lecture notes part1

2001/2002 WMET2105 Web Programming

Psychology Two

Ms Joy Louise GumikirizaBCP,Msc Clinical Psychology

References:

Lippa, R, A. (1989). Introduction to social psychology 8th Edition. Wadsworth Publishing

Barlow, David, H., Durand, Mark, V. (1994). Abnormal psychology 3rd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing

American Psychiatric Association (2000). DSM- IV- TR. American Psychiatric Association Publishing Operations.


Contents

IntroductionTheoretic perspectives of human developmentTheories of developmentLanguage acquisition and developmentDevelopment of attachment Infant perception Introduction to abnormal psychologyAssessment and treatment of Psychiatric/Psychological

disorders

Tests at the end of every month (20 marks ) and final exams (60 marks)


Introduction(Developmental Psychology)

Definition v Development are the systematic changes in the individual that occur

between the moment of conception and deathv It also refers to how individuals develop and change over the course

of there lives Domains of developmentv There are 3 basic domains under which an individual develops.f) Physical development

this is biological growth or maturation. Developmental changes in the body that result from the process of aging. This includes changes in body size, brain, sense organs, muscles, bones, genitals e.t.c. it also includes how the person uses their body such as motor skills & sexual development


Introduction(Developmental Psychology)b) Cognitive development

these are changes in intellectual related abilities i.e. reasoning & thinking, language acquisition and how individuals gain and store knowledge of their physical and social environments. It also includes learning

e) Psychosocial developmentthis focuses on changes in feelings or emotions as well as changes in how we relate to other people. It includes relationships with family as well as with peers.


Introduction(Developmental

Relevance of developmental psychology to nursing

Ø It can give you appropriate expectations for children and adolescents

Ø Helps to respond appropriately to children’s actual behaviorØ Helps you recognize when departures from normal

development are truly significant & referrals need to be made

Ø Researchers and nurses may apply what they have learned and may help human beings develop in positive directions

Ø Helps individuals understand how to deal with changes that occur during old age.


Introduction(Developmental Theoretical perspectives to human developmentv Biological perspective

Ø This emphasizes the relationship of biological systems to behavior and mental processes

Ø This perspective started with Charles Darwin in the mid 1800’s.

Ø Darwin’s theory of evolution stresses the role of biogenetic factors in determining the development of individuals and the evolution of species

Ø He believed that development was a result of genetic inheritance that directed the development of the individual’s anatomy and physiology.

Ø Maturation was believed to be the unfolding of the individual’s genetic characteristics. And it was thought to occur with little influence from the environment therefore in order for one to understand human development, you should first understand human biogenetics


Introduction(Developmental v Behavioral learning perspectivev

Ø this emphasizes environmental factors in explaining development.

Ø It was first studied by John, B, Watson (1878 – 1958)Ø It views development as being largely determined by one’s

physical & social developmentØ Genetic factors are believed to be providing a blue print for

development with the environment providing the actual materials

Ø Here the role of learning & experience in shaping behavior is emphasized. Therefore in order to best understand human development, there is a need for an individual to focus on observable, overt behaviors, the process of learning & the influences from the environment on human behavior



v The cognitive perspective

Ø This perspective was first introduced by Jean Piaget (1896_ 1980). He maintained that from birth on wards, cognitive or mental development, is the result of an active construction process by the individual

Ø this emphasizes our active role in influencing our development in relationship with intellectual abilities

Ø This perspective focuses on the development of thinking, reasoning and related intellectual abilities

Ø From this point of view, humans actively select and process information about their world and construct a meaning full internal representation of there knowledge



v Psychodynamic perspectiveØ This was first initiated by Sigmund Freud and it

provides the historical basis for many perspectives’ key ideas

Ø This believes that people are always in a state of conflict between there internal urges (innate forces) and society’s constraints on their behavior

Ø It stresses that development is the result of dynamic inner forces of which individuals are normally unaware, e.g. Sexual energy, aggressive energy.

Ø Humans are born with an innate set of forces that shape and determine latter development



v Humanistic- Existential perspective Ø This was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

and Carl Rogers (1902- 1987)Ø This emphasizes individual’s active role in their on

going development vis-à-vis social and personality development

Ø It is based on an underlying belief that we make conscious choices that directly affect how we develop. i.e. development arises from striving to fulfill our potential for growth

Ø It focuses on the idea that each of us has the capacity to make our choices and to change these choices if we so choose in the process of development


Theories of developmentv Freud’s Psychoanalytical theoryØ Human development is motivated by energy or

libido. This approach believes that children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflict between biological drives or forces of social expectations. The ways these conflicts are resolved, determines development

