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Introduction to Horticultural Sciences

OVERVIEW

INSTRUCTOR: UNIT: Introduction to Horticultural Sciences

LESSON PLAN

LESSON OBJECTIVESThe student will be able to:

describe photosynthesis recognize physiological similarities and differences between plant cells and

animal cells; describe major structural parts of a plant cell recognize various methods of classifying crops explain the importance of seeds; identify the structural parts of a seed discuss the sexual reproduction (pollination and fertilization) of flowering plants; explain asexual (vegetative) methods of propagating plants explain the difference between phenotype and genotype explain the importance and uses of plant breeding in crop production classify soils according to origin of parent materials recognize importance of soils to the nation list and describe soil profile horizons

TEACHING MATERIALS & RESOURCES PowerPoint presentations for Intro to Hort Student Notes for IMS Intro to Hort Topic Notes for IMS Intro to Hort Topic Test for IMS Intro to Hort

TEACHING PROCEDURES

PREPARATION Key Points Methods

Make yourself familiar with Topic Notes; they directly cover all content included in the following lesson.

Pass out student notes for the students to follow along. They have blanks and your key has the blanks filled in.

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PRESENTATION Key Points MethodsOverview of Intro

Horticulture is an area of agriculture that produces plants for food, comfort, and beauty. Horticulture involves several areas of plant growth, including ornamental crops, vegetable crops, and fruit and nut crops.

1. Ornamental Cropsa. Are plants that are used for their beautyb. Examples:

i. Flowersii. Bushes

iii. Shrubsiv. Foliage Plants

2. Fruit and Nut Cropsa. Are plants that produce fruits and nuts. b. Examples:

i. Strawberriesii. Apples

iii. Cherriesiv. Walnutsv. Pistachios

vi. Pecans3. Vegetable Crops

a. Are simply plants that produce vegetablesb. Examples:

i. Cornii. Carrots

iii. Beans

Environmental Requirements• In order for a plant to grow, there are a few conditions

that must be met. The most important conditions are water, air, and light. Each requirement is necessary in plant growth and for photosynthesis to occur. Each plant has specific requirements; however, when all conditions are met the plant will thrive.

1. Watera. Water is a major environmental factor for plant

growth.b. Water flows from the roots, throughout the plant

system. Water is broken down during the process of photosynthesis.

c. Water is also used in the transpiration process to help the plant stay at its healthiest temperature.

2. Air

Presentation: A. Intro

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a. Air is so important because it carries the carbon dioxide that plants need to make their food. Air flows through the stomatas in the leaves of the plant.

3. Lighta. Light, either artificial or natural is needed for

plant growth. b. Natural Lightc. The sun is the only sourced. Artificial Lighte. Incandescent Lightsf. Fluorescent Lightsg. Metal Halide lampsh. Low pressure sodium lampsi. High pressure sodium lamps

Plant Survival Requirements

Chlorophyll—is located in bundles known as chloroplasts. Sugar is made in the chloroplasts.

Sunlight—Chlorophyll transforms the light energy of the sun into chemical energy.

Carbon dioxide—Plants get carbon dioxide from the air through stomata. Carbon dioxide is a major substance from which glucose is made.

Water—Water is absorbed by the roots of a plant and goes to the leaves through the vascular system. Chemical energy splits water apart and partially combines it with the elements of carbon dioxide.

Plant ProcessesWithin a plant, many physiological processes are constantly occurring. These processes allow for the plant’s growth and survival.

1. Chemical reactions in the leaves produce sugar molecules for cells throughout the plant.

2. Water molecules move throughout the plant, carrying nutrients for cells.

3. Cell organelles convert sugar molecules into energy for cell division and expansion.

Plant processes within a plant include:

1. photosynthesis2. respiration3. transpiration

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4. translocation

Photosynthesis

The term photosynthesis derives from the words photo (light) and synthesis (putting together).

Photosynthesis is the single most important plant biological process because it provides for food and oxygen needed for human survival.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and certain classes of bacteria capture solar energy and use it to make simple sugar molecules, which are then used as an energy source for growth and development.

The process of photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of plant cells. A chloroplast contains numerous chlorophyll pigments, which absorb mostly blue and red wavelengths of sunlight.

Most photosynthesis occurs in the plant leaves because cells within the leaves have the highest concentration of chloroplasts.

In the presence of light energy, six carbon dioxide molecules combine with six water molecules. This reaction produces one simple sugar molecule, along with six molecules of oxygen.

The chemical reaction formula for photosynthesis is:

6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2

A plant uses the oxygen molecules produced during photosynthesis for other chemical processes occurring at the same time as photosynthesis.

