lecture -ment organisation develop
TRANSCRIPT
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Lecture-1
WHAT IS ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT?
We are often asked this question as to what is consulting in Organization
Development? Often asked this question because currently theres no agreement on
The meaning of the term organization development, and it is still less clear
what a consultant in organization development is. That is why I am going to explain
what we mean by that. We firmly believe that only companies having an internal
structure corresponding to their goals are able to develop successfully. That is why
our main goal is to help our clients to organize their internal resources in the most
efficient way for their development. For instance, to distribute functions and
authority, to create transparent system of interaction and control, to develop a
common set of values, to unite various divisions into an efficient team for the purpose
of performing clearly defined tasks... For us the key term is
development. And development is a process, and this implies the fact that besides
analysis and advice, helping to carry out organizational changes is also a significant
part of our work. My approach from the very beginning would be from simple to
complex issues for better comprehension of all the concepts both in particular and in
general. Therefore before discussing the intervention techniques I would like you tobe acquainted with the basic concepts like:
What is OD?
What is the Historical background of OD?
Foundations of OD Change and OD Organization Culture and OD
What is Organization Development?
An organization is a system consisting of four interacting subsystems: structure,
technology, people and task. Structure refers to the formal interactions within theorganization as evidenced in the organizational chart or organ gram. Task refers to
the set of activities to be performed. In other words, the behavioural specification
associated with a job. Technology relates to the level of sophistication determining
the workflow and performance of jobs in an organization. Higher technology, most
often, means higher job knowledge and skills of employees. Organizations may be
classified as to their level of technology: high, medium, low or obsolete. People
variable refers to the human input in the organization i.e., individuals (in terms of
their physical and mental skills, personality etc.) working
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in the organization. Organization as a system can be changed and developed to
achieve its goals in the best possible way. The goals of an organization generally are:
survival, stability, profitability, growth and service to society. From one organization
to another, the goal or goals may differ depending upon at what stage of development
the organization is. Organization can achieve its goal if it is able to respond
to changes within the external and internal environment. The external environment
is in terms of forces in the social, political, economic and cultural factors.
Competition from similar organizations, changing needs of the public, knowledge
explosion, and rapid growth of technology
All constitute threat to organizational effectiveness. Organization has also to take into
cognizance its internal environment, which includes existing structure, technology,
needs and expectations of its people and the changing scenario of labor force.
Organization development (OD) is planned approach to respond effectively to
changes in its external and internal environment.
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Lecture 2
Essentially there are two schools of thought in OD:
Programmed Procedure School
System Process School
The Programmed Procedure school:
It is an older approach. According to it, OD is the effective implementation of the
organizations policies, procedures and programmers.
It is concerned with personnel activities that contribute to the overall growth and
development of the organization, such as: recruitment, training, career development,
Compensation, welfare and benefits, labour relations etc. Personnel development
is primarily concerned with OD activities. At present, it is being widely
recognized that personnel functions contribute only partly to OD.
They at best serve the organizational control or maintenance function.
The system process school:
This school considers organization development in the context of both its internal
and external environment. Proponents of this approach view organization as a system,
which can be changed and developed to best, achieve its goals and objectives. Insightsdrawn from recent developments in behavioural sciences have contributed to the
system-process school. An emerging role for OD is system based and
focuses on total organization effectiveness and hence goes beyond the traditional pers
onnel programmers. The emphasis is much more on work groups within and across
departments rather than individuals as such. While personnel programmers Demand
conformity for prescribed policies and procedures, the system process school
encourages openness, and collaborative ways of solving problems so that the out
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comes are advantageous to both the individual and the organization. It is likely that
the objectives of both the schools and contradictory to certain extent.
Programmed Procedure School System Process School
Internal Internal & External
Personnel oriented Department oriented
Individual Group
Sectional Holistic
Prescriptive Open System
Internal Interdisciplinary
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Lecture 3
Definition of OD
OD may be defined as a systematic, integrated and planned approach to improve the
effectiveness of the enterprise. It is designed to solve problems that adversely affect
the operational efficiency at all levels (Koontz ET. Al. 1980). It is based on scientific
awareness of human behaviour and organization dynamics. Being an organization
wide effort, it is directed towards more participative management and integration of
individual goals with organization goals OD is intended to create an internal
environment of openness, trust, mutual confidence and collaboration and to help the
members of the organization to interact more effectively in the pursuit of
organizational goals. Thus, the organization is enabled to cope effectively with
external force in the environment.
Meaning and Nature of Organization Development
Definition of Organization Development
Organization development (OD) is defined as a long-range effort to improve an
organization's ability to cope with 'Change and its problem-solving and renewal
processes through effective management of organization culture which ': involves
moving towards a third wave organization and an attempt to achieve corporate
excellence by fl; rating the desires of individuals for growth and development with
organizational goals.
According to
Richard hard, "Organization development is an effort:
1.Planned, organization wide, managed from the top, to increase organization
effectiveness and health, through planed interventions in the organization's processes
using behavioral science knowledge. "Organization development efforts then, are
planned, systematic OD approaches to change. They involve changes to the total
organization or to relatively large segments of it. The purpose of OD efforts is to
increase the _effectiveness: of the system and. also, to develop the potential of all in
individual members. Finally, a series of planned behavioural science intervention
activities are carried out in collaboration with organization members to. Help find
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improved ways of working together towards individual and organizational goals.
Another way of understanding OD is to know what it is not:
'OD is not a micro approach to change Management development. For example. It
is aimed at changing. Individual behavior. Where as OD is used on the macro goal of
developing an organization-wide improvement in manageable
OD is more than any single technique
Whereas OD consultants use many differingtechniques. Such as total quality
management or job enrichment. No single techniquerepresents the OD discipline.
OD does not include random or ad hoc changes.
OD is based "on a incrementalappraisal and diagnosis of problems leading to specific
types of change, efforts.
OD is aimed at more than raising morale or attitude
OD is aimed: At. Overallorganizational effectiveness. This may include participant
satisfaction an aspect of thechange effort but includes other effectiveness parameters.
2 Organization Development
is an organizational Process for understanding andimproving any and all substantive
process an organization may develop for performingany task and pursuing anyobjectives
3 Organization development
is a set ofbehavioral Science based theories, values, strategies and techniques aimed
at the planned change of organizational work setting for the purpose of enhancing
individual development and improving organizational performance, through
organizational structure, process, strategy, people and culture.Developing new and
creative organizational solutionsDeveloping the organizations Self-renewing
capacity. It occurs through collaboration of organizational members working with a
change agent using behavioral science theory, research and technology.
5
OD can be defined as a Planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for
system improvement using reflexive, self-analytical methods. (
Schmuck and miles,1971)
These definitions clarify the distinctive features of OD and suggest why it is such a
powerful change strategy. The participative, collaborative, problem-focused nature of
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OD marshals the experience and expertise of organization members as they work on
their most important problems and opportunity in ways designed to lead to successful
outcomes
OBJECTIVES OF OD
The objectives of OD may be stated as follows:
1.Improved organizational performance as measured by profitability, market
share, innovativeness etc.
2.Better adaptability of the organization to its environment .
