD trends, v16:275OD white papers, v20:13OD-assessment methods, v16:419OD-readiness checklist, v16:198OK/not OK positions, v25:63; v25:69one-to-one training, v14:353one-way communication, v4:58; v4:66;

v4:84open systems, v3:43; v27:94; v27:117;

v27:232open/closed relationships, v25:48open/closed-relationship models, v25:48openness, v3:372; v4:216; v4:503; v6:155;

v11:288; v13:154; v18:1; v18:12;v18:189; v20:23; v25:166

open-systems planning, v27:232open-systems theory, v27:98


operational definitions, v6:443; v14:280oral presentation of research results,

v22:91organization development, v2:181;

v3:348; v6:437; v14:286; v15:68;v15:87; v15:167; v15:180; v15:197;v15:230; v16:77; v16:88; v16:349;v16:362; v16:493; v16:509; v16:523;v16:570; v18:119; v20:115; v20:469

organization development interventions,v16:77

organization-based scenarios, v21:71organizational analysis, v14:181; v16:221;

v16:236; v27:136organizational anarchy, v9:313organizational assessment, v12:116;

v15:100; v15:132; v16:4organizational awareness, v3:73; v10:161;

v14:305organizational barriers, v16:14organizational behavior, v2:92; v5:131;

v14:316; v16:435; v19:101; v27:17;v27:36

organizational burnout, v3:425organizational categories, v16:14organizational change, v3:384; v3:390;

v3:403; v9:5; v9:263; v9:390; v9:410;v9:416; v14:24; v14:114; v14:181;v15:28; v15:266; v15:311; v16:21;v16:119; v16:362; v16:534; v16:564;v16:570; v17:337; v17:343; v18:37;v20:478; v27:181; v27:211; v27:215;v27:223; v27:232; v27:236; v27:252;v27:263

organizational change efforts, v15:60organizational climate, v5:35; v12:65;

v12:116; v15:20; v15:51; v15:100;v15:167; v15:311; v16:26; v16:554;v18:475; v19:70; v19:115; v19:163;v27:103

organizational communication, v6:367;v6:370; v6:386; v6:393; v6:403; v6:413;v6:421; v12:65

organizational communication patterns,v6:367

organizational concerns, v16:275organizational consulting, v27:293organizational crises, v9:307

organizational culture, v9:344; v9:416;v10:470; v14:97; v14:114; v15:167;v16:57; v16:88; v16:126; v16:148;v16:312; v16:384; v16:493; v16:534;v17:318; v19:115; v27:17; v27:109

organizational decision making, v14:121organizational design, v14:19; v27:40;

v27:46; v27:70organizational diagnosis, v15:60; v16:215organizational differentiation, v27:46organizational differentiation-integration

theory, v27:46organizational diversity models, v16:349organizational effectiveness, v2:193;

v5:191; v8:58; v12:143; v14:65;v15:296; v16:70; v16:156; v16:362;v19:115

organizational environment, v16:26;v27:66; v27:160

organizational environmental impact,v16:483

organizational ethos, v15:167organizational excellence, v16:302;

v16:312; v16:324; v16:534; v27:53organizational gestalt, v3:73organizational goals, v2:181; v16:26organizational groups, v13:38organizational growth, v20:365organizational health, v15:68; v16:38organizational hierarchies, v3:180organizational ideology, v15:20organizational improvement, v27:1organizational inconsistencies,

v14:305organizational influence, v15:109organizational innovation, v13:375;

v27:86organizational integration, v27:46organizational intelligence, v16:156organizational interventions, v16:77;

v16:362organizational knowledge, v16:247organizational learning, v3:280; v16:1;

v16:156; v16:247organizational models, v16:45; v16:88;

v20:4469; v24:242; v27:24; v27:145organizational neuroses, v27:112organizational norms, v15:100; v16:18


organizational observations, v16:435organizational pain, v3:374organizational performance, v16:45;

v16:148organizational planning, v16:302organizational power, v15:109organizational problem solving, v8:86organizational problems, v14:215;

v14:225organizational process, v12:12; v12:12organizational reengineering, v15:212organizational reengineering-process,

