LECTURE 5: PLATO

TODAY’S LECTURE

In Today’s lecture we will:In Today’s lecture we will:

1.1.Recap what we learned about Plato’s theory of reality in lecture Recap what we learned about Plato’s theory of reality in lecture

2.2.Clarify Plato’s argument for the existence of eternal formsClarify Plato’s argument for the existence of eternal forms

3.3.Investigate Plato’s ‘Divided Line’Investigate Plato’s ‘Divided Line’

4.4.Investigate Plato’s allegory of the caveInvestigate Plato’s allegory of the cave

5.5.Consider some criticisms of Plato’s theory of realityConsider some criticisms of Plato’s theory of reality

6.6.Briefly Consider Some alternativesBriefly Consider Some alternatives

7.7.Conclude our investigation into Plato’s theory of realityConclude our investigation into Plato’s theory of reality

RECAP

TOPIC RECAP

The question of reality (Metaphysics)The question of reality (Metaphysics)

oWhat is reality?What is reality?

oWhat are things made of?What are things made of?

oWhat is the ultimate?What is the ultimate?

oWhat is it that everything depends on for its existence?What is it that everything depends on for its existence?

oWhat is really real?What is really real?

oHow do we distinguish between what is real and what is mere How do we distinguish between what is real and what is mere illusion?illusion?

The problem of the one and the manyThe problem of the one and the many

oWhat is the ultimate reality (the One)?What is the ultimate reality (the One)?

oHow is everything else (the Many) related to the One?How is everything else (the Many) related to the One?

TOPIC RECAP

Ontological optionsOntological options

oOntology is the study of what exists, what is real etc.Ontology is the study of what exists, what is real etc.

oOntology is a branch of metaphysics.Ontology is a branch of metaphysics.

oMost theories of reality maintain one of the following ontological Most theories of reality maintain one of the following ontological beliefs:beliefs:

1.1. MonismMonismThe belief that reality is composed of The belief that reality is composed of one one thing.thing.

2.2. DualismDualismThe belief that reality is composed of The belief that reality is composed of two things.two things.

3.3. PluralismPluralismThe belief that reality is composed of The belief that reality is composed of manymany things. things.

4.4. NihilismNihilismThe view that The view that nothing existsnothing exists

TOPIC RECAP

In answer to the question; what is reality? Plato answers:In answer to the question; what is reality? Plato answers:

oReality is composed of Reality is composed of Two Two distinct worlds:distinct worlds:

1.1. The Space-Time world of BECOMING (the world according to The Space-Time world of BECOMING (the world according to the senses)the senses)

2.2. The transcendent world of BEING (a world not experienced by The transcendent world of BEING (a world not experienced by the five senses but still related to the world of Becoming)the five senses but still related to the world of Becoming)

oObjects in each world exhibits the following characteristics:Objects in each world exhibits the following characteristics:

TranscendenTranscendent world of t world of

BEINGBEING

Space-Time Space-Time world of world of

BECOMINGBECOMING

ObjectiveObjectiveTranscendeTranscendentntEternalEternal

SubjectiveSubjectiveSpatiotemporSpatiotemporalalChangeableChangeable

SensibleSensibleCopiedCopiedImperfecImperfectt

IntelligibleIntelligibleArchetypalArchetypalPerfectPerfect

TOPIC RECAP

In answer to the question; what is reality? Plato answers:In answer to the question; what is reality? Plato answers:

oThe space-time world of Becoming is full of The space-time world of Becoming is full of Sensible Sensible objects (we objects (we can sense them)can sense them)

oThe transcendent world of Being is furnished with Forms (or Ideas) The transcendent world of Being is furnished with Forms (or Ideas) which impart essence onto worldly objectswhich impart essence onto worldly objects

oForms are related to objects by:Forms are related to objects by:1.1. The extent something reflects the True formThe extent something reflects the True form2.2. The extent something participates in the True formThe extent something participates in the True form

o Plato divides between Higher Forms (things without physical Plato divides between Higher Forms (things without physical manifestation) and Lower Forms (things that manifest manifestation) and Lower Forms (things that manifest physically)physically)