Plant Structure and Functions of PlantsAll living organisms consist of cells. Groups of cells with similar functions form tissues. Tissues with similar functions form organs.

Plant organs consist of:

vegetative structures, and Reproductive structures.

Vegetative structures include:

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roots stems leaves

Reproductive structures include: flowers

Each plant organ performs a specialized task:

Roots – provide support; absorb water & nutrients Stems – connect the roots and leaves Leaves – capture energy from sunlight and use it to make food

for the plant Flowers – attract pollinators and produce seeds and fruit

The Plant Cell

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit for all living organisms. Organelles within a cell perform specialized functions.

Organelles with common functions in both plant and animal cells include:

Nucleus – stores DNA, synthesizes ribosomes and RNA Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – rough ER prepares protein for

export; smooth ER synthesizes steroids, regulates calcium levels, and breaks down toxins

Mitochondrion – converts energy from organic compounds to energy for cellular activities

Ribosomes – organize protein production Microtubules – contribute to cell support and division Golgi Complex - processes and packages substances made by

the cell Cell membrane - semi-permeable membrane that separates the

cellular contents from the outside Lysosomes - digest old organelles and foreign substances

Organelles found only in plant cells are:

Cell wall

o Gives plant cells a very defined shapeo Composed of cellulose fiber, polysaccharides, and proteinso Flexible in young cells; rigid in older cells

Vacuoles

o Fluid-filled organelles that often occupy as much as 90%

Presentation B: Intro

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of a cell’s volumeo Store metabolic waste that the plant may use as a defense

mechanism

Plastids

o Contain DNAo Surrounded by two membraneso Store starches and fats

Contain pigments that absorb and convert light energy into chemical energy (i.e. chloroplasts)

Plant Recognition

Many classification systems exist to group plants for identification purposes. Field crops are those plants grown for food, feed, fiber, and/or industrial purposes. Field crops are classified according to their use, season of growth, life span, and botanical characteristics.

Classification of Field Crops According to Use

Cereal crops include those grown to furnish edible food and feeds. These crops, which are members of the grass family, include:

corn wheat rice grain sorghum barley oats rye

Legume crops are grown mostly for their edible seeds, which have a high protein and oil content. These types of crops include:

soybeans peanuts field beans garden peas lentils cowpeas

Forage crops include grasses and legumes grown as feed for animals. Forage crops for feeding purposes are used in the form of silage, hay, and fodder. Grass forages include:

Presentation C: Intro

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corn sorghum oats barley pasture grasses

Legume forages include alfalfa and clover.

Root crops are those grown for their edible roots, which also have high starch content.

Crops classified as root crops include:

sweet potatoes carrots rutabagas beets turnips

Fiber crops are important for their fibrous parts, which the textile industry uses in the production of clothing, rope, twine, and other fiber products. Important fiber crops are:

cotton flax hemp

Sugar crops are a raw source for sugar products. These crops include:

sugar beets sugarcane sweet sorghum corn

Oilseed crops are important for their high oil content. Important oilseed crops include:

cotton (cottonseed) soybean flax peanuts sunflowers canola

Tuber crops, similar to root crops, also have a high starch content. Crops in this classification include:

Irish potatoes artichokes

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Stimulant crops include tobacco, coffee, and tea.

Food crops include fruit and vegetable crops. These crops supply humankind with valuable vitamins, nutrients, and fiber. Examples of fruit crops include:

apples peaches plums pear citrus

Examples of vegetable crops are:

potatoes tomatoes sweet corn lettuce onions cabbage

Timber crops, which supply materials for industrial and construction purposes, include pine trees and many varieties of hardwood trees.

Classification of Field Crops According to Special Uses

Green-manure crops are those which, when plowed under the soil during their latter growing stages, supply nutrients and organic matter to improve the soil quality. Examples of crops used for this purpose are:

clover vetch cowpeas soybeans

Cover crops are those planted to protect the soil surface against wind and water erosion and the loss of soil nutrients. Examples of these crops are:

crimson clover rye vetch oats wheat seasonal grasses

Emergency or catch crops are quick-growing crops planted to replace other crops that have failed. Such crops include:

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Sudan grass rye millet

Green-chop crops include those crops that are cut green and fed, uncured, to livestock. Examples include:

sorghum alfalfa corn soybeans

Silage crops, produced for animal feeding purposes, are harvested and allowed to pass through states of partial fermentation. Crops harvested for silage include:

corn sorghum soybeans cowpeas clover

Companion crops are those grown to aid in the establishment and growth of other crops. These types of crops include:

grasses clover peas beans

Seed Germination

The life cycle of a plant begins with a seed. A seed contains a living embryo with genetic material for producing another plant with identical, similar, or unlike characteristics of the parent plant.

