lecture 1 - s3.studentvip.com.au · lecture 1 how would you finance your ideas? -self, friends,...
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Lecture1
Howwouldyoufinanceyourideas?
- Self,friends,family- R&Dgrantfunding- Businessangels:anaffluentindividualwhoprovidescapitalforabusinessstart-up(usuallyinexchangefor
convertibledebtorownershipequity).Acommonsecondroundoffinancingforhigh-growthstart-ups–bridgesthefundinggapbetweenselfandventurecapital.Personalinvestmentsàmoresignificantpersonalriskstakenwithinvestmentsthanthemanagersofventurecapitalfundsàtendtoinvestclosetohome+keepinvestmentactivitiesprivate,therefore,investinprivatelyheldbusinessventuresthathavenotbeenquotedpubliclyonthestockmarket
- Co-investmentfundsandearlystageVCfunds- Venturecapital:moneyprovidedtoseedearly-stage,emerginggrowthcompanies;venturecapitalfundsinvest
incompaniesinexchangeforequityinthecompaniestheyinvestin- ExitIPO/Tradesaleetc:exitoptionsforinvestors–seelinginvestment/seekingastockmarketlistinginorderto
realiseareturnontheirinvestment- Crowdfunding:fundingaprojectorventurebyraisingmonetarycontributionsfromalargenumberofpeople
(oftenperformedthroughinternet-mediatedregistries,mail-ordersubscriptions,eventsetc.)
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Whatownershipformtochoose?• Affects:
o Taxliabletopayo Assetprotectiono Ongoingcostso Clients
Typeofownership Advantages DisadvantagesSoleTraders- Abusinessownedbya
singleperson
- Simplicity- Taxationatpersonal
rates- Privacy- Flexibilityand
control
- Unlimitedliability- Smallinscale- Indifferentiablefromowners,
thereforeimpermanent- Limitedincapacitytoraiseand
retaincapital- Limitedincapacitytomanagerisk
anddiversifyPartnerships- Twoormorepeoplecarry
onabusinessincommonwithaviewofprofit
- Simplicity- Taxationatpersonal
rates- Moreresources- Costsharing- Broaderskilland
experiencebase- Longevity
- Alldisadvantagesofsoletraders- Disputesbetweenpartnersabout
sharingprofitsandadministrationofthebusiness
- Partnerscanbeliablefordebtsincurredbyotherpartners
Resolvingtheproblems:Corporations- Alargecompanyorgroupofcompaniesauthorisedtoactasasingleentity
o Characteristics:- Cansueorbesuedintheirownnames- Enterintoandenforcecontracts- Holdtitletoandtransferproperty- Befoundliableforviolationsoflaw- Limitedliability- Perpetualsuccession- Transferabilityofshares
SeparatepropertyPrivateCompany- Businesscompanyowned
bynon-governmentalorganisationsorbyarelativelysmallnumberofshareholders
- Doesnotoffersharestogeneralpubliconthestockmarketexchanges
- Oftenfamilyowned
- Limitedliabilityforshareholderssopersonalassetsofshareholderswillnotbeatriskofbeingseized
- Continuityofexistence:businessnotaffectedbystatusofowner
- Paycorporationtaxandtendtobeexemptfromhigherpersonalincometaxrates
- Sharesinaprivatelimitedcompanycannotbesoldortransferredwithouttheagreementofshareholders
- Lackofpublicconfidencebecauseaffairsareunknown
-
- Initialpublicoffering–IPO
o Sellingsharesinacompanytothepublico Usuallyviaanexchangee.g.ASXo Expandsinvestorbaseo Createsgreatercomplianceandreportingburden
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- Growthoptionso Scaleo Efficiency–importanceofinnovationo Resourceso Influenceo Returns
- OrganicGrowthPros Cons- Deeperclientbaserelationships- Harmony/opportunity- Internalinnovation- Lowercost
- Retentions- Vulnerability- Scale- speed
- NonOrganicGrowtho Mergersandacquisitions
§ Mergers:twocompaniesbecomingasingleentitye.g.ExxonandMobil
§ Acquisitions:onecompanybuyinganothercompany• Why?
Synergy:increaseinperformanceofthecombinedfirmoverwhatthetwofirmsarealreadyexpectedtoaccomplishasindependentfirms,e.g.:
• Increasedmarketpower• Controlofsupplier• Consolidationofexcesproductivecapacity• Keypeople/technologiesasthefocusofactivity• Keycustomeracquisition
§ Whatdrivespost-acquisitionperformance?