3.Willingness of the members to face organizational problems and contribute
creative solutions to these problems
4.Improvement in internal behaviour patterns such as interpersonal relations,
intercrop relations, level of trust and support among role members,
understanding ones own self and others, openness and meaningful
communication and involvement in planning for organizational development.
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Lecture 4
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF OD
To enlarge upon the definition of OD Let us examine some of the basic characteristics
of OD programs.
Planned Change:
It is a planned strategy to bring about organizational Change. This change effort aims
at specific objectives and is based on the diagnosis of problem areas.
Collaborative:
OD typically involves a collaborative approach to change, which includes the
involvement and participation of those organization members most affected by the
changes.
Performance:
OD programs include an emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance and
quality (TQM).
Humanistic:
OD relies on a set of humanistic values about people and organizations that aims at
gaining more effective organizations by opening up new opportunities for increased
use of human potential systems. OD represents a systems approach concerned with
the interrelationship of various divisions, departments, groups and individuals and
interdependent subsystems of the total organization.
Focal Area
Change is planned by managers to achieve goals. Involves collaborative approach and
involvement. Emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance. Emphasis
upon increased opportunity and use of human potential relationship among elements
and excellence. Scientific approaches supplement practical experience. An OD
practitioner (either manager or consultant) is a person in an organization responsible
for changing existing patterns to obtain more effective organizational performance.
Organization development practitioners have come to realize that conventionaltraining techniques are no longer sufficient for affecting the type of behavioral
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changes needed to create adaptive organizations. New techniques have been
developed to provide participants with the competence and motivation to alter
ineffective patterns of behavior. One interesting Question is, can OD be used change
nations as well as organizations? There are many OD techniques, and any individual
practitioner may rely on one or a combination of approaches. Regardless of the
method selected, the objectives are to work from an overall organization perspective,
through _increasing the ability of the "whole" to respond to a changing environment.
Organizations have objectives such as making profit, surviving, and growing; but
individual members also have desires to achieve, unsatisfied needs to fulfill, and
career goals to accomplish within the organization. OD then, is a "process for Change,
which can benefit both the organization and the individual. In today's business
environment managers must continuously monitor change and adapt their systems to
survive by staying competitive in a turbulent arena. The roots of OD lie in the famous
Hawthorne experiments carried out at the Western Electric Company by Elton Mayon
and his associates. These experiments highlighted the importance of employee
attitudes and expectations, informal work groups, norms and Values and participation
in decision making as influencing performance all these still central concepts in
various techniques of OD. Though there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the
nature and practice of OD, among its practitioners, a general consensus may benoticed among them as to what the basic characteristics of OD are. In any OD effort
the totality of the organization is to be taken into account. Organization being an
integrated system of sub-systems, changes in anyone sub-system tends to have
consequences for the other sub-systems. The approach should be holistic either for
identifying the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change,
until the intended change is absorbed in the total system, optimal collaboration,
synergism and efficiency cannot be obtained. The theoretical body of knowledge
underlying the concept and practice of OD is eclectic. Recent developments in the
area of behavioral sciences
especially psychology, sociology, anthropology etc., have influenced the OD thought
and practice. The intended changes in OD programmers may be carried out at any of
the sub-system levels such as:
Organization structure
Task accomplishment
Work climate (interpersonal and intercrop relations, work values)
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Methods of decision-making and problem solving
Technology.
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Lecture 5
Foundations of Organization Development
The Emergence of ODOrganization development is one of the primary means of creating more adaptive
organizations. Warren Bennis. A leading OD practitioner has suggested three factors
underlying the emergence of OD.
1 The need jar new' organizational forms
.
Organizations tend to adopt a form that ismore appropriate to a particular time, and
the current rate of change requires moreadaptive forms.
2The focus on cultural change
.
Because each organization forms a culture-a system of beliefs and values the only
way to change is to alter this organizational culture.
3.The increase in social awareness
.
Because. Of the changing social climate ,tomorrow's employee will no longer accept
autocratic styles of management; therefore, greater social awareness is required in the
organization. Todays managers exist in shifting organizational structures and can be
the central force in initiating change and establishing the means for adoption. Most
organizations strive to be creative, efficient, and highly competitive, maintaining a
leading edge in their respective fields rather than following trends set by others.
Effective managers are vital to the continuing self-renewal and ultimate survival of
the organization. The Consultant manager must recognize when changes are occurring
in the external environment and possess the necessary competence to bring about
change when it is needed. The manager must also be aware of the internal system and
recognize that the major element in planned change is the organizational culture: the
feelings, norms, and behaviors of its members.
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The Evolution: of Organization Development(Historical Development)
It is not within the scope of this book to provide a detailed history of OD. But a brief
explanation of the evolution 'this field may give you a better understanding of its
application today. Organization development has 'involved over the past 40 years
from the application of behavioral science knowledge and techniques to solving
organizational problems. What has become OD stand in the late 1940s at MIT and is
deeply rooted in the pioneering work of applied social scientists. such as Kurt Lewin,
and also strongly influenced by the work of psychologists such as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow. The term organization Development is widely attributed to Robert
Blake and Jane Mouton(the originators of the Managerial Grid) Herren Shepard (a
leading OD pioneer);however, Richard Beckhard (an OD consultant) claims this
distinction as well. Regardless of who first coined the term, it emerged about 1957
and is generally conceded to have evolved from two basic sources: the application of
laboratory methods by National Training Laboratories (NTL) and the survey research
methods ignited by the Survey Research Center. Both methods were pioneered by
Kurt Lewin in about 1945.
Laboratory- Training methods -In the late I 940s and early 1950s laboratory-
training methods were developed and applied by a group of behavioral scientists at
Bethel, Maine.Douglas McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y with Richard BecKhard,
began applying laboratory-training methods to industry, at General Iills in 1956 and at
Union Carbide in1957. At union Carbide, McGregor and John Paul Jones (an internal
consultant) formed the First internal OD consulting group about the; same time.
Herbert Shepard and Robert Blake were initiating a series of applied behavioral
Science interventions at Esso, using mainly laboratory-training technique to improve
work team processes. These early railing sessions provided the basis for what Blake
and Mouton later developed as an instrumented training system they called the
Managerial Grid. The success of these programs led to a dissemination of such efforts
to her corporations.
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The Extent of OD Applications
From these early beginnings OD has experienced a rapid growth. A growing number
of organizations worldwide applying OD techniques ', including most major
corporations, have formed internal OD consulting groups. The OD network, an
organization of OD practitioners, has been in existence for only a little over two
decades and has grown to a membership of more than 2,000 members. The National
Training Laboratories, American psychological Association, American Society for
Training and Development, and Academy of Management all have professional
divisions relating to organization development. The first doctoral program for training
OD specialists, called the Organizational Behaviour Group, was started by Sheppard
in 1960 at what is now the Department of Organization and Administration at Case
Western Reserve University: Sheppard applied these OD techniques, in an
educational setting, to the development of OD practitioners. The Organizational
Behaviour group has as since graduated over 100specialists. Who are involved in
teaching and consulting throughout? The group. Other universities with graduate
programs bearing on OD include Brigham Young, Harvard. MIT,Southern,
Methodist, UCLA, University of Washington, Gonzaga, Pepperdine, and Yale, with
many others beginning to include OD in the curriculum. Organization development isan exciting rapidly growing field. OD efforts have grown into a multitude of differing
approaches and are now applied in a number of organizations around the world by
expanding number OD practitioners
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Lecture 6
The Organization Culture
The element of an organization system, which a manager needs to understand, is the
organization culture. The term culture refers to a specific civilization, society, or
group that are its distinguishing characteristics. As B. F. Skinner has commented: "A
culture is not the behavior of the people 'living in it'; it is the 'it' in which they live-
contingencies of social reinforcement which generate and sustain their behavior. Is
The organization culture refers to a system of shared meanings, including the
language, dress, patterns of behavior, value system, feelings, attitudes, interactions,
and group norms of the members.) You may examine the patterns of behavior on your
campus Orin your company. How do people dress or wear their hair? What jargon or
unique terms are used these are thee elements that make up a culture: the accepted
patterns of behavior. One example is the culture at Federal Express, carefully crafted
by Frederick Smith, the chairman, to reflect a combat situation. Flights are called
missions" and competitors are "enemies."