v14:286organizational relationships, v9:82organizational renewal, v20:469; v27:241organizational requirements, v16:18organizational roles, v3:204; v12:105;

v14:72; v27:117organizational size, v16:38organizational skills, v14:249organizational strategy, v15:68; v20:510;

v27:175organizational structure, v2:75; v13:108;

v14:6; v14:19; v14:37; v14:65; v16:26;v18:475; v20:23; v26:177; v27:21;v27:46; v27:60; v27:76; v27:131;v27:133; v27:156; v27:175

organizational studies, v14:316organizational style, v10:161; v15:180;

v19:1organizational subsystems, v16:21organizational success, v16:134organizational systems, v15:296; v16:21;

v16:77; v20:131; v27:121; v27:160;v27:167; v27:232

organizational training, v16:467organizational transformation, v16:45organizational universe, v27:121organizational values, v14:9; v14:56;

v14:97; v14:174; v15:20; v15:167;v16:26; v17:318; v18:325; v27:53

organizational-behavior congruencemodels, v27:36

organizational-behavior models, v16:221;v27:36

organizational-change interventions,v27:263

organizational-change strategies, v27:252organizational-consulting types, v27:293

organizational-design models, v27:70organizational-elements models, v16:207organizational-hierarchy origins, v27:133organizational-learning approaches,

v16:1organizational-performance causal

models, v27:24organizational-performance models,

v27:24organizational-universe models, v27:121orientation activities, v23:108orientation awareness, v24:19orientation checklist, v6:413orientation programs, v6:393; v6:413orientation-program designs, v6:393orientation-program problems, v6:393outcomes, v8:58overcompensation, v3:377; v24:167overlearning, v3:377; v24:167

Pparadigm shifting, v4:216; v27:211paradigms, v16:88; v19:70paradox, v24:102parallel learning structures, v14:79paraphrasing, v4:460parent/adult/child ego states, v25:63parent/adult/child model, v25:63; v25:73;

v25:76participant barriers, v23:190participant considerations, v23:67participant goals, v23:99participant intensity, v23:190participant investment, v23:108participant involvement, v23:108; v23:190participant reentry, v17:182participant resistance, v17:212participant responsivity, v17:115participant variables, v23:190participant-response sensitivity, v23:99participation training, v23:90participative diagnosis, v27:136participative management, v20:9; v20:23;

v20:327; v27:190participative OD, v27:136participative-management models,

v20:327pendulum swing, v24:167perception orientation, v24:53


perceptions, v3:47; v4:112; v4:128; v6:75;v14:413; v14:415; v14:424; v14:428;v14:430; v14:433; v14:453; v14:505;v16:57; v24:140; v26:38

perceptions of work environment, v12:65perceptions orientations, v24:39perceptual barriers, v26:38performance, v1:518; v4:444; v11:365;

v18:180performance appraisal, v18:54; v18:66;

v18:88; v18:112; v18:205; v18:251;v20:183; v20:210; v26:159

performance criteria, v26:137performance feedback, v4:405performance improvement, v17:337;

v26:121performance management, v26:105performance measurement, v11:365performance perceptions, v18:391performance problems, v26:105; v26:108performance time, v7:20performance-analysis models, v20:155performance-factors awareness, v18:180performance-problem analysis, v26:108personal characteristics, v2:31; v2:64personal contracts, v4:439personal effectiveness, v2:170; v3:230;

v5:191personal energy management, v8:114personal feedback, v2:113personal growth, v2:64; v2:120; v3:22;

v3:43; v3:60; v3:97; v3:137; v3:147;v3:161; v3:201; v3:204; v3:222; v3:226;v3:230; v3:241; v3:244; v3:248; v3:252;v3:257; v3:261; v3:266; v3:280; v3:306;v3:331; v3:377; v3:403; v5:104;v20:439; v24:145; v24:167; v24:171;v24:173; v24:178; v24:180

personal responsibility, v4:539personal strengths, v11:349personal style, v19:1personal values, v1:336; v2:92; v7:479;

