legumes. david s. seigler department of plant biology university of illinois urbana, illinois 61801...
TRANSCRIPT
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Legumes
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David S. Seigler Department of Plant Biology
University of IllinoisUrbana, Illinois 61801 USA
[email protected]://www.life.illinois.edu/seigler
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Legumes - Outline• Importance:
all cultures - ancient - e.g., lentils
fix nitrogen • Botanical
Fabaceae fruit a legume or pod
• Propertiesphysicalnutritionalprotein: must be detoxifiedsteps in domestication,
indehiscent pods
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Major legumes Near East:
lentilsgarbanzosbroad beanspeas
New World:Phaseolus spp.peanuts
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China:soybeans (Glycine max)Vigna spp.
Africa:Vigna unguiculatapigeon peas
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Reading
• Chapter 6 - Legumes• seeds of members of the Fabaceae
p. 137-138
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Introduction
• Second only to the grasses in their importance to humans and our domestic animals.
• Every major civilization has been based on a legume as well as a cereal grain.
• Legumes are by definition all members of the Fabaceae or Leguminosae.
• This is a large family with perhaps 18,000 species.
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Courtesy Dr. Ted Hymowitz
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The legume
• The Fabaceae consists of three subfamilies.
• Almost all important crop legumes are in the subfamily Faboideae (Papilionoideae).
• Fruit a legume. Commonly known as "pods".
• A single carpel that splits along two longitudinal margins at maturity to release its seeds.
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• Many important legumes in table on page 143.
• Diagram of legume flowers and fruits p. 137-138.
• World production... see page 144.
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Nitrogen fixation
• The roots of most legumes form associations with bacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• These Rhizobium species live in nodules on the roots.
• They provide “free” fertilizer.• Flowering plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen but must absorb nitrate or ammonium nitrogen through the roots.
• Nitrogen cycle on pg. 140.
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Nodules on Lupinus texensis roots
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Nutritional value
• Legumes rich in protein (nitrogen).• See table on pg. 142 for nutritional composition.
• Many are in the 20-30% range.• Legumes also contain some fats but usually less starches than cereal grains.
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Nutritional value
• Amino acid composition different from that of cereal grains.
• Legume seeds have more of some amino acids than cereal grains.
• Seeds of almost all legumes are toxic if eaten uncooked because of proteins or peptides that inhibit digestive enzymes.
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Important points
• Legumes fix nitrogen
• Legumes rich in protein
• Legumes easily stored and harvested
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Ancient cultivars
• Near East and Europe: peas, broad beans, lentils, and garbanzos.
• New World: common beans, lima beans, and peanuts
• South East Asia and China: soy beans, mung beans (Vigna aureus) and adjuki bean (Vigna mungo).
• Africa: black-eyed pea, pigeon pea.
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Domestication of legumes
• Lentils are one of oldest domesticated legumes
• Wild small-seeded legumes used.• By 6000 B.C., lentils, peas, vetch (Vicia sp.), bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), and garbanzos were already cultivated.
• In Africa Vigna by 2000 B.C.• In the Americas, Phaseolus coccineus in Tamps. by 5000 B.C. wild harvested.
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• By 4000 B.C., P. vulgaris and P. lunatus were cultivated in Peru.
• Many domesticated legumes have lost the ability to reseed themselves.
• Pods of cultivars are indehiscent.
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Lentils (Lens culinaris)
• Among the most ancient of cultivated crops.
• 8000-9000 years in the Near East.
• Lentils found in archaeological sites before that, but as is the case for cereal grains, it is difficult to sort out what is cultivated and what is not.
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Lentils (Lens culinaris)
• Lentils especially high in protein.
• Lentils drought resistant.• By 2200 B.C., they appear in Egyptian tombs.
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Lentils, Lens culinaris
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• Lentils particularly important in India today. Many different kinds of "dhal".
• In the U.S. mostly cultivated in Washington and Idaho in the Palouse Prairies.
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Peas (Pisum sativum)
• Peas are also an extremely old crop from the Near Eastern center.
• Peas go back at least 9000 years.
• They may have also come from Ethiopia and Central Asia.
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Peas (Pisum sativum)
• In the Middle Ages in Europe, dried peas made up a major part of the diet of peasants.
• Still very important there, especially in Eastern Europe.
• People didn't eat "green peas" until about the 1700's.
• Peas are the fourth most important legume crop world wide.
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Peas, Pisum sativum and
Garbanzos, Cicer arietinum
The Complete Book of Fruits & Vegetables, F. Bianchini, F.
Corbetta, M. Pistola, Crown Publishers, New
York, 1973
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Pea fields in Washington
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Broad beans (Vicia faba)
• Broad beans domesticated in the Near Eastern Center.
• Cultivation of these beans goes back to Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks.
• The only common bean in Europe before 1492.
• Production spread to Asia at some time in the past and today China is the world's largest producer of broad beans.
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Broad beans (Vicia faba)
• The Spanish brought broad beans (habas) to the New World.
• Grow best in a cool climate. Canada produces more than the U.S.
• Cause a genetic disorder "favism" in some people that eat them.
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Broad beans, Vicia faba
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Garbanzos or chick peas, Cicer arietinum
• Also from Near Eastern Center (Northeast Africa).
