lecture 9_hydrogen escape
TRANSCRIPT
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Lecture 9: Hydrogen Escape
Abiol 574
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Why do we care about hydrogen escape?
• Most H comes initially from H2O. Thus, when H escapes, O is left behind terrestrial planets become more oxidized with time
• H2 (and/or CH4) concentration in the early atmosphere is determined by balancing volcanic outgassing of reduced gases with escape of hydrogen to space
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Prebiotic O2 levels—historical perspective
• Berkner and Marshall (1964, 1965, 1966, 1967) tried to estimate prebiotic O2 concentrations– They recognized that
the net source of O2 was photolysis of H2O followed by escape of H to space
– These authors assumed that O2 would build up until it shielded H2O from photolysis
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Schumann-Runge bands
S-R continuum
Herzburgcontinuum
UV absorption coefficients of various gases
Source: J.F. Kasting, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Michigan, 1979
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Berkner and Marshall’s model
• Resulting O2 mixing ratio is of the order of 10-3 to 10-4 PAL (times the Present Atmospheric Level)
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Brinkman’s model
• Brinkman (Planet. Space Sci. 19, 791-794, 1971) predicted abiotic O2 concentrations as high as 0.27 PAL
• Sinks for O2– He included a sink due to crustal oxidation,
but he neglected volcanic outgassing of reduced species (e.g., H2, CO)
• Source of O2– He assumed that precisely 1/10th of the H
atoms produced by H2O photolysis escaped to space. This fraction is much too high..
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Hydrogen escape
• Hydrogen escape can be limited either at the exobase (~500 km altitude) or at the homopause (~100 km altitude)
• Exobase—the altitude at which the atmosphere becomes collisionless– An exobase may not exist in
a hydrogen-dominated upper atmosphere get hydrodynamic escape
– In any case, the factor limiting H escape in this case is energy (from solar EUV heating)
Mean free path = local scale height
= molecular collision cross section
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Hydrogen escape (cont.)
• Homopause—the altitude at which molecular diffusion replaces “eddy diffusion” as the dominant vertical transport mechanism– The flux of
hydrogen through the homopause is limited by diffusion
100 km
Homopause
500 km
Exobase
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Hydrogen escape (cont.)
Eddydiffusion
Moleculardiffusion
(logscale)
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Alt
itud
e (
km)
0
100
500
Homopause
Exobase
Homosphere(Eddy diffusion—gases are well-mixed)
Heterosphere(Molecular diffusion—light gases separatefrom heavier ones)
Exosphere(Collisionless) H
H or H2
Surface
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Hydrogen escape from the exobase
• Earth’s upper atmosphere is rich in O2 (a good EUV absorber) and poor in CO2 (a good IR radiator) the exosphere is hot
T 1000 K (solar min) 2500 K (solar max)
• Furthermore, H2 is broken apart into H atoms by reaction with hot O atoms
H2 + O → H + OH OH + O → O2 + H
• Escape of light H atoms is therefore relatively easy
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Hydrogen escape from the exobase
• For Earth, there are 3 important H escape mechanisms:
– Jeans escape: thermal escape from the high-energy tail of the Maxwellian velocity distribution
– Charge exchange with hot H+ ions in the magnetosphere
– The polar wind
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Kinetic theory of gases
• James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
“(The work of Maxwell) ... the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton.”—Albert Einstein, The Sunday Post
Source: Wikkipedia
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Maxwellian velocity distribution
• The number of molecules with speeds between v and v + dv is given by
dvkT
mvv
kT
mndvvf
2exp
2
4)(
22
2/3
• Herek = Boltzmann’s constant, 1.3810-23
J/K)m = molecular massT = temperature (K)
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Maxwellian velocity distribution
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Kinetic theory of gases
• Sir James Jeans (1877-1946)– Wrote: The
Dynamical Theory of Gases (1904)
– Figured out large chunks of what we now study in physics classes…
Source: Wikkipedia
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Jeans (thermal) escape
vesc
H atoms with velocitiesexceeding the escapevelocity can be lost
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Escape velocity
• In order to escape, the kinetic energy of an escaping molecule must exceed its gravitational potential energy and it must be headed upwards and not suffer any collisions that would slow it down
• Who can do this mathematically?