v15:20personal vision, v3:455personal-growth training designs, v23:122personality, v1:33; v16:57personality traits, v2:56; v5:1; v5:74personality typologies, v6:129PERT, v7:425; v9:1; v26:54

physical facilities, v23:67physiological awareness, v3:24; v24:158pigeonholing, v3:47PINCH model, v26:44pinches, v26:44Planned Renegotiation Model, v26:44planning, v7:508; v16:515; v27:6planning for change, v27:232POIS, v25:26polarity, v3:24posters, v23:201potential-problem analysis, v26:49power, v1:193; v3:55; v3:312; v4:32;

v4:281; v6:60; v6:386; v7:401; v7:435;v9:82; v11:92; v11:112; v11:139;v11:283; v11:298; v11:326; v13:215;v15:109; v16:312; v18:372; v18:405;v18:411; v18:413; v18:487; v19:179;v20:244; v20:307; v24:128; v24:132;v24:216; v25:26; v26:134; v26:152;v27:112; v27:145

power bases, v24:128power defined, v24:132power inequities, v26:134power motivation, v24:216power needs, v1:386power strategies, v4:513power systems, v3:55predesign concerns, v23:67predictor analysis, v16:554preferences, v2:160; v5:174presentation issues, v23:190presentations, v17:323presentations bibliography, v23:260pretest and posttest problems, v22:67prioritizing, v18:333problem analysis, v8:86; v26:49problem definition, v11:172problem identification, v7:44; v7:194;

v15:60problem solving, v1:253; v1:482; v4:337;

v4:539; v7:1; v7:3; v7:7; v7:13; v7:18;v7:20; v7:23; v7:26; v7:31; v7:36; v7:44;v7:50; v7:56; v7:66; v7:78; v7:83; v7:90;v7:98; v7:102; v7:110; v7:288; v7:420;v7:425; v7:430; v7:459; v7:471; v7:515;v8:1; v9:5; v9:23; v9:30; v9:53; v9:60;v9:67; v9:76; v9:99; v9:109; v9:117;

Continued


(problem solving, cont.)v9:127; v9:131; v9:140; v9:162; v9:176;v9:180; v9:186; v9:189; v9:194; v9:200;v9:218; v9:227; v9:270; v9:286; v9:324;v9:372; v9:410; v9:416; v10:51; v10:78;v10:95; v10:138; v10:148; v10:241;v10:247; v10:257; v10:275; v10:284;v10:437; v11:1; v11:130; v11:202;v11:213; v11:218; v11:317; v11:433;v13:247; v13:327; v14:1; v14:117;v14:188; v14:206; v18:5; v18:219;v18:276; v18:299; v18:380; v18:455;v20:163; v20:254; v26:1; v26:7; v26:10;v26:15; v26:18; v26:22; v26:27; v26:31;v26:34; v26:38; v26:44; v26:49; v26:54;v26:58; v26:60; v26:64; v26:71; v26:76;v26:86; v26:94; v26:99; v26:105;v26:108; v27:136

problematic interactions, v23:196problem-solving barriers, v14:79problem-solving communications, v9:76problem-solving language, v9:99problem-solving logic, v26:31problem-solving logical-steps models,

v26:31problem-solving methods, v7:26; v7:31;

v7:66; v7:78; v7:250; v9:1; v9:9; v9:67;v9:99

problem-solving models, v9:53; v9:67;v9:76; v9:82; v9:91; v9:109; v26:58

problem-solving process skills, v8:72problem-solving skills, v9:30; v9:53problem-solving techniques, v9:1; v9:5;

v9:15; v9:23; v9:60; v9:91; v9:109process awareness, v10:1; v10:6; v10:17;

v10:29; v10:122; v10:154; v10:369;v11:38; v11:48; v11:236; v11:268

process facilitation, v2:214process improvement, v26:188process interventions, v10:21process observation, v10:1; v10:2; v10:6;

v10:17; v10:29; v10:43; v10:43; v10:51;v10:154; v10:442; v11:67; v11:400

process orientation, v10:168process reengineering, v15:212process-observation interventions,

v6:230processing, v21:2

processing in subgroups, v21:48processing questions, v17:149product-analysis models, v27:152productivity, v9:410; v14:280; v15:279;

