lesson 2 - methods of research

METHODS OF

RESEARCH

Course Description

This course provides essential ideas, concepts

and principles in methods of research, as well

as the important skills needed by the

researcher in the various techniques and

procedures in the correct preparation and

presentation of research report. Required

output is project proposal.

Objectives

Show understanding on underlying concepts, principles and basic methods of research.

Demonstrate skills in utilizing research process

Apply research process in constructing thesis/research proposal

Conduct group participatory research and rapid rural appraisal system

Defend thesis/research proposal

Course Content

Introduction of Research

Research Problems and Objectives

Related Literatures and Studies

Research Methods and Design

Statistical Treatment

Data Processing

Collection of Data

Sampling Design

Data Analysis/Presentation & Interpretation

Course Content

Summary/Conclusion & Recommendation

Bibliography

Research/Thesis Proposal

Introduction to Research

1.1. Definition, Purpose, characteristics,

differences, kinds and classification of Research

Qualities of Good Research

Qualities of Good Researcher

Hindrances of scientific Inquiry,

Major needs and problems/demands of Research

Values of Research to Man

Types of Research

Classification of Research,

The variable

Components of Research Process,

1.2. Qualities of Good Research

Instrument

Validity, Types of validity, reliability,

methods in testing the reliability of research instrument,

usability

determining factors of usability of research

The Research Problem &

Objectives

2.1

The Research Problems, characteristics of

a Research Problem, Sources of Research Problem

The Research Objectives,

Statement of the Problem/Objectives,

Hypothesis, Theoretical and Conceptual

Framework, Assumptions,

Significance of the Study, Scope and Limitation of the Study

Definition of Terms: Conceptual and Operational

Related Literature & Studies

3.1.Importance of Related Literature and

Studies

3.2, Purpose and Functions of related

studies,

3.3 Characteristics,

3.4. Sources and Where to locate the

sources,

3.5 Related Legal Bases, Related

Literature, Related Studies( Local, Foreign)

Research

Methods/ Research Designs

4.1.Historical Design:

Uses of historical

research, major steps of historical designs,

sources of historical research

4.2.Descriptive Design: Meaning,

characteristic, value, importance and

advantages, techniques, Types of Descriptive

Research : Descriptive- Survey, Descriptive-

normative survey, Descriptive-status,

Descriptive

analysis, Descriptive classification,

descriptive-evaluative, descriptive-

comparative, correlational survey, longitudinal

survey

4.3. Experimental Design: Meaning, concepts

of causation, distinguishing features,

experimental designs, experimental plan,

Types of Experimental Designs: Single-group

design, Two-group design, two-pair group

design, parallel group design, counterbalanced

or latin square design, complete randomized

design, randomized complete block design,

correlational Design, Pre-test and Post test

design, case study design, Case work, Content

Analysis

Sampling Designs

5.1. Definition,Purpose, Terminologies, Principles, advantagesand Disadvantages of

Sampling,

Planning a Sample

Survey,

5.2. Determination ofSample Size

5.3. Sampling Design:(A) Scientific Sampling:

Restricted random sampling, unrestricted

random sampling,

stratified random sampling, systematic

sampling, multistage sampling,

cluster sampling

(B) Nonscientific sampling:

Purposive Sampling, Incidental sampling,

Quota sampling

Collection of Data

6.1. Classification of Data According to

Source, Selecting method of collecting Data,

Research Instruments or

Tools

6.2. The Questionnaire: Definition,

Advantages and Disadvantages,

Construction of Questionnaire,

Types of Questions, Guidelines in

Formulation, Problems in

responses, evidence of misleading

questions, the cover letter,

evaluating the questionnaire,

sample questionnaires

6.3. The Interview: Purpose and

uses of interview,

advantages and

disadvantages, types of

classes of

interviews, interview as

instruments, steps/

pointers, what

to avoid in interview

Data Processing

7.1. Data Processing: Definition

7.2. Data Matrix: Types of matrices

(Univariate matrix, bivariate,multivariate)