Ø This theory focuses on five developmental stages and these includeo Oral stage (Birth – 1yr)o Anal stage (1-3yrs)o Phallic stage (3-6yrs)o Latency stage (6-12yrs)o Genital stage (12-on wards)


Theories of development

v Erick Erickson’s theory of Psychosocial development(1902 – 1994)

Ø He emphasized social cultural development in his theory

Ø He however puts more emphasis on social factors than maturation

Ø The theory sees the child as an active participant in his participant in his own development. It is comprised of 8 stages and these include;

5) Trust Vs Mistrust (Birth – 1yr)ü this corresponds to infancy and Freud's oral stage

of psycho sexual development


ü Infants are extremely helpless and dependant on there care givers and as a result they come to trust their parents and others who care for them adequately

ü Responsive maternal care while feeding the infant and adequate attention to the infants basic needs enables them to develop a sense of trust and confidence.

ü Infants who are given adequate care view people as good, predictable, dependable and reliable they also view the world as a good place to leave.

ü If care givers are harsh, rejecting and inconsistent, infants develop a sense of mistrust and view the world as a difficult place and people untrustworthy


Theories of development2) Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (1-3yrs)

ü This corresponds to Freud’s anal stage of psycho sexual development.

ü During this stage children achieve muscular control and motor skills like walking, climbing and manipulating objects

ü A child must also learn to what degree he/she can take pride in his/her own body and in the ability to decide how to use it and to what degree he/she will experience shame and doubt about the choices made.

ü A child who is treated with respect regardless of there errors, will eventually develop a sense of autonomy

ü If a child is consistently humiliated, shamed and embarrassed, they develop a sense of shame and doubt



3) Initiative Vs Guilt (3-6yrs)ü This is a stage of activity and curiosity. It corresponds

to the phallic stage of Freud’s psycho sexual theory.ü Children learn about the roles and institutions of society

and gain an insight about what kind of the person they can become.

ü Initiative involves a sense of ambition and social responsibility that develop when parents support their children’s developing sense of purpose and direction

ü The danger here is that parents’ demands for self control may lead to over control and result into a sense of guilt i.e. children will under take goals or activities that will make conflict with those of their parents and family members which will make them feel guilty


Theories of development4) Industry Vs inferiority (6-12yrs)

ü This is the school going age which corresponds to Freud’s latency stage. Here a child develops industrious capacity for productive work, cooperation with others and takes pride in doing things well.

ü Children leave the protection of their families and enter a world of school in which they learn to master a new set of challenges

ü They also acquire basic social and intellectual skills required in modern society

ü Children who master important social and academic skills develop a sense of industry

ü If parents fail to foster feelings of competence and mastery, develop a sense of inferiority were one feels they are not good at any thing



5) Identity Vs role confusion (12-20yrs)6)

ü This stage marks the transition between childhood, adolescence and adulthood. It comes in adolescence.

ü Teenagers undergo a re-evaluation of who they are in many areas of their development including physical, social and intellectual development.

ü They are more concerned with what they appear to be in the eyes of others than what they feel they are

ü Adolescents who establish basic social occupational identities develop a sense of identity

ü Those who remain confused about the roles they should play as adults, or remain confused about ones sexual, physical and social self definition develop a sense of role confusion



6) Intimacy Vs Isolation (20-40yrs)ü This is experienced in early adulthood. Once a sense of

personal identity is achieved, young people start striving to achieve meaningful and intimate relationships with other people

ü Intimate relationships are made with peers and adult people regardless of their sex (gender)

ü The primary task at this stage is to form strong relationships to achieve a sense of love and companionship

ü Young adults who establish intimate relationships with others, achieve a sense of intimacy and those who do not, i.e. are rejected, negative out comes, because of the fear for further rejection, develop a sense of isolation.



7) Generativity Vs Stagnation (40-65yrs)ü This occurs during middle adult hood. At this stage

adults face the task of raising families, becoming productive in their work looking after the needs of young people

ü This task is achieved through child-rearing and caring for other people.

ü Adults who accomplish these tasks develop a sense of generativity. The standard of generativity is defined by one’s culture.

ü People who fail to contribute to the task of child rearing, are unable or unwilling to assume such responsibilities, develop a sense of stagnation



8) Integrity Vs Despair (65- on wards)ü This occurs during the old age. The old individual looks

back at life, viewing it as either meaningful, productive, and a happy experience or a disappointment full of unfulfilled promises and unrealized dreams

ü Old people look back at the kind of life they have led and the kind of people they have been and what they have accomplished over the years.

ü Those who view life as a worthy experience, meaningful and fulfilling, develop a sense of integrity

ü Those who view life as a major disappointment, develop a sense of despair. To these, life is too short to correct the mistakes they made.