v18:173; v20:155; v20:464; v26:159;v27:66

productivity-potential models, v27:152professional development, v6:279;

v18:205program designs, v17:292program evaluation, v17:362program evaluation and review technique,

v7:425; v9:1; v26:54proxemic zones, v25:50proximity, v25:50psychological awareness, v3:24; v24:158psychological depth of instruments,

v22:25psychological development, v24:70psychological maturity, v2:104psychological models, v3:1psychological setting for training events,

v23:132psychological types, v24:19psychological-development models,

v24:70psychosocial maturity, v24:88publication of evaluative studies in

professional journals, v22:91publishing, v21:2Pygmalion effect, v26:129

Qquality, v6:443; v7:276; v15:279; v16:105;

v16:148quality circles, v7:44; v13:10; v13:26quality improvement training, v17:304quality tools, v17:304quality-circle benefits, v13:10quality-circle implementation, v13:10quality-circle strategies, v13:26quality-circle structure, v13:10; v13:26quality/quantity issues, v18:173quantity/quality issues, v18:391question processing, v23:183questionnaire method, v22:91questionnaires, v13:332; v16:419quotas, v18:215


Rrandom numbers, v21:155rational emotive therapy, v2:193; v24:173readiness, v23:61realization, v13:154; v25:166record systems for research

instrumentation, v22:76recruitment, v27:17reductionism, v20:454reengineering, v9:396; v14:286; v15:212;

v16:119reentry, v17:115; v17:182reinforcement, v10:361; v18:167relationship behavior, v26:167relationships, v5:55reliability of dependent variables, v22:76reliability problem, v22:67religious issues, v25:234renegotiation, v9:117; v26:44representational systems, v5:14; v5:118research, v27:1research results statistics, v22:91resistance, v6:358; v23:196resistance to change, v14:449; v14:457;

v14:467; v15:266resistance-response strategies, v6:358resources assessment, v14:464responsibility, v3:244; v3:257; v3:296responsivity, v17:115restraining forces, v26:18results assessment, v23:218reward systems, v14:65; v16:384rewards, v8:58; v24:224right-brain/left-brain characteristics, v24:5rightsizing, v20:464risk taking, v1:44; v1:63; v1:66; v3:372;

v3:374; v3:390; v4:133; v4:136; v4:140;v4:158; v4:174; v10:263; v24:9

Rogerian helping process, v25:59role analysis, v3:348role clarification, v11:136; v11:143role clarity, v20:307role efficacy, v3:248; v12:143; v24:251role efficacy scale, v24:251role factors, v27:117role planning, v3:348role play, v1:20; v1:50; v1:75; v1:91;

v1:102; v1:160; v1:184; v1:193; v1:263;Continued

(role play, cont.)v1:299; v4:27; v4:89; v4:104; v4:240;v4:243; v4:252; v4:257; v4:267; v4:281;v4:288; v4:296; v4:326; v4:429; v4:453;v4:460; v4:465; v4:471; v11:429;v17:158; v17:221; v21:39; v23:90

role play defined, v21:63role play in human resource development,

v21:63role play in the experiential learning cycle,

v21:89role stress, v3:204; v8:95; v24:256role-play advantages, v21:63role-play analysis, v21:89role-play change cycle, v21:89role-play closure, v21:89role-play design, v17:158; v21:76role-play design considerations,

v21:76role-play direction, v21:89role-play disadvantages, v21:63role-play evaluation, v21:71role-play introduction, v21:89role-play materials, v21:76role-play objectives, v21:63role-play preparation, v21:89role-play problems, v21:71; v21:76role-play rationale, v21:63role-play selection, v21:71role-play structure, v21:76role-play techniques, v21:112role-playing history, v21:63roles, v1:185; v1:242; v1:414; v1:422;

v5:1; v5:90; v12:143; v14:590room and board arrangements for training

events, v23:132rule-governed behaviors, v14:27

Ssales, v4:496SAST process, v18:299Schutz's theory of interpersonal needs,

v3:38scientific management, v27:156seating arrangements, v21:48self-actualization, v2:31; v5:160self-affirmation, v4:526self-assessment, v1:485; v3:331; v3:455;