Seeds are essential for the survival and continued existence of many plant species. One plant produced from a single seed may produce hundreds or thousands of seeds.

Seeds have many uses and benefits in the daily lives of humankind. Seeds are a:

Source of human nutrition (grains, nuts, beans, peas). Major ingredient of many human food products (cereals,

beverages, breads, pastries, cooking oils, salad dressings). Source of livestock feed and nutrition (cottonseed cake,

flaxseed, oat middlings, rice bran).

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Source of raw material for many industrial and residential products (medicinal products, oils, pesticides, fuels, construction materials).

Complete Group Research Project at this time.

Structural Parts of a Seed

All seeds contain an embryo and a stored food reserve. The supply of stored energy is sufficient to nurture the embryo during germination and until it is capable of capturing and processing its own energy, as a plant, from the sun.

The embryo within a seed consists of:

plumule – young primordial leaves and stem growing point cotyledons – seed leaves used for food storage epicotyl – portion of stem located above the cotyledons hypocotyl – portion of stem located below the cotyledons radicle – young embryonic root and root tip

Classification of flowering, seed-bearing plants based on number of cotyledons present in seed embryo include:

monocots (monocotyledonous) – seed embryo contains only one cotyledon (corn, wheat, rice, oats)

dicots (dicotyledonous) – seed embryo contains two cotyledons ( alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas)

Monocot seed characteristics:

o contains an embryonic plant and stored food reserves that are protected by an outer seed coat

o food reserves are stored in the endospermo smaller embryo compared to dicot seedso plumule consists of rolled leaves enclosed in a tubular

sheath (coleoptile)

Dicot seed characteristics:

o contains embryonic plant and stored food reserves that are protected by an outer seed coat

o food reserves are stored in the cotyledons; no endosperm exists

o larger embryo compared to monocot seedso plumule consists of folded leaves

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Presentation D: Intro

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Although animals can only reproduce sexually, plants have the capability to propagate or multiply themselves by means of sexual and/or asexual reproduction.

What are the benefits of plants being able to reproduce by both sexual and asexual means?

Sexual reproduction involves using seeds to produce new plants.

Asexual or vegetative reproduction includes using plant parts other than seeds to produce new plants.

Agronomic and horticultural crops reproduced primarily by seeds include:

field crops (corn, wheat, rice, sorghum) flowering greenhouse and bedding plants vegetable transplants

Horticultural crops and plants produced quicker and more efficiently by vegetative means include:

landscape & ornamental plants (flowering perennials, groundcovers, shrubs)

turf grasses fruit crops

Sexual Reproduction

Seeds are the means by which plants sexually reproduce. Although seeds contain the genetic characteristics of the parent plant, characteristics of plants grown from seeds may vary from the parent plant.

Seed propagation:

Is an economical and widely used method of producing new plants.

Allows a grower to produce a large number of plants.

Pollination and fertilization are part of the sexual process that occurs within the flowers or reproductive structures of a plant. These processes result in the formation and development of seeds.

A seed consists of a:

tiny plant, supply of stored food, and

Presentation E: Intro

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a protective covering.

Pollination occurs when mature pollen grains (male sex cells) from the stamen come into contact with the moist, sticky surface of a flower stigma (female flower part).

(Demonstrate the process of self-pollination and cross-pollination using flowers of a live plant that contains both stamens and pistils.)

Self-pollination occurs when pollen comes into contact with a stigma within the same flower or other flowers on the same plant.

Cross-pollination occurs when pollen from the flower of one plant transfers to the stigmas of flowers on another plant.

Pollen grains transfer to flower stigmas by means of:

gravity insects wind animals

After a pollen grain anchors on the moist, sticky surface of a flower stigma, it germinates and produces a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down through the style and into the ovary where it eventually reaches an ovule.

During the fertilization process:

One sperm cell from the pollen tube unites with the egg cell in the ovule to form a zygote.

The second sperm cell from the pollen tube unites with two separate polar nuclei to form a primary endosperm nucleus.

Double fertilization results from the unions of the two male sex cells.

The zygote formed through the union of the sperm and egg cells proceeds through cell division and develops into a seed embryo.

The primary endosperm nucleus develops to form a food source to be used by the embryonic plant during seed germination.

For each seed a plant produces, a separate grain of pollen must reach and unite with an ovule.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual or vegetative reproduction involves the production of

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new plants by means of using vegetative parts of an existing plant.

The vegetative parts of many plants have the ability to produce new roots and/or shoots to form a new plant.