Theories of developmentv Watson’s Behaviorism theory

ü This put emphasis on nurture or the environment. The basic belief of this theory is that conclusions about human development should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than speculations about unconscious motives and cognitive processes that are un observable

ü He regarded the environment as the supreme force in child development. He believed that a child should be modeled in any way a parent felt is best if they carefully controlled stimulus response associations in their environment

ü He believed that well learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses called habits, are the building blocks of human development

ü He viewed development as a continuous process of behavior change that is shaped by the person’s unique environment and differs from one person to the next


Theories of developmentv Skinner’s Operant learning theory

ü He believed that both humans and animals will repeat a series of responses that lead to favorable or pleasant outcomes and suppress responses that lead to unfavorable or un pleasant outcomes

ü according to this theory, a child’s behavior can be increased if it is followed by a wide range of reinforces e.g. praise, a smile, a hug a new toy e.t.c. however if responses are followed by punishment , parental disapproval, withdrawal of privileges, behavior can be decreased.

ü Skinner believed that the habits we learn come from our unique environments and they differ from one person to the next



v Albert Bandura’s Social learning theoryü This focuses on how humans observe, imitate and set goals that are self

rewarding.ü He believed that observation and imitation are powerful tools for

childhood socialization. It is believed that through observing and trying out what they have seen, children actually internalize important qualities of models they observe.

ü He observed that from an early age, children learn most of the things through watching and listening to others around them without direct rewards and punishment

ü He believed that humans are cognitive beings (active information processors) who unlike animals, think about the relationship between their behavior and it’s consequences.

ü he noted that vicarious reinforcement and self reinforcement play a big role in the process of observation and imitation

ü Vicarious reinforcement is when we learn appropriate behavior from successes or mistakes of others

ü Self reinforcement refers to the fact that people have self-capacities that permit them to control their own thoughts, feelings and actions


Theories of developmentv Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

ü Cognitive development is the development of thinking and reasoning and it involves construction of new mental processes as children interact with the environment.

ü A child’s cognitive development consists of acquisition of acquisition of cognitive structure called schemas that are used in understanding and dealing with the environment

ü Cognitive development takes place through the process of adaptation which involves assimilation and accommodation

ü Assimilation is the process by which children understand and interpret new experiences by incorporating them into existing schemas.

ü Accommodation is the process by which children modify the existing schemas in order to adapt to new experiences


Theories of developmentØ Piaget believed that children keep shifting back and

forth through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. He believed that if the when children are not changing, they assimilate more than they accommodate a process he referred to as cognitive equilibrium

Ø Rapid cognitive change is when children move towards accommodation because they realize that new information does not match their current schemas a process he called disequilibrium. The children end up shifting back to assimilation

Ø Piaget’s cognitive development is believed to occur in 4 stages which include


Theories of development1) Sensorimotor (birth – 2yrs)

ü Young children acquire understanding through sensory impressions and motor activities. i.e. infants experience the world through their senses

ü Children’s cognitive abilities are dominated by reflexive actions

ü Infants lack the concept of object permanence and symbolic representation. Objects exist for infants only when they are present

ü There is little or limited use of languageü Children gain a little bit of self. This is evidenced

by them identifying an image of themselves in the mirror


Theories of development2) Pre- operational stage (2-7 yrs)

ü There is rapid use of languageü Cognitive abilities are developed i.e. there is object

permanenceü Cognitive abilities are highly symbolic i.e. a doll can

represent a personü Children’s thinking is erratic and uneven (irrational).

Thinking at this stage is ego centric i.e. tendency to view the world from their own point of view

ü They manifest the concept of concentrationü They lack the concept of conversationü They lack the concept of reversibility i.e. it is difficult

for them to think back wards or retrieve earlier information e.g. 1+2 and 2+1


Theories of development3) Concrete operation (7-12 yrs)

ü This is a major turning point in the quality of cognitive manifestation. It is closely similar to adults thinking

ü Development of conversationü Development of reversibilityü Develop cognitive deception i.e. the tendency

to have too much faith in there thinking and reasoning

ü Develop a sense of compensation i.e. a change in one stimuli is balanced by a change in another e.g. change in temperature means a change in dressing

ü Spatial operations develop i .e. the tendency



4) Formal operational (12 and above)ü Dominated by qualitative improvement in

cognitive thinking and reasoningü Systematic problem solving is well developedü During adolescence an individual develops two

distorted images of self e.g. imaginary audience where one views him/her self to constantly be on a stage. They are convinced they are the center of attention and thus become extremely self conscious

ü And the personal fable where an individual develops an inflated personal opinion of their own importance. They start to feel they are special and unique.

lecture notes part1

Documents