GURE Schematic Diagram of Experiential Learning Cycle
The Experiential Approach to Learning To learn OD techniques, a manager or student
needs both the knowledge of content material and the Experience of putting theory
into practice. Consequently, to create a learning environment for the field of
Organization development at either the undergraduate or graduate level, the emphasis
should be on experience .In this course you wiII be experiencing OD techniques by
means of behavioral simulations at the same time .What you are learning OD
theories.. You will perhaps discover a different approach to the study of
organizational change. Many courses in OD approach change in a structured and
traditional manner. By means of lectures and readings, useful concepts and theories
are presented to the student, whose role is largely passive. This book utilizes an
innovative and significantly different approach to teaching OD: the
experiential approach.
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It is used on learning OD techniques experiencing simulated organizational situations.
You will experience situations in which you are developing relationship with a client
or diagnosing a problem rather than simply reading about them.
Basic Concepts of Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is based upon three basic concepts: You learn best when you are
involved in the learning experience. Concepts have to be experienced or discovered
by you. the learner, if they are to change your behavior. Your commitment to learning
will be greatest when you are responsible for setting your own learning objectives. n
the experiential approach, the major responsibility for learning is placed upon you, the
learner. You will determine your own learning objectives and influence how the class
goes about achieving these objectives. You attain your own goals, decide which
theories you. want to learn, practice the skills or techniques you want to improve, and
develop the behavioral style you want to develop .experiential learning also involves
an active, rather than a passive role. The experiential laming program can be
presented a four-stage cycle'
1 Gaining conceptual Knowledge and Theories
-
You will be reading about OD concept; and theories and doing pre class preparation.
2Activity in behavioral simulation
.-You. will be problem solving, making decisions, and communicating , actively
practicing the concepts and theories.
3 Analysis of Activity
-You will be analyzing, critiquing. and the way you solved problems, and comparing
the results of different approaches. Connecting the theory and activity. with prior on-
the-job or life situations-You will be connecting your Learning past experiences
reflecting upon the results, and generalizing into the future. The end result should be
proved skill and performance in applying ,these learnings to 1ife and job situations.
Student centered" learning places a learning responsibility upon you. There will be
an opportunity in the class for a high level of participation and for a challenging
learning experience. Small-group learning environments. will be formed wherein you
may share learning with others, thus encountering feedback. Each of to be learning
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-units presents a conceptual background and a framework for a behavioral simulation.
The focal point of each chapter is the action-oriented behavioral simulation. As part of
the experiential learning model in OD, feelings, and emotions represent important
data for learning. open and authentic relationships in which you share your feelings
with others and provide honest feedback are necessary part of the learning situation.
Each chapter is organized to help you learn concepts and skills, and each provides
cases, simulations, and diagnostic instruments to help you learn more about OD.
Although experiential learning can .be stimulating and often fun, it is important to
remember that you learn from the combination of theory and experience.
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Lecture 7
Systems theory
A systems approach ta
Systems theory
A systems approach takes a big picture perspective of organizational change. It is
based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading
effect through out an organization.16 For example, promoting an individual to a new
work group affects the group dynamics in both the old and new groups. Similarly,
creating project or work teams may necessitate the need to revamp
compensation practices. These
examples illustrate that change creates additional change. Todays solutions are
tomorrows problems. A systems model of change offers managers a framework to
under stand the broad complexities of organizational change. The three main
components of a systems model are inputs, target elements of change, and outputs
Inputs
All organizational changes should be consistent with an organizations mission,vision,
and resulting strategic plan. A
Mission statement
represents the reason an organization exists, and an organizations
vision
is a long-term goal that describes what an organization wants to become.Consider
how the difference between mission and vision affects organizational change.Your
university probably has
a mission to educate people. This mission does notnecessarily imply anything about c
hange. It simply defines the universitys overall
purpose. In contrast, the university may have a vision to be recognized as the best
university in the country. This vision requires the organization to benchmark itself aga
inst other world-class universities and to create plans for achieving the vision. While
vision statements point the way, strategic plans contain the detail needed to create
organizational change. A
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strategic plan
outlines an organizations long-term direction. And actions necessary
to achieve planned results. Strategic plans are based on considering an organizations
strengths and weaknesses relative to its environmental
opportunities and threats. This comparison results in developing an organizational
strategy to attain desired outputs such as profits, customer satisfaction, quality, and
adequate return on investment.
Target elements of change
Components of an organization that may be changed. Finished vans sit at the end of
a production line in the Avon Lake, Ohio, Ford assembly plant. The plant assembles
the Ford Mercury Villager, Nilsson Quest, and the Ford Econo line Vans.How will
Fords inflexible plant design affect its ability to respond to changes in consumer
preferences? AP/Wide World photos volumes. Toyota Motor Corp.
and Volkswagen, for example, could be big winners, since both are skilled at
incorporating shared components among different models to save money.
Outputs
represent the desired end results of a change. Once again, these end results
should be consistent with an organizations strategic plan. Returning to the aboveexample regarding Ford, the organizational changes are geared toward increasing
flexibility, decreasing costs, and decreasing the time intakes to bring a new car to
market.
Parallel Learning structures
Parallel learning structures, specially created organizational structures developed to
plan and guide change programs, constitute another important foundation
of organization development. Dale Zand introduced this concept under the label
collateral organization
in 1974, and defined it as: Us supplemental organization coexisting with the usual,
formal organization. USO The purpose of the collateral organization into
deal with ill-structured problems that the formal organizations unable to resolve.