• Strategicreadiness• Relativesize• Methodofacquisition• Methodofpayment• Previousacquisitions
o Jointventures§ Separatelegalentitybetweenmultiplefirms§ ‘twoormorefirmsworkingtogethertoachievemutuallybeneficialobjective…usuallyinvolves
anelementofsharedownership’(Needle2010,p.546)o Strategicalliances
§ Longtermpartnershipbetweenfirmstodevelop,produceorsellproducts§ ‘twoormorecompaniesagreeingtocooperateonaspecificventure,ofteninvolvingshared
facilitiesorservices’(Needle2010,p.38)
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Lecture2- Thebalancedscorecard
o Strategicplanningandmanagementsystemusedextensivelyinbusinesstoalignactivitiestothevisionandstrategyoftheorganisation,improveinternalandexternalcommunication,andmonitororganisationperformanceagainststrategicgoals.
- Strategicplanning
1. Definemission,visionandvalues2. PerformSWOTanalysis3. Developforecasts4. Analysethecompetition5. Establishgoalsandobjectives6. Developactionplans
- Visiono Clearstatementaboutthedirectioninwhichtheorganisationneedstomove
- Missiono Statementabouthowwegetthereandreasonsforchoosingthisroute
§ Howtheorganisationrelatestothepublicandcommunities§ Whatservicesitprovides§ Whobenefitsasaresultofitswork§ Howitimprovesthequalityoflife
(Anderson1998)
- Sustainablecompetitiveadvantageo Outperformingcompetitorsinthelongrun
- Strategyo Thedeterminationofthelongrungoalsandobjectivesofanenterpriseandtheadoptionofcoursesof
actionandtheallocationofresourcesnecessaryforcarryingoutthesegoals–AlfredD.Chandlero Helpssetgoalsandobjectiveso Allowstocontrolandmonitorperformance
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o Helpsallocateresourcesinanoptimalwayo Integratesdifferentpartsoforganisationo Canbeaninternalchangedrivero Helpsdeveloptheworkforce
E.g.QantasGroupStrategy–2010- Safetyasfirstpriority,backedbyanunwaveringcommitmenttoworld’sbestsafetypractices- Rightaircraftontherightroutes,withfleetrenewaldeliveringoneoftheworld’smosteffectivefleetsflying
onanoptimalroutenetwork- Customerserviceexcellence- Operationalefficiencyandachievingsimplicityandfurtherproductivityacrossthebusiness- Strongcomplementarybrands:Jetstarasthebestpremiumandlowfarebrandsrespectively
- Viewsofstrategycreation
o Rationalapproach§ Analysisàformulationàimplementation
o Incremental[emergent]approach§ Addressesstrategyprocessasonethatcannotbeaccomplishedinarational,
straightforwardmanner§ Nobroadorganisationalfocus§ Operationalunitsthatareresponsibleformaintainingprogramsorperforming“enduring”
activitieshavedifficultyaligningtheiroperationstotheplan
- Businessstrategy:toolsforanalysiso Corecompetence
‘thoseactivitiesofanorganisationthatgiveitanadvantageoveritscompetitors’(Needle2010,p.274)
o Porter’s5forces
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o SWOT
o Porter’sgenericstrategies
§ Costleadership:becomingthelowestcostorganisationinadomainofactivity
• Cost-leaderwithparity• Cost-leaderwithproximity
§ Differentiationstrategy:uniquenessthatissufficientlyvaluedbycustomerstoallowapricepremium
§ Focusstrategies:targetsanarrowsegmentofthedomainofactivityandtailorsitsproductsorservicestotheneedsofthatspecificsegmenttotheexclusionofothers.