v14:154; v18:384


self-awareness, v1:20; v1:50; v1:70; v1:75;v1:212; v1:215; v1:253; v1:266; v1:328;v1:395; v1:422; v1:435; v1:470; v2:193;v3:50; v3:230; v3:455; v4:27; v4:565;v5:27; v8:46; v24:122; v26:86

self-awareness communication, v24:122self-concept, v9:9self-disclosure, v1:1; v1:5; v1:14; v1:23;

v1:40; v1:42; v1:48; v1:50; v1:63; v1:70;v1:75; v1:77; v1:84; v1:98; v1:102;v1:107; v1:138; v1:149; v1:153; v1:160;v1:249; v1:403; v1:414; v1:422; v2:120;v4:23; v4:136; v4:158; v4:200; v4:345;v4:350; v4:371; v4:380; v4:388; v4:413;v9:9; v14:569

self-doubt, v3:403self-esteem, v26:129self-fulfilling prophecies, v24:228self-help programs, v24:187self-leadership, v26:173; v27:186self-manipulation, v20:313self-perception, v5:104self-reliance, v2:129self-talk, v24:228semantic differential, v24:137semantic-differential models, v24:137semantics, v24:137; v24:140sensing interviews, v16:581sensitive-subject training, v17:318sensitivity training, v13:1; v25:255sensory awareness, v1:3; v1:5; v1:10session opening, v23:108seven-S framework, v27:158sex identity, v3:222sex roles, v1:89; v1:91; v1:95; v1:130;

v1:135; v3:222; v24:1; v24:75sex traits, v24:1sex-linked power motivation, v24:216sex-role stereotypes, v19:188sex-role stereotyping, v12:1sexual harassment, v6:421; v20:225sexual-discrimination legalities, v6:421sexual-discrimination training, v6:421sexual-harassment legalities, v6:421sexuality, v1:102; v1:149shamrock teams, v12:204shouldism, v20:313simulation and game differences, v21:155simulation aspects, v21:155

simulation development, v21:155simulation games, v17:193; v21:163;

v23:90simulation history, v21:150simulation model, v21:185simulation rationale, v21:150simulation-development stages, v21:155simulation-game design, v17:193simulation-game development

considerations, v21:185simulation-game evaluation checklist,

v21:173simulation-game functional issues,

v21:185simulation-game history, v21:163simulation-game purpose, v21:185simulation-game resources, v21:173simulation-game stylistic issues, v21:185simulation-game use, v21:185simulation-game utilization, v21:239simulation-gaming group dynamics,

v21:177simulations, v21:39simulations defined, v21:150simulations for teaching strategic

planning, v21:177simulations in human resource

development, v21:150situation appraisal, v26:49Situational Leadership®, v8:19; v13:218;

v26:167Situational Leadership® model, v26:167six-box model, v16:236six-box organizational model, v15:60skill assessment, v2:214skill development, v6:279skill levels, v3:306skill modeling, v17:56skills training, v23:190small organizations, v16:38Small-Group Adaptive Spiral model,

v13:342social behavior, v24:118; v24:122;

v24:128; v24:132social communication, v24:137social facilitation, v25:139social influence, v24:237social interaction, v6:370social stratification, v6:370


social styles, v6:105; v24:58social-emotional maturity, v24:88social-learning theory, v6:271social-style awareness, v6:105social-style models, v24:58socialization, v1:130; v2:104sociotechnical systems, v20:67; v27:167sociotechnical-systems theory, v27:167sources of case studies, v21:127SPIRO model, v3:365staffing considerations, v23:67stages of adulthood, v24:91stages of group development, v11:58stages of team development, v13:139;

v13:147statistical significance, v22:76statistics, v6:18stereotypes, v1:356; v18:399; v24:1stereotyping, v1:91; v1:95; v1:130; v1:135;

v1:153; v1:185; v1:196; v1:215; v1:226;v1:242; v1:263; v1:274; v10:428;v18:241; v18:276; v18:325