Parallel structures help people break free of the normal constraints imposed the
organization, engage in genuine inquiry and experimentation, and initiate needed
changes. We believe parallel learning structures are a foundation of ad because they
are prevalent in so many different00 programs. The quality of work life programs of
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the 1970s and 1980s used parallel structures composed of union leaders, managers,
and employees. Most socio technical systems redesign efforts and open systems
planning programs Use parallel structures. Parallel structures are often used to
coordinate self-directed teams in high-performance organizations. A steering
committee and working groups were used to coordinate the employee involvement
teams at Ford Motor Company. Parallel learning structures are often the best way to
initiate change in large bureaucratic organizations, especial-lee when the change
involves a fundamental shift in the organizations methods of work and/or
culture. Bushel and Shani recount a number of examples from variety of settings
where this intervention was used to great advantage. Parallel learning structures are
a powerful tool for creating organizational change
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Lecture 8
A normative Reductive strategy of changing
At the beginning of this chapter, we spoke of the importance of models and theories
of planned change. Here we address another foundation of OD in terms of the
strategy
of change that underlies most organization development activities. Organization
development involves change, and it rests on particular strategy of changing that has
implications for practitioners and organization members alike. Chin and Benne
describe three types of strategies for changing.54 First there are the empirical-rational
strategies, based on the assumptions that people are rational, will follow their
rational self-interest, and will change if and when they come to realize the change is
advantageous to them .The second group of strategies is the normative-reeducative
strategies, based on the assumptions that norms form the basis for behaviour,
and change comes through a reeducation process in which old norms are discarded
and supplanted by new ones. The third set of strategies is the power-coercive
strategies, based on the assumption that change is compliance of those with less
power to the de-sires of those with more power. Evaluated against these three change
strategies, 00 clearly falls within the normative-reeducative category, althoughoften 00 represents a combination of the normative-reeducative and the empirical-
rational strategies. Chin and Benne indicate the nature of the normative-reeducative
strategy: A second group of strategies we call normative-reeducative.
These strategies build upon assumptions about human motivation different from those
underlying the first. The rationality and intelligence of men are not denied. Patterns of
action and practice are supported by socio cultural norms and by commitments on the
part of the individu-103als to these norms. Socio cultural norms are supported by the
attitude and value systems of individuals-normative outlooks which under-gird
their commitments. Change in a pattern of practice or action, ac-cording to this view,
will occur only as the persons involved are brought to change their normative
orientations to old patterns and develop commitments to new ones. And changes
in normative orientations involve changes in attitudes, values, skills, and significant
relationships, not just changes in knowledge, information, or intellectual-al
rationales for action and practice. Our definition of organization development
refers to improving and managing the organizations culture-a clear reference to
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socio-cultural norms and to the normative nature of organizational
change. Since norms are socially accepted beliefs about Appropriate and
inappropriate behaviors held by groups, focusing on the group, not the individual,
could best change norms. Burke writes: the
application of behavioral science knowledge, practices, and skills
in ongoing systems in collaboration with system members
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Lecture 9
THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
SEQUENTIAL PROCESS OF CHANGEChange takes place through steps or phases. By this we mean the processes through
which a given innovation becomes an accepted part of the personality and way of
working of individuals, is usually evolutionary. Seldom does a new idea or practice
become accepted in one step, small or large. Perhaps a better way of putting it is that
people who accomplish successful change go through a number of sequential stages in
reaching their goal. This latter way of putting the matter is important because it
implies that people, not the innovation, go through the steps. This point is often lost
sight of in large-scale development projects. Sometimes the planning is done by one
group, usually a group of high-level administrators, and those who are expected to use
the innovation may have experienced none of the development thinking involved.
This is very likely to lead to uninformed, insensitive and different implementation, if
implementation takes place at all. The dangers of this way of handling the stages of
development can be minimized by indirect involvement in planning and evaluation,
and by good communications among all the people who will eventually be touched by
the new practice. But the problem remains one to be kept in mind in the planning and
steering of any development effort. Several models of sequential steps or stages in
change have been suggested. All these models envisage change as a continuous
process involving several stages.
The following eight stages are proposed here as framework of organizational
change:
1.Initiation:
Invitation is the stage of vocalization of the need for change. Organizationalchange
starts when someone takes the initiative of proposing that something has to bedone at
the level of the corporate management where the concern for some dimension of
organizational functioning is shared and discussed. The idea may be mooted at the
level of the corporate management, at times based on observations or
recommendations by some other level of the organization, and sometimes as are result
of discussion at the level of the corporate management. This usually leads to the
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hiring of a consultant fromo tside, or discussion with the appropriate set of people
within the organization
.2.Motivation:
Motivation is the stage of the involvement of people in detailed thinking about the
proposed change. At this stage both the corporate management and the expert who
helps in the organizational change take necessary steps to involve at large section of
the organization in thinking about the various dimensions of the change process.
3.Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is an attempt to search for the main cause of the symptoms encountered.
4.Information Collection:
At this stage detailed information is collected on the dimension indicated by the
diagnosis. Based on the diagnosis the necessary information is collected.
5.Deliberation:
The deliberation stage is concerned with evaluating various alternatives generated for
change.
6.Action Proposal:
This is the stage of framing up an action proposal.
7.Implementation:
Implementation is concerned with translating the proposal in to action8.Stabilization:
Stabilization is the stage of internalisising change and making it a part of the
organizations normal life. The various stages in the process of organizational change
may be useful to pay attention to the process in the beginning much more and this will
help to pay less attention to the process as the organizational change proceeds further.
Later much more attention can be given to the task. It is necessary to understand the
psychological process behind each stage of change, and the behavioral outcomes or
indicators.
THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL CHANGE
The process of change assumes qualitatively different dimensions in large and
complex organizations. There are demands by the external environment and varying
pressures from internal groups. In complex organizations, with rapid change in the
environments. The process of change is one of transition from the present to the
future. In such a case vision becomes an important process of collectively creating
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models of the future, and helps most people to move towards these models. Changes
are complex, involving the Structure, systems, processes, and new norms and
behavior. Continuous, monitoring is needed. Change has to continuously balance
innovation with stability. When an organization undertakes to respond to a new
challenge, to complex and changing environments, it needs to re-examine and re-
define its mission, create a vision for the members of an organization, and develop
broad strategies of mobilizing for the members of the organization to move into the
future. Such a change will be called transformational change. Beck hard (1989)
suggests four types of changes as transformational: a change in what drives the
organization, a fundamental change in the relationship between and among
organizational parts, a major change in the ways of doing work, and a basic change in
means, values or reward systems. Beck hard suggests 10 pre-requisites for success of
and 8 steps in the process of transformation change the role of the top executives are
critical in transformational change.
Pre-requisites of success of Transformational Change
1. Commitment of top leaders
2. Written description of the changed organization
3. Conditions that preclude maintenance of the status quo
4. Likelihood of a critical mass of support5. A medium to long-term perspective
6. Awareness of resistance and the need to honor it
7. Awareness of the need for education
8. The conviction that the change must be true
9. Willingness to use resources
10. Commitment to maintaining the flow of information.
Steps in Transformational Change
1. Designing the future state
2. Diagnosing the present state
3. Extrapolating what is required to go from present state to the transitional state
4. Analyzing the work that occurred during the transitional state
5. Defining the system that is affecting the problem
6. Analyzing each of the members of the critical mass with regard to readiness
andcapacity.
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7. Identifying the power relationships and resources necessary to ensure the
perpetuationsof change
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Lecture 10
Concepts of Intervention
The major task of diagnosis, as mentioned earlier,is
.to seek information knowledge while the task of intervention is to act/ take action. A
clear-cut line of division is not possible as Knowing and doing are
inextricably linked up in human experience. Indefining intervention
French and Bell (1990) supports the view that intervention is primarily concerned
with activities directed towards or antirational c go. 1hey
say, We prefer however, that emphasis be plated 6n the activity nature of inter
palliations interventions are things that happen Activates, in an organizations
life... OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected
organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of
tasks her task goals are related directly .a indirectly to organizational improvement.