o Means-endsanalysis§ Identifystrategicgoal§ Examineeachoptioninwhichthisgoalcanbeachieved§ Evaluatestrengthsandweaknessesofeachoption§ Implementthebestoption
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- Implementingstrategy:leadingandorganising
o Ensuringstrategybecomesarealityo Managingpeopleo Allocatingresources,selectingstructuresandmakingdecisions
- Whydoesimplementationfail?o Lackofclearcommunicationfromthetoptothefrontlineo Lackofclearplanningo Lackofmonitoringandcontrolo Lackofaccountabilityandreward
- Contingencyplanning:haveaplanBo Playoutpossiblescenariothatmightarisefollowingimplementationo Haveasecondandthirdbestoptioninmind
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Lecture3- Theroleoffinancialmanagement
o Financialmanagement§ Planningforafirm’smoneyneedsandmanagingtheallocationandspendingoffunds
o Risk/returntrade-off§ Thebalanceofpotentialrisksagainstpotentialrewards
- Assets:futureeconomicbenefitscontrolledbytheentityasaresultofpasttransactionsorotherpastevents- Return:gainorlossonaninvestment- Risk:probabilityorlikelihoodoroccurrenceoflossesonaninvestment- Interestrate,costofcapital,expectedreturn- Timevalueofmoney:moneyavailableatthepresenttimeisworthmorethanthesameamountinthe
futureduetoitspotentialearningcapacity- Financing:acquiringfundsfromexternalsources,includingdebtfinancingandequityfinancing- Leverage:techniqueofincreasingtherateofreturnonaninvestmentbyfinancingitwithborrowedfunds- Capitalstructure:firm’smixofdebtandequityfinancing
- Financialmanagement:managementofafirm’sresourcesinordertoachieveitsobjectivesandmaximise
value
o Corporateobjective§ “maximisethevalueofthecompany”§ equivalentto“maximisingshareholderwealth”
o usingscarceresources(capitalandlabour)inthemostefficientmannerpossible- Financialmanagementdecisions
o Dividenddecisiono Investmentdecisiono Financingdecision
- Threefundamentalconceptsoffinancialmanagement:o Balancingshorttermandlongtermdemands
§ Readycashtopaysalaries,bills,taxes§ Financialcushion§ Mayneedmoneyforacquisitionsorotherextraordinaryexpenses§ Strategiclong-terminvestments
o Balancingpotentialrisksandpotentialrewards§ Everydecisioninvolvesarisk/rewardtradeoff§ Safestchoicesnotalwaysbestchoices
o Balancingleverageandflexibility§ Canusedebtstrategicallyandsometimesoutofnecessity§ Debtcanbeatool,butitcanalsobeatrap§ Highleveragedcompanieshavefarlessabilitytomanoeuvreandaremorevulnerableto
setbacks- Developingafinancialplan
o Financialplan§ Documentthatoutlinesfundsneededforacertainperiodoftime,alongwiththesources
andintendedusesoffunds§ Strategicplan,company’sfinancialstatements,externalfinancialenvironment§ Balancedscorecard
- FindingandallocatingfundsSourcesoffundsàstrategicplan(establishesgoals,objectives,priorities)[financialplan–identifiesamountsandtypesofcapitalneededtoaccomplishthosegoals]àusesoffunds
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- Budgetingchallenge1. Everycompanyhasalimitedamountofmoneytospend
o Projectsanddepartmentsoftenincompetitionforresources2. Revenuesandcostsareoftendifficulttopredict
o Salesforecastsnevercertainparticularlyfornewproductsandnewmarketso Variablecostshardtopredict
3. It’snotalwaysclearhowmuchshouldbespento E.g.unclearhowmuchadvertisingisenougho Budgetingbasedonpastexpenditures,whichmightbeoutoflinewithcurrentstrategicneeds
- Typesofbudgetso Startupbudget
§ Identifiesthemoneyanewcompanywillneedtospendtolaunchoperationo Operatingbudget
§ Identifiesallsourcesofrevenueandcoordinatesthespendingofthosefundsthroughoutthecomingyear
§ A.K.Athemasterbudgeto Capitalbudget
§ Outlinesexpendituresforrealestate,newfacilities,majorequipmentandothercapitalinvestments
o Capitalinvestments§ Moneypaidtoacquiresomethingofpermanentvalueinabusiness
o Projectbudget§ Abudgetthatidentifiesthecostsneededtoaccomplishaparticularproject
- Financingalternatives:factorstoconsidero Debtfinancing
§ Arrangingfundingbyborrowingmoneyo Equityfinancing
§ Arrangingfundingbysellingownershipsharesinthecompany,publiclyorprivately
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Characteristic Debtfinancing Equityfinancing
Maturity Specific–specifieddatebywhichdebtmustberepaid
Doesnotneedtoberepaid
Claimonincome Nondiscretionary,usuallyrecurringcostandisfixed.