7.3. Dummy tables

Statistical Treatment

8.1. Univariate Statistical

Treatment, Bivariate Statistical Treatment,

Multivariate Statistical

Treatment

8.2. Frequency Distribution and

Graphical Representation

8.3. Descriptive Statistics:

Measures of

Central Tendency, Measures of

Variability, Normal

Distribution of Standard,

Measures of Relative

Variability,

Measures of Kurtosis,

Measures of Skewness

8.4. Inferential Statistics:

Correlation,

Chi-square, z test means, t-test,

f- test, Kruskal-Wallis One-way

Analysis of varianceby ranks,

Friedman Two-way analysis of variance by ranks

Data Analysis, Presentation and

Interpretation of Data

9.1. Data Analysis: Types of Data

Analysis (Univariate

Analysis, Bivariate Analysis,

Multivariate

Analysis, Normative Analysis,

Status Analysis, Descriptive

Analysis, Classification Analysis,

Evaluative Analysis, Comparative

Analysis)

9.2. Presentation of Data:

Textual presentation, tabular presentation,

Graphical Presentation,

Purpose of Graphing, Advantages and

Limitations of Graphs,

Types of graphs, construction of

Individual Graphs

9.3. Group Derive Generalization

Summary, Conclusions and

Recommendations

10.1. Summary of Findings

10.2. Conclusion and Some dangers to

avoid in drawing up conclusions

10.3. Recommendations

Thesis Proposal

Writing

11.1. Writing Requirements

11.2. Content and Structure of Thesis Proposal:

The Problem: Rationale and Background, Review of

Related Literature, Methodology,Materials and methods,

results and discussion, summary, conclusion and

recommendations, Schedule of Activities,

Bibliography, Curriculum Vitae

11.3. Form and Styles of a Research

Paper, Thesis and Dissertations

Sometimes it falls upon a generation to be great. You can be that great

generation

Nelson Mandela

What is research?

Research is the manner in which we solveknotty problems in our attempt to pushback the frontiers of human ignorance.

Research is a way of thinking.

What is research?

Importance of Research

To serve man and a good life

Discover more facts about unknown

phenomena

Find answer to the problems by existing

methods and

information

Discover unrecognized

substance

Discover pathways of action

Order related, valid generalization into

systematized science

Provide basis for decision making

Importance of Research

To satisfy researchers curiosity

To find answers to queries

Acquire better and deeper understanding

To expand and verify existing knowledge

Improves efficiency, efficacy and quality

Improves exportations of goods

Respond to economic recovery and austerity

Characteristics of Good Research

EMPIRICAL Direct experience of observation

LOGICALValid procedures and

principles

CYCLICAL Starts with problem and ends with problem

ANALYTICAL Utilizes proven analytical procedures

CRITICALExhibits careful and

precise judgment

METHODICAL Uses systematic methods and procedures

REPLICABILITY Repeated to arrive at valid and conclusive results

Characteristics of

A Good Researcher

R esearch Oriented

E fficient

S cientific

E ffective

A ctive

R esourceful

C reative

H onest

E conomical

R eligious

Applications of ResearchFrom the viewpoint of

The service

provider

The administrator

Manager/PlannerThe consumer The professional

How many people are using the service

or the product?

Why do some people use the

service/product while

others do not?

How effective is the service product?

What are the needs of the community?

What types ofservice/product are

needed by the

community?

How many service providers are

needed?

Am I, a consumer,getting value for

money?

How good are theservice providers?

What are the long-term effects of the

product I am using?

Which is the mostEffective intervention

for a particular

problem?

What is the relation-ship between X and

Y?

How valid is a particular theory in

thepresent theory?

Classification of Research

1 Illuminative Research

2 Directive Research

3 Predictive Research

According to Purpose

Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future operation of

the variables under investigation with the aim

of controlling or redirecting such for the

better.

Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings.

Illuminative research is concerned with the components of the variable being

investigated


Basic or Pure Research

Applied Research

According to Goal

Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories and principles.

Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the

efficacy of theories and principles.


Experimental

Descriptive

Exploratory

According to Levels of

Investigation

In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific

situation.

In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.

In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on each

other.


Holistic

Analytic

According to Type of Analysis

In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the

components of the research situation.

The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system

first and then on its internal relationships.


1

Action Research

According to Scope

This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem

which is not so big. It is almost problem

solving.


1

Developmental

2

Evaluation

According to Choice of Answer

In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the

researcher tries to find the most

advantageous.

In development research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable

instrument or process than has been available

.


1 Quantitative

2 Non-quantitative

According to Statistical Contents

Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to

determine the results if the study. Inferential

statistics such as correlation, chi-square,

analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the

hypothesis.