Transcendent world of

BEING

Space-Time world of

BECOMING

Form (Idea) chairs

...SOME CLARIFICATION

CLARIFICATION OF PLATO’S REASONING

Clarification of Plato’s reasoning (the problem of universals)Clarification of Plato’s reasoning (the problem of universals)

Heraclitus: Heraclitus:

There is no There is no One Unchanging ThingOne Unchanging Thing except change; the world except change; the world undergoes constant changes (Heraclitus)undergoes constant changes (Heraclitus)

The Problem:The Problem:

Plato: Option 1 leads to impossible conclusions (we could not know Plato: Option 1 leads to impossible conclusions (we could not know or discuss anything). But we do know some things and talk about or discuss anything). But we do know some things and talk about them.them.

Plato’s Assumption:Plato’s Assumption:

There must be There must be One Unchanging Thing One Unchanging Thing or knowledge and discussion or knowledge and discussion (language) would be impossible.(language) would be impossible.

Plato’s Conclusion:Plato’s Conclusion:

What is this What is this One? One? Transcendent, eternal , unchanging Forms in the Transcendent, eternal , unchanging Forms in the world of Beingworld of Being

THE DIVIDED LINE

PLATO’S DIVIDED LINE

EpistemologyEpistemology(Thought)(Thought)

UnderstandingUnderstanding

MetaphysicsMetaphysics(Objects)(Objects)

Higher Higher FormsForms

KnowledgeKnowledgeBeingBeing(Intelligible (Intelligible

World)World) Mathematical Mathematical FormsForms ReasonReason

OpinionOpinionBecomingBecoming(Visible World)(Visible World)

Sensible Sensible ObjectsObjects

PerceptionPerception

ImaginationImaginationImagesImages

D

C

B

A

THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

PLATO’S CAVE

Hierarchy of Plato’s Theory of Reality

Higher FormsHigher Forms

Mathematical FormsMathematical Forms

Lower FormsLower Forms

Sensible ObjectsSensible Objects

ImagesImages

The Form of the Good is the ultimate Form and the source of all knowledge and existence

Each being is derived from the next being up

The GoodThe Good

PLATO’S CAVE

AnalogouAnalogous tos to

SUNSUN

InIn

VISIBLE WORLDVISIBLE WORLD

By itsBy its

LIGHTLIGHT

Cause ofCause of

SIGHTSIGHT

And existence of And existence of

objects and sightobjects and sight

(Textbook, P. 69)(Textbook, P. 69)

GOODGOOD

InIn

INTELLIGIBLE WORLDINTELLIGIBLE WORLD

By itsBy its

TRUTHTRUTH

Cause ofCause of

KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

And existence of objects And existence of objects

of knowledge (Forms)of knowledge (Forms)

PLATO’S CAVE

CRITICISMS OF PLATO

CRITICISMS OF PLATO

Some objections that were raised in regards to Plato’s theory of reality:Some objections that were raised in regards to Plato’s theory of reality:

What is the relationship between Forms and objects?What is the relationship between Forms and objects?For example, if I invent something is a new form created?For example, if I invent something is a new form created?

Possible answer: Forms do not come into or out of existence (they Possible answer: Forms do not come into or out of existence (they are eternal) so when we ‘invent’ something we are merely copying a are eternal) so when we ‘invent’ something we are merely copying a

Form which already existedForm which already existed

But! Plato does not give us a clear explanation.But! Plato does not give us a clear explanation.

Do we really need something like the forms to explain how we recognize Do we really need something like the forms to explain how we recognize a chair as a chair?a chair as a chair?

For example, we are taught what is and isn’t a chair; different For example, we are taught what is and isn’t a chair; different cultures have different understandings of what different things cultures have different understandings of what different things are.are.

Isn’t there a simpler way to explain how we can know the essence of an Isn’t there a simpler way to explain how we can know the essence of an object?object?