DiscretionarycostIfcompanyisprofitable,shareholdersmayreceivedividendsafterpayingcreditors.Companynotrequiredtopaydividends.
Claimonassets Lendershavepriorclaimsonassets Residual:shareholdershaveclaimsonlyafterthefirmsatisfiesclaimsoflenders
Influenceovermanagement
Lenders–noinfluenceunlessdebitvehiclescomewithconditionsormanagementfailstomakepaymentsontime
Varies:shareholderscanvoteonsomeaspectsofcorporateoperations(onlylargeshareholdershavemuchinfluence)Privateequityholders(privateequity=equitysecuritiesanddebtinoperatingcompaniesthatarenotpubliclytradedonastockexchange)e.g.inventurecapitalists,canhaveconsiderableinfluence
Taxconsequences Lowerstaxobligatons- Debtpaymentsreducetaxable
income
Dividendpaymentsnottaxdeductible
Employeebenefitpotential
n/a-doesnotcreateanyopportunitiesforcompensationalternatives
Stockoptions:issuingcompanysharescreatestheopportunitytousestockoptionsasamotivationorretentiontool
FoundationsandBiasesinfinancialdecisionmakingExpectedutilitytheory
o Individualsshouldactwhenconfrontedwithdecision-makingunderuncertaintyinacertainway- Theorysetuptodealwithriskratherthanuncertainty
o Risk:whenyouknowwhattheoutcomescouldbe,andcanassignprobabilitieso Uncertaintyiswhenyoucan’tassignprobabilitiesorcan’tcomeupwithalistofpossibleoutcomes
- Expectedutilitycalculatedbytakingtheweightedaverageofallpossibleoutcomesassignedbyprobabilityàwillthenbestrepresenttheutilityatanygiventime
Prospecttheory- DevelopedbyKahnemanandTverskybasedonobservingactualbehaviour- Experimentalevidencesaysthatpeopleoftenbehavecontrarytoexpectedutilitytheory- Expectedutilitytheoryisnormative(whatpeopleshoulddo)whereasprospecttheoryispositive(what
peopledo) Gains LossesHighprobability(certaineffect) 95%towin$10000vs.100%to
win$9499- riskaverse- takeunfavourable
settlement
95%tolose$10000vs.100%tolose$9501
- riskseeking- rejectunfavourable
settlementLowprobability(probabilityeffect)
5%towin$10000vs.100%towin$501
- riskseeking- rejectfavourable
settlement
5%tolose$10000vs.100%tolose$499
- riskaverse- takeunfavourable
settlement
HeuristicsandBiasesinDecisionMaking- Mental/psychologicalaccounting
o Prospecttheoryandmentalaccounting§ Prospecttheorysetuptodealwithoneshotgambles§ Afterconsideringpriorgainsandlossesàtosegregate(gobackto0)orintegrate(move
alongcurves/trends)?
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- Framingo Involvesselectionandsalience.Toframeistoselectsomeaspectsofperceivedrealityandmake
themmoresalientinthecommunicationtext,insuchawayastopromoteaparticularproblemdefinition,causalinterpretation,moralevaluationand/ortreatmentrecommendationfortheitemdescribed.