stochastic variables, v21:155strategic assumptions surfacing and

testing process, v18:299strategic framework, v20:499strategic leadership styles, v19:143;

v20:510strategic management, v20:422; v20:422;

v27:247strategic management matrix, v27:247strategic planning, v1:445; v7:50; v7:479;

v16:105; v16:302; v20:365; v20:422;v20:422; v27:6

strategic planning models, v20:365; v27:6stream analysis, v27:181stress, v1:414; v9:76; v24:256stress management, v2:129; v3:129;

v3:204; v3:374; v3:416; v3:421; v3:425;v3:427; v3:455; v4:240; v7:420; v7:435;v7:492; v8:95; v11:15; v12:105; v24:256

stress management skills, v3:421stress management training, v3:427stress symptoms, v3:427STRIDE model, v9:109; v26:64structural concepts, v13:108structural differential, v24:140structural-differential models, v24:140

structured experiences, v17:40; v23:90;v25:196

structured experiences defined, v21:9structured experiences in human resource

development, v21:9structured learning, v17:1structured role-play techniques, v21:112structured-experience activities, v21:39struct ured-experience classif ication, v21:13structured-experience development,

v21:30structured-experience evaluation, v21:13structured-experience example, v21:195structured-experience history, v21:9structured-experience presentations,

v21:19structured-experience problems, v21:25structured-experience selection, v21:13structured-experience subgroups, v21:48student orientation, v15:120style adjustment, v15:1styles, v2:64subgroup formation, v21:48subgroups, v21:48; v23:190subjectivity, v6:18superleadership, v26:173; v27:186superteam models, v13:18superteam performance, v13:18superteams, v13:18supervisory skills, v4:355; v4:465; v19:137supplier service, v7:515support, v3:261support network, v2:129supportive communication, v5:47survey administration, v22:58survey constructed, v22:58survey design, v22:58survey development, v6:437; v16:554survey feedback, v6:168; v6:195survey finalized, v22:58survey objectives defined, v22:58survey population studied, v22:58survey pretested, v22:58survey report, v22:58survey responses coded, v22:58survey results tabulated, v22:58survey sample selected, v22:58SYMLOG, v25:143


synectics, v26:71synergy, v4:257; v7:282; v7:288; v7:290;

v7:304; v7:309; v7:314; v7:321; v7:326;v7:351; v7:357; v7:363; v7:372; v7:403;v7:430; v8:1; v13:85; v25:139; v25:173

system 4 management, v26:177systematic attributes, v27:98systematic multiple level observation of

groups, v25:143systematic style, v8:1systems, v14:117; v16:362systems change, v14:117systems development, v27:94systems thinking, v10:209; v14:121;

v15:296

Tt’ai chi, v1:10T-groups, v13:1tardiness, v23:196targeted innovation, v26:76task analysis, v16:472; v27:194task behavior, v26:167task complexity, v14:19task groups, v27:76task instructions, v10:112task roles, v25:97; v25:108task uncertainty, v27:40task-analysis models, v16:472task-oriented meeting, v10:168Tavistock model, v25:155teacher-student interaction, v15:120teaching skills, v3:189teaching styles, v14:460; v15:120teaching-learning process, v15:157team awareness, v11:1; v11:51; v11:236team building, v1:84; v2:64; v2:64; v2:75;

v3:10; v7:497; v10:25; v10:61; v10:78;v10:263; v11:1; v11:4; v11:9; v11:15;v11:21; v11:25; v11:28; v11:34; v11:38;v11:40; v11:48; v11:51; v11:94; v11:99;v11:126; v11:130; v11:136; v11:147;v11:162; v11:213; v11:222; v11:244;v11:252; v11:288; v11:291; v11:295;v11:322; v11:345; v11:349; v11:390;v12:183; v13:247; v13:263; v14:114;v14:435; v14:590; v15:100; v17:304;v18:219; v26:202; v26:214; v26:226

team communication, v11:51team development, v11:9; v11:28; v11:34;

v11:38; v11:48; v11:58; v11:94; v11:99;v11:136; v11:168; v11:187; v11:222;v11:230; v11:233; v11:256; v11:261;v11:265; v11:268; v11:272; v11:280;v11:285; v11:291; v11:326; v11:334;v12:150; v13:139; v13:147; v26:202;v26:220; v26:226