Ockham’s Razor (p.77): “Entities are not to be multiplied Ockham’s Razor (p.77): “Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity”without necessity”

CRITICISMS OF PLATO

The ‘Third-Man- ArgumentThe ‘Third-Man- Argument

Aristotle raises the follow problem:Aristotle raises the follow problem:

To explain the similarities between

Person 1 and 2 we need a third person

CRITICISMS OF PLATO

The ‘Third-Man- ArgumentThe ‘Third-Man- Argument

Aristotle raises the follow problem:Aristotle raises the follow problem:

But to explain the relationship between

these three we need a fourth...

And so on...

... And fifth

THE PROBLEM OF SEPARATION

Aristotle further criticizes Plato on the following grounds:Aristotle further criticizes Plato on the following grounds:

It is unclear in Plato’s theory of reality how the world of BEING relates to It is unclear in Plato’s theory of reality how the world of BEING relates to and influences the world of BECOMINGand influences the world of BECOMING

Transcendent world of

BEING

Space-Time world of

BECOMING

Form (Idea) chairs

Chorismos (Separation)Chorismos (Separation)

ALTERNATIVES TO PLATO

REALISM

Alternative 1: Realism Alternative 1: Realism

““The doctrine that Forms, or essences, possess objective reality” (p.79)The doctrine that Forms, or essences, possess objective reality” (p.79)

Essentially follows Plato’s premise that there must be something like the Essentially follows Plato’s premise that there must be something like the Forms but modifies or improves upon Plato’s theory of reality.Forms but modifies or improves upon Plato’s theory of reality.

Positive features:Positive features:

Negative features:Negative features:

Adherents:Adherents:

PlatoPlatoAristotleAristotleSt AugustineSt AugustineSt. Thomas AquinasSt. Thomas Aquinas

REALISM

Alternative 2: NominalismAlternative 2: Nominalism

““The doctrine that Forms, or Universals, are merely universal names by The doctrine that Forms, or Universals, are merely universal names by which we group together things that possess similar features” (p.79)which we group together things that possess similar features” (p.79)

Maintains that Forms and essences (universals) do not have any Maintains that Forms and essences (universals) do not have any independent existences. They are just words we use to group things independent existences. They are just words we use to group things together with similar features.together with similar features.

Positive Features:Positive Features:

Negative Features:Negative Features:

Adherents:Adherents:

William of OckhamWilliam of OckhamW.V.O. QuineW.V.O. Quine

REALISM

Alternative 3: ConceptualismAlternative 3: Conceptualism

““The doctrine that universals are material constructs, and as such really The doctrine that universals are material constructs, and as such really exist in the mind” (p.79)exist in the mind” (p.79)

Accepts the existence of Universals, essences, etc. but they do not exist Accepts the existence of Universals, essences, etc. but they do not exist independently or transcendentally; they exist in the mind. Hence we independently or transcendentally; they exist in the mind. Hence we can talk and have knowledge about reality.can talk and have knowledge about reality.

Positive Features:Positive Features:

Negative Features:Negative Features:

SUMMARY

PLATO’S THEORY OF FORMS

Summary of Plato’s Theory of RealitySummary of Plato’s Theory of Reality

oReality is composed of two distinct worlds:Reality is composed of two distinct worlds:1.1. The world of BeingThe world of Being2.2. The world of BecomingThe world of Becoming

oObjects in each world have radically different properties.Objects in each world have radically different properties.

oForms in the world of Being impart essence (Forms in the world of Being impart essence (Whatness) Whatness) onto objects in onto objects in

the world of Becomingthe world of Becoming

oPlato divides between Higher Forms (things without physical Plato divides between Higher Forms (things without physical

manifestation) and Lower Forms (things that manifest physically)manifestation) and Lower Forms (things that manifest physically)

oPlato further clarifies his theory of reality using the ‘Divided Line’ Plato further clarifies his theory of reality using the ‘Divided Line’

analogy.analogy.

oThe ultimate form and the source of all existence and knowledge is the The ultimate form and the source of all existence and knowledge is the

form of the ‘Good’form of the ‘Good’

oPlato uses the ‘Analogy of the Cave’ to further illustrate the Form of the Plato uses the ‘Analogy of the Cave’ to further illustrate the Form of the

GoodGood