- Gambler’sfallacyo Appliesifpeoplearefairlysureaboutnatureofpopulationo Theythinkthatevensmallsamplesshouldalwayslooklikethepopulation
- Anchoringandadjustmento Peopleanchoronastartingvalueandadjustfromthereo Expectationsinfluenceperceptions
- Overconfidenceo Whenyouhaveaninflatedsenseofyourabilitieso Manyofusfeelwearesmarterormoreskilledthanaverage.Evidencesuggeststhatpeoplepickthe
definitionoftaskthatsuitstheirpurpose.o Menmoreoverconfidento Highlyeducated,highincomepeoplearemoreoverconfidento Confirmationbiasmayalsocontribute
§ Confirmationbias:thetendencytosearchoutevidenceconsistentwithone’spriorbeliefsandtoignoreconflictingdata
o Impactsonfinancialdecisionmaking:§ Investmentsareundiversified§ Tooreadytoentermarkets§ Overinvest§ Allowcashflowstodictateinvestment§ Acquireothercompaniestooquickly§ Takeontoomuchdebt
- Moodo Undifferentiatedanduntargetedstatesofcontentmentordiscontentmento Moregeneral,oftenexperiencedcollectivelysolessaffectedbydifferencesinpersonalityand
predispositiono E.g.HirshleiferandShumwayfoundin2003thatdailystockreturnscorrelatepositivelywithhoursof
sunshineo Negative,pessimisticmoodwillleadtofinancialinstability,conservatisminfashionandconsumer
purchaseso Positivesocialmoodpolarity,peoplewillbeoptimisticandhopeful
ProcessofDebiasing
- Stepsthatmustbefollowedtoeliminatebias1. Awarenessofbias2. Motivationtoeliminatebias3. Directionandmagnitudeawarenessofbias4. Abilitytoeliminatebias
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Lecture4- Valuechain:alltheelementsandprocessesthataddvalueasrawmaterialsaretransformedintothefinal
productsmadeavailabletotheultimatecustomer
- Firminfrastructure:organisation’sstructureanditsmanagement,planning,accounting,financeandquality-
controlmechanisms- Procurement:buyingthegoodsandservicesthatallowanoperationtofunction- Inbound/outboundlogistics:transport,storageanddeliveryofgoodscomingintoabusiness
- Outsourcing:contractingoutcertainbusinessfunctionsoroperationstoothercompanies- Offshoring:transferringapartorallofabusinessfunctiontoafacility(adifferentpartofthecompanyor
anothercompanyentirely)inanothercountry- Valueweb:thecombinationofextensiveglobalisationinmanyindustriesandelectronicnetworkingasmade
iteasyforcompaniestoconnectwithpartnersaroundtheworld.Insteadofthelinearvaluechain,somebusinessesnowthinkintermsofvaluewebs,multidimensionalnetworksofsuppliersandoutsourcingpartners
- Supplychain:asetofconnectedsystemsthatcoordinatestheflowofgoodsandmaterialsfromsuppliersallthewaythroughtofinalcustomers
o Managingrisks,relationships,trade-offso Promotingsustainability
- Horizontalintegrationconsistsofcompaniesthatacquireasimilarcompanyinthesameindustry,whileaverticalintegration(buyingoutsuppliersetc.)consistsofcompaniesthatacquireacompanythatoperateseitherbeforeoraftertheacquiringcompanyintheproductionprocess
o Purposeofverticalintegration:increasethefirm’spowerinthemarketplace,reducetransactioncostsandsecuresuppliesordistributionchannelsVerticalIntegrationBenefits Drawbacks
- Lowercostsinproduction- Improvedquality- Acquirecriticalresources- Greatermarketshare- Secureddistributionchannel- Newcompetencies
- Highercostsinmanagement- Lowercompetitionandquality- Increasedbureaucracyandreduced
flexibility- Newcompetenciesmayclashwithold
onesandleadtocompetitivedisadvantage
Thedifferencebetweenavaluechainandasupplychainisthatasupplychainistheprocessofallpartiesinvolvedinfulfillingacustomerrequest,whileavaluechainisasetofinterrelatedactivitiesacompanyusestocreateacompetitiveadvantage.TheideaofvaluechainwaspioneeredbyMichaelPorter.