The definitions offered by Frenchand Bell (and similar other definitions too)
obviously poses some Publics. First of all, QP interventions are not the only
interventions in organization change it is only a subset
of interventions. Secondly, emphasis placed on task may be re-exanimate as there are
hundred other things than task that an organization, even a work organization, is preoc
cupied with. Personal development may not bean part of goal directed tasks or instru
mental to the organizations improvement. Set the organization may make provisions
for it. Thirdly, the concept of improvement is to be properly understood. In using the
term improvement conceptually a value mention of movement form bad to good,
dysfunctional to functional, immature to mature is implied. Interventions are also
needed to maintain the state of maturity if an organization has attained the maturity.The desire of a healthy person to maintain his health may require interventions that
may lot be Seen, as improvement in health. Similarly, all organization may need
interventions that maintain its present level of maturity. The scope of intervention for
managing change may be further elaborated if the concept of o (generational change
proposed by Chat () pathway and Pareek (1982) is taken into consideration
In their view, Organizational change will be conceived as a restively as a relatively
enduring alteration of the present state of an organization or its components functions,
in totality or partially, in order to gain greater viability in the context of the present
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and anticipated future environment (p.XVI). Any mental or physical activity that
introduces or facilitates the change in an
organization is in retention for organizational change. The chugged activities, for exa
mple, as Chattopadhyay and Pareek (.1982) observe, include
Amalgamation and bifurcation.
Diversifications, reorganization,
Restructuring,
Change in design or the introduction of new systems encompassing the organizations.
It will also mean change of people, task technology of the organization. The change
may be directed to one or more aspects:
Types of Intervention
Organizational change interventions could be divided into broad categories;
1. Interventions that are directed towards manifest change in the organization: for Exa
mple restructuring, re-organizing, introducing new systems, diversification, etc.
2. OD interventions that deal with processes, basic assumptions, beliefs, value, etc.
,which are underlying the manifest changes and directly or indirectly influence them
manifest changes
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Hope - participant see others learn, achieve their goals, improve, and cope
moreeffectively
Vicarious Learning - participants pick up skills and attitudes from others
Catharsis - participants experience a sense of release or breakthrough
A Description
The T-group provides participants with an opportunity to learn about themselves,
their impact on others and how to function more effectively in group and
interpersonalsituations. It facilitates this learning by bringing together a small group
of people for theexpress purpose of studying their own behavior when they interact
within a small group.A T-Group is not a group discussion or a problem solving
group.The group's work is primarily process rather than content oriented. The focus
tends to beon the feelings and the communication of feelings, rather than on the
communication of information, opinions, or concepts. This is accomplished by
focusing on the 'here andnow' behavior in the group. Attention is paid to particular
behaviors of participants not onthe "whole person", feedback is non-evaluative andreports on the impact of the behavior on others. The participant has the opportunity to
become a more authentic self in relationto others through self disclosure and receiving
feedback from others. TheJohari Window is a model that looks at that
process.The training is not structured in the manner you might
experience in an academic program or a meeting with an agenda or a team with a task
to accomplish. The lack of structure and limited involvement of the trainers provides
space for the participants todecide what they want to talk about. No one tells them
what they ought to talk about. Thelack of direction results in certain characteristic
responses; participants are silent or aggressive or struggle to start discussions or
attempt to structure the group.In the beginning of a T-Group participants are usually
focused on what they experienceas a need for structure, individual emotional safety,
predictability, and something to do incommon. These needs are what amount to the
tip of the iceberg in most groups in their back home situation. By not filling
the group's time with answers to these needs, the T-Group eventually begins to notice
what is under the tip of the iceberg. It is what is alwaysthere in any group but often
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unseen and not responsibly engaged . So, participantsexperience anxiety about
authority and power, being include and accepted in the group,and
intimacy.Depending on forces, such as, the dynamics of the group,
the past experience andcompetence of participants, and the skill of the trainers -- the
group, to some extent,usually develops a sense of itself as a group, with feelings of
group loyalty. This cancause groups to resist learning opportunities if they are seen as
threatening to the group'sself-image. It also provides some of the climate of trust,
support and permission neededfor individuals to try new behavior.
As an individual participant begins to experience some degree of trust (in themselves,
thegroup and the trainers) several things become possible --
The participant may notice that his/her feelings and judgments about the behavior of
others is not always shared by others. That what he/she found supportive
or threatening was not experience in that way by others in the group. That how
oneresponded to authority, acceptance and affection issues different from that
of others (more related to ones family of origin than to what is happening in
thegroup). Individual differences emerge in how experiences are understood.
The participant may begin to try on new behavior. For example, someone who
hasalways felt a need to fill silence with noise and activity tries being quieter andstill.
Participants begin to ask for feedback from the group about how their behavior
isimpacting others.
Participants may find that they are really rather independent and have a relativelylow
level of anxiety about what is happening in the group. They will exhibit
a broader range of behavior and emotions during the life of the group. In
fact their leadership is part of what helps the group develop.
The role of the trainers
To help the group and individuals analyze and learn from what is happening in
thegroup. The trainer may draw attention to events and behavior in the group
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andinvite the group to look at its experience. At times the trainer may offer
tentativeinterpretations.
To offer theory, a model or research that seems related to what the group islooking at.
To encourage the group to follow norms that tend to serve the learning process,e.g.,
focusing on "here & now" rather than the "then & there".
To offer training and coaching in skills that tend to help the learning process,
e.g.,feedback skills, EIAG, etc.
To not offer structure or an agenda. To remain silent, allowing the group toexperience
its anxiety about acceptance, influence, etc.
To be willing to disclose oneself, to be open with the group. On occasion beingwilling
to offer feedback and challenge a participant
To avoid becoming too directive, clinical, or personally involved.
Possible Problems
T-Group methods usually encourage self-disclosure and openness, which may
beinappropriate or even punished in organizations. This was an early learning.When
managers thought they could take the T-group method into the
back homeorganization, they discovered that the methods and the assumptions of a T-
groupdid not fit. T-groups consisted of participants who were strangers. They didn't
have a history or a future together and could more easily focus on here and
now behavior. Another issue was that in the organization there were objectives,deadli
nes and schedules related to accomplishing the work of the company or group. Groups
with a task to accomplish could not take the same time that would be used in a T-
Group. These difficulties helped lead to the development of Organization Developme
nt and team building. What had been learned in T-Groups was combined with other
knowledge and these new disciplines emergedas ways to address the values raised by
the T-Group experience.
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The T-Group experience can open up a web of questioning in a participant. Waysof
behaving that the person has used for many years may be called into question by
others in the group and oneself. This has in some cases brought the participantto
question relationships in the family or at work. While this can be a veryconstructive
process that leads to the renewal of relationships, it has on occasionlead to the
breakdown of a relationship. While such a breakdown may have, intime, come to the
relationship without participation in a T-Group, it remains a painful and possibly
damaging experience.
Participants being forced or pressured to attend, by an employer or other personwith
influence, are on the whole less likely to have a positive learning
experience.Employers or others who want to require the participation of others may
enhancethe chance of having a productive outcome if -- they attend a lab
themselves before sending others; they speak with the lab coordinator before the event
todiscuss what might realistically be expected and what the leader could do to assistin
the learning process when the participant returns home.