Non-quantitative research. This is the research in which the use of quantity or

statistics is practically nil.


1 Experimental

2Descriptive

3 Historical

According to Time Element

Historical research describes what was.

Descriptive research describes what is.

Experimental research describes what will be.

What is a Variable?

are quantities that can be changed by the experimenter.

Quantity susceptible of fluctuations of change in value or magnitude under different

conditions. (Calmorin 2007)

a quality or characteristics that two or more mutually exclusive values or properties

(Sevilla et. Al. 2002)

Types of Variables

Types Variable

Independent Variable (IV)

Dependent Variable

(DV)

Moderator Variable

Control Variable

Intervening Variable

This is a stimulus variable

chosen by the researcher to

determine its relationship to

an observe phenomena

This is a response variable

which is observed and

measured to determine the

effect of the independent

variables.

This is a secondary or special type

of variable chosen by the

researcher to determine if it

influences, alters or modifies the

relationships between the

independent and dependent

variables thus produces an

interaction effect

This variable controlled by the

researcher in which the effects

can be neutralized by

eliminating or removing the

variable

This variables intrudes or

interferes with the IV and DV

but its effects can either

reinforce or weaken the IV and

DV

Mathematics Scores and Number of Hours Study in

Mathematics as Perceived by Students

No. of

Hours

Age, Gender,

Socio-

economic,

attitudes

towards study

No. of

Hours

Categorical Variables

Categorical variables are also known as discrete or qualitative variables.

Categorical variables can be further categorized as:

Nominal,

Ordinal,

Interval

Nominal

Nominal variable is one that has two or more categories, but there is no intrinsic ordering to

the categories.

For example, gender is a categorical variable having two categories (male and female)

Hair color is also a categorical variable having a number of categories (blonde,

brown, brunette, red, etc.)

Ordinal

An ordinal variable is similar to nominal variable the difference is that there is a clear

ordering of the variables.

For example, suppose you have a variable, economic status, with three categories (low,

medium and high)

Interval

An interval variable is similar to an ordinal variable, except that the intervals between

the values of the interval variable are equally

spaced.

Stage 1Define

Stage 2Plan

Stage 3Conduct

Stage 4Analyze

Stage 5Interpret

Develop Idea

Review Literature

State Problem

Develop Hypothesis

Define Variables

Design Experiments

Def. Controls & Apparatus

Define Procedures

Select Subjects

PretestExperiment

CollectData

ReduceData

CalculateStatistics

EstimateParameters

Test Hypothesis

Draw Inferences

GeneralizeResults

ReportExperiment

How to Write the Introduction

The introduction should not be long as long as the following questions are answered:

What was the problem or what is the research all about?

Why was it necessary to solve the problem or work on it, or why is the problem/work important, or why did I do the work?

What were the findings of previous authors who worked on aspects related to the problem or what has been done about it before I started the work?

What did I expect to accomplish(objectives) or prove (hypothesis)?

Stating the Problem

1. State the problem clearly

2. Discuss problem by giving information:

- why it is a problem

- how long it has been a problem

- the situation in which it is encountered

- other pertinent information

3. Cite previous works or review relevant to the problem

Importance of the Problem

1. It is usually economic as in applied research oracademic as in basic research.

2. Basic research has no purpose other than toproduce new information.

3. Applied research is problem-oriented.

4. If study deals with unknown crop, describe itbriefly and discuss its importance usually in thefirst few sentences of the introduction

Example: Statement of Importance

The identification of genotypic variation ineither the response to ethylene or ethyleneproduction in rosal could lead to a morefocused breeding effort in the geneticimprovement of postharvest longevity of thisflower.

Formulating the Objectives and Hypothesis

1.State what you hoped to come up with or accomplish, not what you did.

e.g. survey, examine, quantify, or investigate tells reader what you did. evaluate, compare, characterize, determine, or recommend tells reader what you did with data to come up with conclusions.

2. Avoid enumerating data in your objectives

3. New objectives must be reflected in the study.

4. If a hypothesis (expected answer) is given, the scope of the paper is usually reported instead of objectives

5. Some authors and journal editors advise that the introduction states the principal results while the Results and Discussion presents the evidences and argues with them. Follow style recommended by journal

Examples of Objectives and Hypothesis

The objective of this experiment was to develop quantitative data for maximum pollen depositions of Eugenia sp. For self- and cross-compatibility studies.