team effectiveness, v11:352; v11:365;v13:279; v13:300

team evaluation, v11:213team functioning, v12:204team improvement, v11:213team interventions, v11:58team leadership, v18:146team learning, v17:304team orientation and behavior inventory,

v26:226team performance, v11:58; v11:362;

v13:18; v26:232team planning, v10:112team problem solving, v11:156; v11:162;

v11:168; v11:172; v11:178team relationships, v4:200team roles, v11:67; v11:73; v11:80;

v11:89; v11:92; v11:94; v11:99;v11:112; v11:126; v11:130; v11:136;v11:139; v11:143; v11:285; v11:411;v13:300

team self-evaluation, v11:222team skills, v12:157team traits, v15:230team values, v12:157team-building goals, v13:247team-building instruments, v26:226team-building issues, v13:247team-building models, v26:202team-building program designs, v13:263team-development inventory, v26:220team-development models, v26:220team-development rating scale, v26:202team-leader effectiveness, v18:146team-performance models, v26:232team-task leaders, v18:455teams, v11:147; v11:218; v12:204teamwork, v2:141; v10:61; v10:78;

v10:107; v11:433; v14:117


technical considerations related toinstrumentation, v22:25

technology selection criteria, v23:90theme development, v17:98theorizing, v3:47theory, v23:23theory bibliography, v23:260theory defined, v23:23theory in contemporary HRD, v23:23theory in group activities, v23:29theory in human resource development,

v23:23theory of reinforcement, v19:137theory sample, v23:38theory types, v23:23theory: science or art?, v23:23Theory X, v3:296; v18:512; v18:521;

v20:5; v20:115; v24:233; v24:237Theory X-Theory Y, v19:173Theory Y, v3:296; v18:512; v18:521;

v20:5; v20:115; v24:233; v24:237therapy, v3:201therapy methods, v25:59thinking/feeling statements, v24:115third-force psychologists, v3:157thought ownership, v24:115three-dimensional management-style

theory, v26:180time management, v2:170; v3:455; v4:296;

v8:114; v18:333time 2, v11:252; v11:395; v18:487time-and-motion studies, v27:156time-based evolution, v20:428timing, v27:60timing of event, v23:67TOBI, v26:226top-management, v20:428top-management concerns, v20:422;

v20:422top-management issues, v20:313;

v20:316; v20:327; v20:347; v20:365;v20:392; v20:397; v20:411; v20:422;v20:422; v20:439

TORI, v12:172TORI model, v11:38TORI theory, v13:154; v13:203; v25:166total quality management, v15:28;

v15:132; v16:126; v16:493; v20:131;v20:499; v26:188

total quality process, v16:493TQM, v16:515train, v23:108trainer type inventory, v23:268; v25:281training, v3:114; v25:173; v25:181;

v25:196; v25:206; v25:215; v25:218training application, v25:289training assessment, v17:337training benefits, v17:230training competencies, v14:326training culture, v17:182training design, v14:353; v14:519;

v14:562; v16:534; v17:98; v17:292;v17:304; v17:409; v25:245

training design sequence sample,v23:122

training evaluation, v17:337; v17:393;v17:409; v23:67; v23:218; v25:229

training facilitators, v17:119training feedback, v23:218training flexibility, v23:108training follow-up, v25:289training goals/objectives, v23:99training handouts, v23:90training history, v17:80training, in Central America, in Mexico,

v16:636training location, v23:132training objectives, v23:67; v25:245;

v25:277training pace, v23:108training philosophies, v14:508training pre-design considerations,

v25:245training process, v6:142training program evaluation, v15:40training readings, v23:90training setting, v23:132training style, v8:19; v15:144; v15:157;

v15:243; v23:143; v25:281training style inventory, v23:268training systems, v16:467training technologies, v17:304; v23:90;

v25:234training theme, v17:98training trainers, v14:272; v14:498;