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½ mve2 = GMm/r
(K.E.) (P.E.)
ve = (2GM/r)1/2
= 10.8 km/s (at 500 km altitude)
Escape velocity
m = mass of atom (1.6710-27 kg for H)M = mass of the Earth (5.981024 kg)G = universal gravitational constant (6.6710-11 N m2/kg2) r = radial distance to the exobase (6.871106 m)
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Most probable velocity
vesc
H atoms with velocitiesexceeding the escapevelocity can be lostvs
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Root mean square velocity
Energy: ½ kT per degree of freedom
Translational energy: 3 degrees of freedom
KE = 3/2 kT ½ mv2 = 3/2 kT
vrms = (3kT/m)1/2
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Most probable velocity
• Most probable velocity: vs = (2kT/m)1/2
• Evaluate for atomic H at T = 1000 Kvs = 4.07 km/s
• Compare with escape velocityvesc = 10.8 km/s
• These numbers are not too different an appreciable number of H
atoms can escape
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Escape parameter,
• Define the escape parameter, c, as the ratio of gravitational potential energy to thermal energy at the critical level, rc
c = GMm/rc = GMm/rc
½ mvs2 ½ m (2kT/m)
c = GMm
kTrc
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The Jean’s escape velocity can be calculated by integratingover the Maxwellian velocity distribution, taking into accountgeometrical effects (escaping atoms must be headed upwards).The result is
The escape flux is equal to the escape velocity times thenumber density of hydrogen atoms at the critical level,or exobase
esc = ncvJ
Jeans’ escape flux
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• If the exospheric temperature is high, then Jeans’ escape is efficient and hydrogen is easily lost– In this case, the rate of hydrogen
escape is determined at the homopause (diffusion-limited flux)
• If the exospheric temperature is low, then hydrogen escape may be bottled up at the exobase
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Hydrogen escape processes
• Mars and Venus have CO2-dominated upper atmospheres which are very cold (350-400 K) Escape from the exobase is limiting on both planets
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Hydrogen escape processes
• For Earth, Jeans escape is efficient at solar maximum but not at solar minimum– However, there
are also other nonthermal H escape processes that can operate..
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Nonthermal escape processes
• Charge exchange with hot H+ ions from the magnetosphere
H + H+ (hot) H+ + H
(hot)
The New Solar System, ed., 3,p. 35
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Nonthermal escape processes
• The polar wind: H+ ions can be accelerated out through open magnetic field lines in the polar regions
http://www.sprl.umich.edu/SPRL/research/polar_wind.html
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Conclusion: Hydrogen escape from presentEarth is limited by diffusion through thehomopause
Corollary: The escape rate is easy tocalculate
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Diffusion-limited escape• On Earth, hydrogen escape is limited
by diffusion through the homopause• Escape rate is given by (Walker, 1977)
esc(H) bi ftot/Ha
wherebi = binary diffusion parameter for H (or H2) in airHa = atmospheric (pressure) scale height
ftot = total hydrogen mixing ratio in the stratosphere
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• Numericallybi 1.81019 cm-1s-1 (avg. of H and H2 in
air)
Ha = kT/mg 6.4105 cm
so esc(H) 2.51013 ftot(H) (molecules cm-2 s-
1)
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Total hydrogen mixing ratio
• In the stratosphere, hydrogen interconverts between various chemical forms
• Rate of upward diffusion of hydrogen is determined by the total hydrogen mixing ratio
ftot(H) = f(H) + 2 f(H2) + 2 f(H2O) + 4 f(CH4) + …
• ftot(H) is nearly constant from the tropopause up to the homopause (i.e., 10-100 km)
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Total hydrogen mixing ratio
Homopause
Tropopause
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Diffusion-limited escape• Let’s put in some numbers. In the
lower stratospheref(H2O) 3-5 ppmv = (3-5)10−6
f(CH4) = 1.6 ppmv = 1.6 10−6
• Thusftot(H) = 2 (310−6) + 4 (1.6 10−6)
1.210−5
so the diffusion-limited escape rate isesc(H) 2.51013 (1.210−5) = 3108 cm-2 s-
1