This lack of starch suggests that either decreased starch synthesis or increased starch degradation may be involved in the internal breakdown of the tissue. This paper reports results of experiments

Other Information in the Introduction

1. Define uncommon scientific terms.

2. Definition could be a sentence by itself or part of sentence mentioned in passing to ensure readers from other scientific fields can fully understand the paper.

3. If there are basic assumptions (framework) state them in this part of the paper

4. Mention place and duration of study in this section if more appropriate than in the methods section

Review of Literature

A brief review of literature (published work) is usually built into the introduction to answer the question, What has been done relative to the problem at hand?

More extensive citations may be seen in the discussion, where appropriate, to elaborate statement, to show what the results mean, or to support ideas.

Importance of the Review

Allows researcher to know and show the state of knowledge about the subject matter.

Provides the researcher approaches and ideas to help him plan the research and avoid or solve problematic situations that may arise during the study.

Ensures that there will be no duplication of work and researchable areas will be covered

Organizing the Review

Make an outline of the topics to be presented

Classify pertinent abstracts of the reviewed literature into topics.

Group similar findings so there is an organized and orderly presentation of results

Compare or contrast findings where appropriate

Present one idea per paragraph

Do not include a literature that has no bearing on the problem


Padded reviews are undesirable

Complementary papers by same author should be limited and avoided, if possible

Cite results but never tabulated data

Do not cite opinion of an author, unless it is essential as in an argument

If opinions are necessary, cite the results first that formed the basis of opinion


State research findings in your own words to suit the purpose of the paper being written but be careful not to misinform the reader

If information was from secondary source, check the citation from the original publication

Do not rely on another authors citation

Do not forget to write complete citation of secondary source in the list of literature cited

Enclose in quotation word-for-word citations

Common Pitfalls in Reviewing

1. Local researches are often neglected

2. Researchers jump unnecessarily to conclusion that no researches are done on the subject matter

Local works are generally unpublished and not many of those published are deposited in abstracting and indexing services

Foreign works are easily accessible, thus local works are often neglected

Determining which Literature to Review

Cite from reliable sources

Use books and reviews with caution late and interpretative and not original; data are often second hand therefore unsuitable for technical publication; but some are useful due to extensive citations for general information

Unless essential, never use magazines, newspapers, pocketbooks and similar publications meant for business

Avoid old publications

Materials and Methods

Value of paper is judged from the materials and methods

A good method may not necessarily mean a good paper but a doubtful method already makes a paper questionable.

Readers should be able to adopt the methods employed without mistake; they should be able to understand what the researcher did

Details to Include in Materials and Methods

Confine methods to things actually done

Conform to the objectives

Standard features are replication and design state number of replications, and statistical design used

State indices/rating and statistical analysis used

No need to describe all details of each equipment e.g. type of balance used to take the yield


Equation of common knowledge need not be explained

State date/year when research was conducted if it affects the results some editors do not publish very old results

Do not enumerate data taken but explain how these were obtained

Should be brief as possible


All information that will be used in the footnote to make tables understandable should be removed from the materials and methods.

If information about treatments is found in the tables in the Results and Discussion, there is no need to enumerate the treatments in the methods

Citing Published Methods

Cite published methods used as is

If published method is used but modified it, state method in

the text and describe your modifications in detail

If you cite a published recommended procedure such as that

of the Phi. Recommends, you can also say Plants were grown using standard commercial practices.

Results and Discussion

Results answer What did I observe? Discussion answers What does it mean?

Results/discussion is the heart of the publication

It communicates the facts, measurements, and observations of research worker (Whimser, 85)

Presents representative rather than repetitive data

It is not the amount of data presented but how meaningful the data are that counts.

Results and Discussion

Use of an Outline

helps presents results/discussion systematically

Lists contents in a format which best tells the readers

the scope of the study

Helps present results logically rather than

chronologically

Subtopics in the outline provide an easy overview of the

areas covered in the results and discussion

Results and Discussion: Format

No single formula for a good format

Results and discussion could be presented together or separately

Usually, results are presented and discussed, one table after another

No need to mention again data shown in earlier table except in concluding paragraph

Do not discuss Table 2 then point out data in Table 1

Results and Discussion:Format

Present results separately from the discussion when:

you need to interrelate data in explaining or discussing the results

You have to discuss two or more studies together

There is a repetition of explanations or confirmation of the results by works of others

Present results in sequence table by table.