Very rarely there have been situations in which a participant has apsychiatric problem. One report said "The possibility of negative psychiatric effects o
f ST,and especially its role in inducing psychiatric symptoms, is yet to be
clarified."This reinforces the value of participation based on intrinsic motivation; a
normthat discourages people in therapy from attending without the approval of
their therapist; and trainers staying focused on the learning areas suited for T-
Groupexperiences.
Lecture -12
Team Interventions
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Most of us have either participated in or watched games that involve team work. A
team is a group of individuals with complementary skills who depend upon one
another to accomplish a common purpose or set of performance goals
for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Teamwork is work done by
members, all subordinating personal prominence for the good of the team.
In effective teams, members are open and honest with one another. There is support
and trust; there is a high degree of cooperation and collaboration, decisions are
reached by consensus, communication channels are open and well developed. And
there is a strong commitment to the team goals. Many management theorists suggest
the team-based organization is the wave of the future. The self-
managed team should be one of the basic building blocks of the organization
and may well become the productivity breakthrough of the 1990s .Management
consultant. W. Edwards Deming (management guru to the Japanese and responsible
for much of Japanese post-war industrial success). Once said in interview ,An
example of a system well managed is an orchestra. The various players are not there
as prima donnas-to play loud and attract the attention of the listener. Theyre there to
support each other. In fact, sometimes you see a whole section doing nothing but
counting and watching. Just sitting there doing nothing. Theyre there to support each
other. Thats how business should be. In this chapter, we examine some reasons forusing team building and discuss several work-team interventions, including team
developmentt, outdoor experiential laboratory training, role negotiation, and role
analysis techniques. Other team and intergroup interventions, such as goal setting and
self-managed work teams, are discussed in succeeding chapters.
Techniques and exercises used in team building:
1.Role Negotiation Technique- Roger Harrison
Role negotiation, is directed at the
work relationships
among team members. The technique involves a series of controlled negotiations
between participants. During the role negotiation, managers frankly discuss what they
want form each other and explain why.
The steps of role negotiation include the following-
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1. Contract setting. Each member prepares a list for each other member with three
headings.
(a) things to do more.(b) things to do less, and (c) things to do the same.
2. Issue diagnosis.
Each member writes out a master list combining the lists written about him or her, and
posts this list on the wall. Members are then asked to clarify any items that need
explanation.
3.Influence trade.
After the clarification, members decide which items they want most and form into
pairs to negotiate, usually with a third party to help in the process.
4. Written role negotiation. The outcome of the role negotiation is set of written
agreements spelling out the agreements and concessions which each party finds
satisfactory.
Role Analysis
Another team development intervention, called role analysis technique (RAT), isdesigned to clarify
role expectations
. Team norms influence member behaviors or attitudes associated with a particular po
sition. These set of behaviors or attitudes associated with a particular position in a
team is called a
role
.At times team members develop discrepancies between what is expected of each
other.Role analysis is used to clarify suchrole discrepancies. Leading to improved
cohesiveness and functioning. Role expectations are those behaviors of one member
(role incumbent) expected or prescribed by other team members, while role
conception refers to the focal persons own ideas about appropriate role behavior.
Role ambiguity refers to the role incumbents being unaware of or lacking sufficient
knowledge of the expectations of others. In other words, he or she does not fully
know what others expect. When there is an incongruence or a discrepancy between
the role expectations and the role conception, the role conflict occurs. Incongruence
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between
formal job descriptions and actual role demands is another source of role conflict
.Because the team members have a stake in each persons performance. They develop
attitudes and expectations about what a member should or should not do. Role
analysis provides a means for dealing with such problems. This intervention is based
on the premise that consensual agreement about team member roles will lead to a mor
e productive and satisfied team. The steps of role analysis technique include the
following
.1. Role analysis. T
he role incumbent sets forth the role as he or she perceives it, listing perceived duties,
behaviors, and responsibilities. The role conception. Other team members add to
or modify this list until all members are satisfied with the role description.
2. The role incumbents expectations of others.
The role incumbent lists his or her expectation of other group members. This list
describes those expectations of others thataffect the incumbents role and impinge
upon his or her performance. Again the wholeteam adds to or modifies this list until
they agree upon a complete listing.
3. Role Expectations by other.
The other members list their expectations of th4e role incumbent. This list includeswhat they expect him or her to do as it affects their role performance. The work team
modifies this list until they all agree.
4. Role profile. Upon agreement of the role definition. The role incumbent is
thenresponsible for making a written summary called a role profile. He or she
distributes acopy of the completed role profile to each member.
5. the team follows the preceding procedure until each member has a written role
profile.
6. periodically, the team reviews role expectations and role profiles, since these
maychange over time and group mission or members also may change.
As with other OD techniques, there are reports of increased effectiveness from role
analysis techniques. But there is little empirical evidence upon which to base any
conclusion
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Lecture 14
Responsibility Charting
Responsibility Charting helps to clarify who is responsible for what with respect to
various decisions and actions. It is a simple, relevant and effective technique
for improving team functioning and ensuring clarity of responsibilities during a
change process .A responsibility charting session can quickly identify who is to do
what in relation to new initiatives, as well as helping to pinpoint reasons why previous
decisions are not being accomplished as desired. Responsibility charting is a good
intervention to use to:
improve the task performance of a team with their existing work.
to clarify roles and responsibilities before, during or after a change process.
It can also be particularly useful where decision making is embedded in a complex
committee structure as the tool can be adapted to indicate which committees or
interest groups need to be involved in approving change and which need to be kept
informed The first step is to devise a Decision Matrix form. Down the left side list the
decisions that are at issue. They may be decisions relating to policy and procedure or
to the practicalities of implementation. Across the top fill in the actual and/or potential
actors who are relevant to the listed decisions. The next step is to agree the definitions
of behaviors associated with the decision making process.
A typical set of terms is:
A = APPROVE a person who must sign off or veto a decision before it is
implemented or selected from options developed by the R role; accountable for
the quality of the decision.
R = RESPONSIBLE the person who takes the initiative in the particular area,
develops the alternatives, analyses the situation, makes the initial
recommendation, and is accountable if nothing happens in the area.
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C = CONSULTED a person who must be consulted prior to a decision being reached
but with no veto power.
I = INFORMED a person who must be notified after a decision, but before it is
publicly announced; someone who needs to know the outcome for other related tasks
but need not give input.
DK = DON'T KNOWA blank indicates no relationship. Actors Decisions The tool is
similar to the RAEW Analys is used in Process Review and can indeed be used as part
of a continuous improvement approach to reviewing institutional decision
making processes.
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Lecture 15
Force Field Analysis
Force Field Analysis is a method for listing, discussing, and evaluating the various
forces for and against a proposed change. When a change is planned, Force Field
Analysis helps you look at the big picture by analyzing all of the forces impacting the
change and weighing the pros and cons. By knowing the pros and cons, you can
develop strategies to reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthen the
supporting forces .Forces that help you achieve the change are called "driving forces."
Forces that work against the change are called "restraining forces. "Force Field
Analysis can be used to develop an action plan to implement a change. Specifically it
can . . .