Asexual reproduction is often advantageous over sexual reproduction because:

New plants reach maturity in less time. Disease-free plants can be produced in controlled

environmental conditions. Reproduction is possible for plants that do not develop

reproductive parts or viable seeds. Plant selection for desired characteristics is more reliable. New plants are genetically identical to the parent plant.

Vegetative plant parts used in asexual reproduction include:

leaves stems (above-ground, below-ground) buds roots

Methods of vegetative plant reproduction include:

cuttings layering separation division grafting budding tissue culture

Plant Genetics

Improvements in agricultural crop production have occurred since mankind began cultivating crops for food. The evolution of intentional plant breeding is one of the primary reasons for the dramatic improvements that have occurred with modern crop species.

Plant breeding involves the selection of certain plant characteristics based on the variability of genes within a certain plant. Successful breeding, therefore, relies on genotypic variations that occur in individual plants within a plant species.

Scientists use plant breeding and experimentation to:

increase crop yields; isolate desirable plant characteristics; and

.

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Influence changes within available plant species.

Two factors that affect the success of plant breeding are:

environmental conditions, and The presence of variability in genetic material.

Complete Importance of Plant Breeding Essay.

Factors Influencing the Selection of Crop Cultivars

A goal of plant breeding is to produce new crop cultivars with improved agronomic traits.

A crop cultivar is a subdivision of a plant species that exhibits differences in certain agronomic traits or characteristics.

In selecting a cultivar of crop species to cultivate, a producer considers:

how well adapted the cultivar is to the given environment and field conditions;

marketing and consumer preferences; and The cultivar’s resistance to pests and diseases.Components and Properties of Soil

ORIGIN OF SOIL

Parent material: unconsolidated mass of rock and mineral from which soil is formedSoil formation occurs where parent material is exposed at the earth’s surface. Productive soils develop from parent material that supplies the essential elements needed to support plant life.

Parent material may be classified

Residual: develop from the underlying bedrock materials Transported: moved to their final location by water, wind, ice,

or gravity Cumulose: develop through the decay of plant residues in

shallow lakes

Parent material is constantly transformed into soil as rocks and minerals are weathered by both physical and chemical processes.

SOIL COMPOSITION

The four major components of soil:

mineral matter

Presentation F: Intro

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organic matter water air

Based on volume, an average soil might consist of 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter 25% air and 25% water. The volume of each of these components varies from one soil to another. The ratio of water to air within a soil may vary greatly due to changing climatic conditions.

What are the four general components of an average soil and the percentage of each?

Soil minerals are inorganic materials made up of approximately 64 elements. Among these elements, sixteen are considered essential for plant growth and development.

Organic matter:

consists of decomposed plant and animal matter provides nutrients to plants and other soil organisms holds water in the soil minimizes the leaching of nutrients improves soil structure and porosity

Water is an extremely important natural resource. What are some organisms that would not exist without water?

Plants need water from the soil for necessary growth.

Water and air are necessary for the growth of plants and other organisms. The amount of water in the soil varies with climatic conditions and drainage. During rainfall, air in the soil is displaced by water. A certain amount of water is adsorbed by the soil particles, while the rest drains from the soil once the rainfall stops.

Construct a representation of soil composition in a clear container using food to represent different layers of soil Allow students to eat the “soil.”Importance and Formation of Soil

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL

United States’ greatness is due to the productive capacity of the soils; one of the few nations that produces enough food and fiber for its own use and exports products to other countries

Soil:

acts as a habitat for soil organisms an engineering medium

Presentation H: Intro

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system for water supply and purification original source of most nutrients for all plant and animal life acts as a continuous recycling system for nutrients, organic

waste provides nutrients for plant growth decaying plants return nutrients directly to the soil

Animals eat plants, or other animals that did eat plants, to get their nutrients; animals produce wastes and, eventually, die and decay, returning nutrients to the soil.

PERMANENCE OF SOILS

Soils appear to be permanent and unchanging. In reality, soils are very dynamic; formation of soils takes place over long periods of time; changes must balance each other in order to maintain productivity of soil

FORMATION OF SOILS

Soil formation:

based on the weathering of rocks and minerals; Physical and chemical decomposition eventually break down rocks and minerals into the mineral matter component of soil;

slow process that takes place over long periods of time (100 to 900 years); average, about 100 years to develop one inch of topsoil

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

The kinds of soils formed at a particular site are determined by the interaction of (1) climate, (2) living organisms, (3) parent soil material, (4) topography, and (5) time. Different combinations of these factors lead to the formation of different soils.