Explain each finding.


Summary and Recommendations

most summaries start with one sentence on scope and objectives of the study

In many journals, no summary if there is an abstract and recommendations are included in the discussion

Extract summary/conclusions from the results and discussion

If results are presented separately from discussion, follow sequence of topics in discussion but limit information presented from the results.


Discuss final worth of the study, its implications, and usefulness

Make recommendations on how to benefit from the findings

Present new avenues for research to be explored

Comment on reliability of results

Make sure summary/recommendations satisfy objectives

Results and Discussion:Style

Style is the way you write. It means the way words areput together in sentences, the way sentences arearrange into paragraphs, and the way paragraphs aregroup into a composition

Results and Discussion:StyleTechnical style is the way you write whendealing with technical subject matter. It isdistinguished by a calm, restrained tone, byan absence of any attempt to arouse motion,by the use of specialized terminology and byan accepted mechanical convention of the useof abbreviations, number, and symbols.

Results and Discussion:Tense

Use the past tense to report observations

Use the present tense for general truths and references to stable conditions

Information from a research study published in a primary journal is considered knowledge and is referred to in the present tense

Use of present tense implies that findings are still generally applicable and true up to the present

Be consistent with your tenses

Bibliographic Citations

Books

Author(s)/Editor(s)/Corporate Author(s). Title of publication. Place of publication: Publisher, year. Pagination. - (notes)Examples:

Marei, Sayed A. The world food crisis. London:Longman Group Ltd., 1978. 134p.

Librero, Aida R., ed. Technology assessment for agriculture in the Philippines. Los Baos, Laguna: Philippine Council for

Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, 1990. 299p. - (Book Series No. 92).Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development. PCARRD annual report 1989. Los Baos, Laguna: PCARRD, [1990]. 108p.


Periodicals

Author(s). Title of article. Name of Journal/Periodical Vol. No. (Issue No.): pagination, Month, year.Example:

Soliven, Max E. More on the culture of Perante orange. Greenfields 18(4):14-15, apr 1988.

Research Reports (Project)

Author(s). Tile of publication. Place of publication: Publisher(s)/Implementing Agency, year. Pagination. - (notes).

Garcia, Arnulfo G.; Bergonia, Evelyn A. Minimum input farming systems. Los Baos, Laguna: University of the Philippines Los Baos, 1987. 136p. - (PCARRD Proj. No. 89-291-21).


Research Report (Study under a Project)

Author(s). Study title. Project Title. Place of Publication: Implementing Agency, year. Pagination. - (Notes).

Bergonia, Evelyn A., Garcia, Arnulfo G. The potential of some selected intercropping patterns in reducing pest incidence and damage. Minimum Input Farming Systems. Los Baos, Laguna: University of the Philippines Los Baos, 1987. 68p. - (PCARRD Proj. No. 89-291-21, Study 2).

Theses and Dissertations

Author. Title of thesis/dissertation. M.S. Thesis/ Ph.D. Dissertation, University, year. pagination.

Bustamante, Jose L. The production of five field crops in a field infested by Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King and H. Robinson. M.S. Thesis, University of the Philippines Los Banos, 1984. 123p.

Bibliographic Citation

Proceedings

Author(s). Title of proceedings. Place of

Publication:Publisher, year.pagination. - (Notes)Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

Resources Research and Development. Rattan:

proceedings of the national symposium/workshop on

rattan; Ecotech Center, Lahug, Cebu City; June 1-3, 1988.

Los Baos, Laguna: PCARRD, 1990. 182p. - (Book Ser.

No. 99).

Article/Paper from Proceedings

Author(s). Title of article/paper. In: Title of Proceedings,

Place of Publication: Publisher, year. PaginationEusebio, Josefa S. Contribution of the home garden to family

nutrition. In: Home Gardening Program in

the Philippines. Los Baos, Laguna: Philippine Council for

Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research

and Development, 1988.89 p. - (Book Ser. No. 69).

Paper Presented in a Workshop/SeminarAuthor(s): Title of paper. Paper presented at Title of Workshop/Seminar; Place; date.

Librero, Aida R Inventory of research manpower in agriculture and

natural resources in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Workshop on Manpower Resources in

Agriculture and Natural Resources Research; Singapore; October 21-23, 1981.

Bibliographic Citation

lesson 2 - methods of research

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