1.Determine if a proposed change can get needed support
2.Identify obstacles to successful solutions
3.Suggest actions to reduce the strength of the obstacles
Types of forces to consider
Available Resources Attitudes of people Values
Traditions Regulations Desires
Vested interests Personal or group needs Costs
Organizational structures Present or past practices People
Relationships Institutional policies or norms Events
Social or organizational trends Agencies
The Process
1.Start with a well-defined goal or change to be implemented.
2.Draw a force field diagram.
a. At the top of a large sheet of paper write the goal or change to be implemented.
b .Divide the paper into two columns by drawing a line down the middle. A tthe top
of the left column, write "Driving Forces." Label the right column" Restraining
Forces."
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3.Brainstorm a list of driving and restraining forces and record them on the chart in
the appropriate column.
4.Once the driving and restraining forces have been identified, ask the following
questions:
Are they valid?
How do we know?
How significant are each of them?
What is their strength?
Which ones can be altered?
Which cannot?
Which forces can be altered quickly?
Which ones only slowly?
Which forces, if altered, would produce rapid change?
Which only slow change in the situation?What skills and/or information is needed and
available to alter the forces?
Can we get them?
5.Assign a score to each force, from 1 (weak) to 5 (strong).The score is based on (a)
the strength of the force and (b) the degree to which it is possible to influence this
force.6.Calculate a total score for each of the two columns.
7.Decide if the goal or change is feasible. If so, devise a manageable course of action
which s
:o Strengthens positive force
o Weakens negative force
o Creates new positive forces
Example Force Field Analysis DiagramGoal or proposed change:
To have no abandoned cars along city streets by May 1.
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Driving Forces (the pro's) Restraining Forces (the con's)
Interest in the problem has recently been
expressed by advocacy groups
The definition of "abandoned cars" is
unclear to the public.
The public service director supports the
plan
Owners of older cars feel threatened
The City Council supports the plan Difficult to locate abandoned cars
Public climate favors cleaning up the
city.
Where to put the abandoned cars once
identified?
Local auto salvage yards have agreed to
take the cars at no cost
Expense involved in locating and
disposing of abandoned cars
Health department cites old abandoned
vehicles as potential healh hazard
Need a procedure to verify vehicles
declared "abandoned" and notify owners
.
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Lecture 16
Third Party Peacemaking Interventions
INTERGROUP INTERVENTIONS
Intergroup interventions are integrated into OD programs to facilitate
cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization.
For instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as
different units battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other
units. Conflict resolution meetings are one common intergroup intervention. First,
different group leaders are brought together to secure their commitment to the
intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the
other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to
discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This
type of intervention, say supporters, helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups
that has arisen because of faulty communication Rotating membership
interventions are used by OD change agents to minimize the negative effects of
intergroup rivalry that arise from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The
intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival
groups. As more people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results.
OD joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating
membership approach, but these involve melding members of different groups to
work together toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions
achieve the same results by finding an adversary common to two or more groups
and then getting members of the groups to work together to overcome the threat.
Examples of common enemies targeted in such programs include competitors,
government regulation, and economic conditions
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Lecture 17
Third-Party Consultation
One method of increasing communication and initiating intergroup problem solving is
the intervention of a third party, usually an outside consultant, although the person
also may be a superior, a peer, or a representative from another unit. Third party
interventions have the potential to solve such conflicts. Pone basic feature of
this technique isconfrontation.31 Confrontation refers to the process in which the
parties directly engage each other and focus on the conflict between them. The goals
of interventions include achieving increased understanding of the issues,
accomplishing a common diagnosis ,discovering alternatives for resolving the conflict
and focusing on the common or Met a goals. The third party attempts to make
interventions aimed at opening communications, equalizing owner,
and confronting the problems. Achieving a balance in situational power. If the
situational power of the groups is not approximately equal, it is difficult to establish
trust and maintain open lines of communication. In such a case, it may be possible to
arrange for a third group, such as another work unit, to provide support to the groups
witless power. For groups who have leaders who are less articulator forceful in their
presentations, the third party may need to regulate the discussion. Coordinating
confrontation efforts. One groups positive overtures must be coordinated with the
other groups readiness to reciprocate. If one group is more highly motivated than the
other, the third party may protract the discussion or the higher-motivated group may
be encouraged to moderate their enthusiasm. A failure to coordinate positive
initiatives and readiness to respond can undermine future efforts to work out
Organization Mirror
The organization mirror is a technique designed to give work units feedback on how
other elements or customers of the organization viewthem.2 this intervention is
designed to improve relationships between teams and increase effectiveness. A work
team (which could be in personnel, engineering, production, accounting, and so on)
that is experiencing interface problems with related work terms may initiate a
feedback session. A consultant or other third party obtains specific information,
usually by questionnaire or interview, from other organization groups that the workteam contacts daily. The work team (also called the host group) meets to process the
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feedback. At this meeting, it is important that one of two spokespersons from each
contacted group be present. The outside key people and the consultant discuss the data
collected in an inner circle, while the host group fishbowls and observes on the
outside (therefore the term organization mirror). Following this, the host group may
ask questions of clarification (i.e., Why did you say this?) but may not argue or rebut.
The host unit, with the assistance of the consultant, then discusses the data to identify
problems. Subgroups are formed of host-
group members and key visitors to identify specific improvements that will increase
operating efficiency. Following this, the total group hears a summary report from each
sub group, and they outline action plans and make specific task assignments. This
completes the meeting, but follow-up meeting to assess progress is usually set up
for evaluation. The organization mirror provides a means for a work team to improve
its operating relations with other groups. It allows the Team to obtain feedback on
what it is doing, to identify key problems, and to search for specific improvements of
operating efficiency.
Interrupt Team Building
One intervention technique, originally developed by Robert Blake, Herb Shepard, andJane Mouton, is termed intergroup team building confrontation. Key members of conf
licting groups meet to work on issues or interface. An interface is nay Point at which
conflicting groups meet to work on issues or interface. An interface is nay point at
which contact between groups is essential to achieving a result34 The groups may be
two interdependent organization elements such as architects and engineers,
purchasing and production, or finance and other department heads
Lecture 18Role-playing
is a frequently used method for gaining cross group understanding. As inall
confrontation, the consultant must intervene to open communications, balance
power ,and shift from hostile to problem-solving confrontation. Intergroup team-
building
meetings usually take one or two days. Members are brought together to reduce
misunderstanding, to open communication, and to develop mechanisms for
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collaboration.Most OD practitioners advise intra group team development
before intergroup team building. The purpose of this is to clear out any team issues
or garbage before getting to work on interface problems. The inter group team
building meeting usually involves the following steps:
Step 1. Two work groups who have identified intergroup operating problems first
make three lists each before meeting together
1. How do we see ourselves?
2. How we think the other department sees us?
3. How do we see the other department?
The groups prepare their lists written in large legible print on sheets of news print.
Step 2. The groups then meet together and tape their lists to the wall. A spokesperson
for each group presents that groups lists. While one department is making its
presentation, the other department may not defend itself, argue, or rebate;
but it does have the opportunity to ask clarifying questions (What do you mean by
inflexible? Could you be more specific unautocratic?)
Step 3. The groups then meet separately to discuss the discrepancies In perception and
react to the feedback. The feedback allows for correcting perception sand behaviors toa more effective mode.