v14:506; v14:508; v14:522; v14:541;v14:553; v14:559; v14:562

training-design components, v23:90


training-design models, v17:47training-design sequencing, v23:99training-design timing, v23:99training-evaluation levels, v25:229training-group responsibility, v16:189training-maintenance time, v23:108training-method assessments, v17:80training-needs assessment, v25:272training-objective identification, v25:277training-site selection, v23:132training-systems design, v16:467training-systems development, v16:467trait awareness, v14:453trait theory, v15:230transactional analysis, v4:530; v5:90;

v6:142; v24:180; v25:63; v25:69;v25:73; v25:76

transactional changes, v27:24transactional games, v25:76transcendence models, v13:78transcendence theory, v13:78; v24:180transformation, v20:347transformational changes, v27:24;

v27:211transformational factors, v16:45transformational leaders, v26:192transformational management,

v20:347transformational models, v20:347transformational-management models,

v20:411transparency/social desirability problems,

v22:67trust, v1:46; v4:84; v4:136; v4:144; v4:216;

v12:172; v13:69; v13:154; v16:105;v25:166

trust building, v10:83; v10:216; v10:222;v10:270; v10:320; v11:252; v11:309;v18:1

Tuckman model, v13:218Tuckman model of group development,

v25:160twelve-step recovery programs,

v24:18721st Century, v20:110two-way communication, v4:84

Uunstructured role playing, v21:89unstructured role-play techniques,

v21:112using case studies, v21:127

Vvalidity of dependent variables, v22:76validity problem, v22:67value added, v16:105value clarification, v1:274; v14:9; v14:56;

v14:174; v18:8; v18:20; v18:24value orientations, v24:66value programming, v24:66value programming analysis, v24:66values, v1:40; v1:317; v1:344; v1:356;

v1:485; v2:141; v7:415; v11:408;v15:197; v18:1; v18:5; v18:8; v18:12;v18:15; v18:20; v18:24; v18:37;v18:241; v18:325; v20:110; v27:53;v27:109

values clarification, v1:91; v1:95; v1:98;v1:107; v1:116; v1:130; v1:144; v1:149;v1:153; v1:160; v1:234; v1:249; v1:263;v1:266; v1:271; v1:279; v1:289; v1:375;v1:378; v1:435; v1:439; v1:451; v1:470;v2:1

values systems, v2:141verbal communication, v4:77; v6:44vertical thinking, v26:27video models, v17:221video-enhanced training, v13:362videotaped modeling, v13:362videotapes, v17:221videotapes in human resource

development, v23:201videotaping techniques, v13:342;

v13:362visibility, v19:179vision, v7:497; v20:478vision statement, v7:479; v16:515vision-based planning, v16:515visual aids, v23:201visual perceptions, v24:53vocational categories, v24:271vocational development, v24:265


vocational orientation, v24:271vocational-development models, v24:265volunteer-group problems, v13:327volunteers, v23:108

WWeiner, v6:293Weisbord's Six-Box Organizational Model,

v15:60wellness benefits, v27:201wellness programs, v27:201win/lose issues, v10:74; v10:220; v10:222;

v10:231; v10:295; v10:460win/lose situations, v9:127win/win issues, v10:212; v10:216;

v10:222; v10:227; v10:233; v10:251;v10:295; v10:460

win/win outcomes, v25:10win/win situations, v9:127wishes, v9:21women's issues, v20:225word connotations, v24:137word preferences, v5:118work conditions, v12:116work designs, v14:233work groups, v13:64

work redesign, v27:207work relationships, v4:200work roles, v24:261work styles, v4:565; v12:21work teams, v4:316; v10:181; v13:10;

v13:26; v13:147; v14:280work value, v19:86worker alienation, v12:116work-group effectiveness, v12:12; v12:12work-group functions, v25:155work-group patterns, v10:138; v10:148;

v11:40work-group relations, v25:84work-group roles, v25:97; v25:108work-team effectiveness, v26:214;

v26:220; v26:232workshop closings, v14:569; v14:571;

v14:573; v14:579; v14:581; v14:583;v14:585; v14:587

world economy, v3:341written presentation of research results,

v22:91

Yyin/yang forces, v13:172yoga, v1:23

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