• Cultivated 7400 years ago.• By 2000 B.C. introduced into India.• India now grows 79% of world's crop.
• Brought to the New World by the Spanish and Portuguese.
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Garbanzos, Cicer arietinum, Fabaceae
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Soybeans (Glycine max)
• Soybeans arose in China.• Cultivated at least 7000 years ago.
• In Chinese literature before 1000 B.C.
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Soybeans (Glycine max)
• About 38% protein and 18% fats and oils.
• The amino acid content is especially good.
• Serve as a source of edible oils.• In the Orient, soybeans are eaten in many different ways.
• Converted to miso, tofu, okara, soy milk, soy sauce, curd, cheeses, and greens (sprouts).
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Glycine max, soybean, in
flower
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soybeans
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Soybean harvest
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Variation in soybeans
National Geographic
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• Although soybeans were introduced to Europe quite early, they never became popular.
• In Pennsylvania by 1804. Benjamin Franklin was sent a sample of seeds and both he and Thomas Jefferson grew them.
• Until 1940's never common in the United States.
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• Coagulated soy protein called tofu.• Most of the U.S. soybean crop is consumed indirectly.
• Over half of our production is exported.
• Much is used in this country as "texturized vegetable protein".
• About 15% of crop used for industrial purposes.
• Soy beans are the most important bean crop in the world.
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Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan)
• Pigeon peas (gandules) commonly cultivated in the Caribbean area.
• Native to Africa and introduced into New World by black slaves.
• Cultivated perhaps 4000 years in Africa.
• Widely cultivated in India, which grows 95% of the world's crop.
• Pigeon peas do well on poor soils.
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Pigeon peas, Cajanus cajan
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Black-eyed peas, Vigna unguiculata
• Black-eyed peas also domesticated in Africa and brought to the Americas by black slaves.
• Other species of the genus are widely cultivated in Asia.
• These or related species were in India by "Sanskrit times". Romans and Greeks knew them.
• In the U.S., mostly grown in Texas, Georgia, Oklahoma, and the Carolinas
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Asian Vigna species
• Many species of Vigna were domesticated and cultivated in Asia.
• Black gram or urd bean (Vigna mungo).• Mung bean (V. aureus)• Adjuki bean (V. angularis) (and others).
• Usually included in "bean" statistics.
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Adjuki bean, Phaseolus mungo
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Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
• Lima beans may have been independently domesticated in Mexico and in northern South America.
• Appear to have spread southward into other parts of South America.
• The oldest cultivated materials are from Peru (7000-10000 years old).
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Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
• In 1492, cultivated from Canada to Argentina.
• Usually perennials in the tropics.
• Many lima beans are highly toxic unless prepared properly.
• This is not true in the United States and Europe, however.
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Primitive lima beans
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Lima beans from San Juan, Puerto Rico
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Scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus coccineus
• The scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) is an ancient cultivar in Mexico.
• They are still commonly eaten there.
• This species also a common bean in Europe.
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Scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus
coccineus
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Scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus coccineus
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Common beans, Phaseolus vulgaris
• Kidney beans, pinto beans, navy beans, black beans, green beans, wax beans, and snap beans are all Phaseolus vulgaris.
• Domesticated in Mexico and South America.
• Domesticated several times.• Fossil cultivated beans go back 7000 years in Mexico and almost as far in Peru.
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Navy beans, Phaseolus vulgaris
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Kidney beans
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• Beans were commonly cultivated in all parts of the Americas in 1492.
• This species is the second or third most important bean crop in the world.
• The American Indians commonly cultivated beans with squash and corn. This was partly to provide support for the beans which were viny, but had dietary implications as well.
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Peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
• Peanuts native to central South America.
• Domesticated by the Guaraní Indians.• By 2000 B.C. cultivated in Peru.• Portuguese took peanuts to several parts of the world in the early 1500's.
• Now hard to tell that they are not native.
• They were widely cultivated in Africa.• Brought back to the Americas by black slaves.
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Arachis hypogaea, peanut in flower
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Arachis hypogaea, peanut fruits
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• Peanuts important in the southeastern U.S. in sandy soils.
• Largely replaced cotton in the South after the boll weevil became a major pest about 1900.
• Peanuts are widely eaten in West Africa and Asia today.
• Peanuts are the second most important legume, but are often not eaten directly.
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• Contains more oil than most legumes. Peanut oil widely used in West Africa and France.
• Usually used to fondue because of its higher temperature properties.
• Fruits borne under the ground.• Much U.S. production goes into peanut butter.
• Aflatoxin is a major problem.
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Vigna (Voandzeia) subterranea,
bambara groundnut
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Tamarind and Carob
• Tamarinds (Tamarindus indica) have been used in tropical Africa and Asia for thousands of years.
• The sticky pulp surrounding the seeds has a sour taste and is the part used.
• Used in many types of sauces.• See pg. 152.
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Tamarindus indica, tamarind
Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants
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• Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) has also been cultivated in the Near East for thousands of years.
• Fruits have long been used to feed livestock.
• Carob currently used as a chocolate substitute and as a source of "locust gum".
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Ceratonia
siliqua, carobCourtesy Dr. Ben-Erik van Wyk
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