Step 4. In the next phase, the groups divide into subgroups of five or six by mixing
members of the two departments. These cross groups have the objectives of agreeing
upon a diagnosis of interface problems and the development of conflict-reducing
or problem-solving alternatives with action plans and follow appr activities.
Together the groups develop an action plan for solving problems and assigning
responsibilities for the action plan.
Step 5. Usually, they schedule a follow-up meeting to evaluate Progress and to make
sure that the actions have achieved their Purpose. Although little hard evidence is
available, there have been Subjective reports of positive
results from intergroup meetings. Blake. Shepard, and Mouton reported improved
relationships In there study, and French and Bell also reported working Successfully
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with three tribal groups. Bennis also reported Improved relationships between
two groups of officials within The U.S. Department of State.36
Lecture 19
COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS
OD comprehensive interventions are used to directly create change throughout an
entire organization, rather than focusing on organizational change through sub group
interventions. One of the most popular comprehensive interventions is survey
feedback. This technique basically entails surveying employee attitudes at all levels of
the company and then disseminating a report that details those findings. The
employees then use the data in feedback sessions to create solutions
to perceived problems. A number of questionnaires developed specifically for such
interventions have been developed.
This chapter will examine several system - wide approaches organization
development:
1) TQM2) Reengineering
3) Grid-OD
4) survey research feedback
5) Linkers system 4model. In the simulation, you will have an opportunity to
experience and practice the oncepts of system wide change approaches.
Total Quality Management
One system wide approach to change is termed Total Quality management (TQM).
TQM is dedicated to having organization members who are committed to continuous
improvement and meeting or exceeding customer expectations. During a time of dow
nsizing and restructuring, many American companies are finding that they must learn
to manage more effectively, and TQM involves all levels of the organization in
developing practices that are customer oriented, flexible and responsive to changing
needs. Total Quality management has been the most widely adopted system change
strategy to improve productivity and competitiveness during the past five years. This
concept began with Demings work with Japanese management, and its initial focus
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was on improving quality. But as it is now being applied, TQM represents a system
wide change approach, which is being used by leading companies around the world.
Total quality management (TQM) involves all organization members in ensuring that
every activity related to the production of goods or services relates to product quality.
In essence all organization members focus performance on maintaining the quality
of products offered by the company. In TQM, all improve the quality of products.
Although the TQM movement actually began in the United States, the
establishment, growth, and development of the movement throughout the
world began with the Japanese. Reengineering: A Radical Redesign Although is too
early to predict the long term results of reengineering change programs,
many companies including Boeing, Ford, Hallmark, Kodak, and PepsiCo. Have
applied Reengineering tow work process.
Reengineering
-like TQM is a system wide change approach focusing on changing
the basic processes of an organization. Reengineering (as set forth by
Michael Hammer and James Company) may be defined as the fundamental
rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve drasticimprovements in performance. Reengineering as the name implies focuses on the
design of work activities of processes: how the task is
accomplished. It dislike designing a circuit, examining the flows or sequences of activ
ities from input to output in an attempt to eliminate inefficiencies, and
improve productivity, Reengineering seeks to Make all processes more efficient by
combining, eliminating or restructuring tasks without regard to traditional methods:
the way things have always been done around here. The idea is toga in a large or
quantum leap in performance, improvements of100 percent or more. Like TQM, the
main focus is the customer. Companies such as AT&T and Pacific Bell have
reengineered the process used to implement telephone service to new
customers. The result has-been faster, better, and easier for both employees and
customers, cutting down customer service time by one half. Reengineering does not
refer to minor modifications of current practices. Instead it means starting with a clean
sheet of paper, includes radical changes in work processes and work relationships.
The main emphasis one reengineering is making the customer happy. The first step is
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to identify the key business processes of a department or work team. The next step is
to identify performance measures in terms of customer satisfaction and to examine
current processes to meet these measures. The customer doesnt care about internal
rewards, or turf wars , the customer just wants the product or service done right,
anon time. The third step is to reengineer the process, organizing work around the
process, not functions or departments. Work is simplified by combining related tasks
and eliminating any elements that do not directly add customer value. Finally, there
designed process is implemented and all activities undergo a continuing re evaluation.
As technology, computers, and customers change, work processes are continually re
examined. Reengineering examines each process and evaluates the processing terms o
f how it usually focuses on incremental changes, while reengineering is seeking a
radical re examinations amide at large scale increases in productivity. While some OD
practitioners have criticized reengineering as
atop down, or numbers approach, this approach lends employee involvement,
empowerment, and teams, reengineering is similar to the socio technical approach to
change.
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Lecture 20
High-Performance Systems (HPS)
One of the more recent developments in large-scale change is the
concept of high performing systems, (HPS) a term originated by Peter Vaill. The idea
is that todays organizations need continuing excellence and renewal as a way of
bringing innovation into our systems. In order to be effective, HPS leaders must see
that the excessive layers of structure within the organization are removed and create a
climate, which emphasizes participation and communication across ability to display
energy and zest for the task being Worked on, the product being built and ones
fellow team members. Leading by example is a popular way for managers to create
excitement and electricity within the workplace. Displaying enthusiasm tends to
greatly impact the morale and productivity Of the workface.10 a high performing
system has been defined as an excellent human system - one that performs at an
unusually high level of excellence. But, as Peter Vaill points out, how we define
excellence and performance depends upon our values.
HPS Criteria
Wail has identified a set of eight criteria, which may be used toExamine systems:1. They are performing excellently against a known external standard.
2. They are performing excellently against what is assumed to be their potential level
of performance.
3. They are performing excellently in relation to where they were at some earlier point
int ime.
4. They are judged by informed observers to be doing substantially better qualifiedly
than other comparable systems.
5. They are doing whatever they do with significantly less resources than it is
assumed are needed to do what they do.
6. They are perceived as exemplars of the way to do whatever they do, and thus
they become a source of ideas and
7. They are perceived to fulfill at a high level the ideals for the Within which
they exist.
8. They are the only organizations that have been able to do what they do at all
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The Grid OD Program
One of the most widely used approaches to system wide planned change is Gride
organization development. A change model designed by Robert R. Blake and Jane
S.Mouton and marketed by Scientific Methods. Inc. This program is a systematic
approach aimed at achieving corporate excellence. Blake and Mouton feel that in
order to increase the effectiveness of managers and the organization, change
must take place in the Basic culture of the system. Grid organization development
starts with a focus on individual behavior, specifically on the managerial
styles of executives using what Blake and Mouton call The Managerial Grid.
The program them moves through a series of sequential phases involving the work
team, the relationships between groups or subunits,
And finally to the culture of the organization itself. The Managerial Grid and Grid
OD represents one of the most extensively applied approaches
to organization improvement and, administered
by Scientific Methods, Inc., have been used by such major U.S. corporations as
Procter & Gamble, Conoco, Merck, and Whirlpool, as well as by a number of foreign
organizations. Westinghouse, for example. Have run more than7,000managers through the Grid starting in 1975 through 1990. Blake estimates that p
erhaps750, 000 managers have been involved with the Grid in one way or another
and that perhaps 5,000 companies have engaged in Grid development activities. These
are necessarily estimates, as there is non realistic basis for a head count. It is known
that then necessarily estimates, as there is no realistic basis for a head count. It is
known that the Managerial Grid book has sold approximately 500,000copies in
English and more than100,000 co