Soil Formation

Texas acreage is divided into four broad, natural, geologic regions:

Central Lowlands Basins and Ranges Great Plains Coastal Plains

What is parent material?

PARENT MATERIAL AND PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF TEXAS

Presentation I: Intro

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Parent materials of High Plains form brown to reddish, mostly deep, clay loams, sand loams and sands that are underlain by free lime.

In the Rolling Plains, parent material consists of sand loam, clay loam, and clay materials.

Parent materials in Blackland Prairie consist of weakly consolidated, marine and freshwater chalks, marls, clays, sands, and silts of variable lime content.

Loamy to clayey, alluvial soils found in North Central Prairies, Grand Prairie, and Cross-Timbers

Dark, clayey, alluvial soils of Edwards Plateau developed from limestone and other calcareous materials.

Soils of the Coastal Plains developed from parent material deposits laid down in freshwater as the Gulf of Mexico receded.

Soils of the Trans-Pecos range from shallow to deep and clays to sands.

In addition to parent materials, other soil formation factors also have a significant influence on the development of soils.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

IDENTIFYING SOIL CHARACTERISTICS IN A SOIL PROFILE

Soil profile: vertical section of soil through all of its horizons

Horizon: layer of soil with characteristics produced by soil-forming processes

The six capital letters O, A, E, B, C, and R are symbols for the six master soil horizons. Soil profiles seldom contain all six horizons. Most soils do include at least three master horizons, particularly the “A”, “B”, and “C” horizons.

Solum: (true soil) the combination of horizons above the “C” horizon

Lower case letters, used as suffixes to the capital letters, designate specific soil characteristics.

Arabic numerals indicate specific subdivisions within a specific horizon.

Presentation J: Intro

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Within a specific soil, horizons may vary considerably in one or more features:

thickness structure texture color consistence Presentation K: Intro

APPLICATION Key Points MethodsAdminister Topic Test. Review the

Topic Test with your students by going over the student nots and then distribute the file, Intro_horticulture_TT.

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REFERENCES/ ADDITIONAL MATIERIALS

Australian National University Forest Science Conservation and Management. (2000). ANU Forestry. [Online]. Available: http://online.anu.edu.au/Forestry

Bishop, Douglas, et al. Crop Science and Food Production. Dallas, TX: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Brady, N. and R. Weil. The Nature and Properties of Soils. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999.

Davidson, M.W. (2001). Molecular Expression Cell Biology: Structures of Cells and Viruses.

[Online]. Available: http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html

Donahue, R., R. Miller, and J. Shickluna. Soils: An Introduction to Soils and Plant Growth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Donahue, R., R. Follet, and R. Tulloch. Our Soils and Their Management. Danville, IL: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc.

Farabee, M.J. (2000). Plants and Their Structures. [Online]. Available:

http://gened.emc.maricopa.edu/bio/bio181BIOBK/BioBookPLANTANA.html

Hartmann, Hudson T., et al. Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1997.

Hayward, M.D., N.O. Bosemark, and I. Romagosa. Plant Breeding: Principles and Prospects. New York, NY: Chapman & Hall, 1993.

Holt, Reinhardt, and Winston. (1999) Modern Biology. Austin, TX: Harcourt Brace &

Company.

Instructional Materials Service. “The Soil Orders,” (a set of color slides with script). College Station, TX: Instructional Materials Service, Texas A&M University.

Janick, Jules, et al. Plant Science: An Introduction to World Crops. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Kramer, Paul J. and John S. Boyer. Water Relations of Plants and Soils. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Master Gardener Handbook. Texas Cooperative Extension Service. College Station, TX, 1995.

Miller, Kenneth R. and Joseph Levine. Biology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Natural Resource Conservation Society. (2000). Natural Resource Conservation Society. [Online]. Available: http://www.nrce.usda.gov

Poincelot, Raymond P. Horticulture: Principles and Practical Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Rissler, J. and M. Melton. The Ecological Risks of Engineered Crops. Cambridge, MS: The MIT Press, 1996.

Salisbury, Frank B. and Cleon W. Ross. Plant Physiology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Schraer W.D. and H.J. Stoltze. Biology: The Study of Life. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, (1991).

Slavko, B. Principles and Methods of Plant Breeding, Volume 17: Developments in Crop Science Elsevier. New York, NY, 1990.

Texas Cooperative Extension Service. Master Gardener Handbook. 3rd edition. College Station,

TX. 1995.

University of Idaho Soils Science Division. (2001). Soil Taxonomy–The Twelve Soil Orders. [Online]. Available: http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/ [2001, June]

Welsh, J.R. Fundamentals of Plant Genetics and Breeding. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1990.

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