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HorizontalIntegrationBenefits Drawbacks
- Lowercosts- Increaseddifferentiation(moreproduct
orservicefeatures)- Increasedmarketpowerandreduced
competition- Accesstonewmarket
- Reducedflexibility(largerorganisationshardertomanage)
- Moreoften,mergersandacquisitionsfailanddestroythevalueofthecompaniesinvolvedinitbecauseexpectedsynergiesnevermaterialise
Productionandoperationsoperationsmanagement
- Overseeingalltheactivitiesinvolvedinproducinggoodsandserviceso Facilitieslocationanddesigno Forecastingandcapacityplanningo Schedulingo Leansystems(eliminatingwastewithinamanufacturingsystem)
- Productiono Massproductiono Masscustomisationo Customisedproduction
- Productandprocessqualityo Quality:thedegreetowhichaproductorprocessmeetsreasonableoragreed-uponexpectations
§ Price§ Expectation§ Standard
o Strategiesforensuringproductquality§ Continuousimprovement
• Anongoingefforttoimproveproducts,services,orprocesses
§ Statisticalprocesscontrol(SPC)
• Theuseofrandomsamplingandtoolssuchascontrolchartstomonitortheproductionprocess
§ Sixsigma• Arigorousqualitymanagementprogramthatstrivestoeliminatedeviations
betweentheactualanddesiredperformanceofabusinesssystem
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§ ISO9000
• Agloballyrecognisedfamilyofstandardsforqualitymanagementsystemo Forbusiness
§ Costsavings§ Enhancedcustomersatisfaction§ Accesstonewmarket§ Increasedmarketshare
o Forsociety§ Consumerconfidence§ Productsafety§ Environmentalbenefits
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Lecture5- Management:theprocessoplanning,organising,leadingandcontrollingtomeetorganisationalgoals- Managerialroles:behaviouralpatternsandactivitiesinvolvedincarryingoutthefunctionsofmanagement
(includesinterpersonal,informationalanddecisionmakingroles)Theplanningfunction
- Planning:establishingobjectivesandgoalsforanorganisationanddeterminingthebestwaystoaccomplishthem
- Strategicplans:plansthatestablishtheactionsandtheresourceallocationrequiredtoaccomplishstrategicgoals
- Usuallydefinedforperiodsof2-5yearsanddevelopedbytopmanagersTheplanningprocess
1. Definemissions,visionsandvalues
2. PerformSWOTanalysis
3. Developforecasts- Quantitativeforecasts
o Typicallybasedonhistoricaldataortestsandofteninvolvecomplexstatisticalcomputations- Qualitativeforecasts
o Basedonintuitivejudgments- Approachestoproductforecasting
1. Judgmentalapproacho Applyeyeballingtechniquestograph
2. Quantitativeapproach
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o Trend:patternobservedbetweenyearso Seasonality:thepatternobservedwithinaspecifiedyearthatrepeatsfromoneyeartoanother
1) Determineaveragetrendforeachperiod2) Determineseasonalfactorforeachquarter3) Re-calculatetimeseriestoeliminateseasonality(justlastperiodwilldo)4) Addtrendcomponentfortherequiredforecasthorizons5) Addbacktheseasonalcomponent(bymultiplyingeachperiodbytheSF)
3. Integrationofquantitativeandjudgementalapproaches
4. Analysethecompetitiono Whoarethecompetition?o Howmightwedefinethecompetition?o Whataretheyupto?o Whatrelationshipdowehavewiththem?o Whatrelationshipdowehavewiththem?o Howcanwegetaheadofthecompetition?
5. Establishgoalsandobjectives
o Goal:abroad,long-rangetargetoraimo Objective:aspecific,short-rangetargetoraim
- Specific,measurable,attainable,relevant,timelimited6. Developactionplans
Theorganisingfunction
- Organising:theprocessofarrangingresourcestocarryouttheorganisation’splans- Managementpyramid:anorganisationalstructuredividedintotop,middleandfirstlinemanagement
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alayerofmanagement(thebusinessunits)wasremovedtoflattentheorganisationàreducescost,speedscommunicationanddecisionmaking.HOWEVERincreasedspanofmanagementforgroupmanagersandlossofknowledgeandrelationshipsbroughtinbythebusinessunitmanagers
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- Centralisation:concentrationofdecisionmakingauthorityatthetopofanorganisation- Decentralisation:delegationofdecision-makingauthoritytoemployeesinlower-levelpositions
Organisingtheworkforce- Departmentalisation:groupingpeoplewithinanorganisationaccordingtofunction,division,matrixor
networko Functionalstructure:groupingworkersaccordingtothesimilarityintheirskills,resourceuseand
expertiseo Divisionalstructure:groupingdepartmentsaccordingtosimilaritiesinproduct,process,customeror
geographyo Matrixstructure:astructureinwhichemployeesareassignedtobothafunctionalgroupanda
projectteam(usingfunctionalanddivisionalpatternssimultaneously
- TheLeadingFunction
- Stylesofleadingo Autocraticleadership:managerissuesdirectiveso Democraticleadership:managersharesdecisionmakingauthorityo Laissez-faireleadership:subordinatesmakedecisions,withadvicefromleader
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TheControllingFunction- Controlling:theprocessofmeasuringprogressagainstgoalsandobjectivesandcorrectingdeviationsif
resultsarenotasexpected- Thecontrolcycle:
Establishingperformancestandards
- Standards:criteriaagainstwhichperformanceismeasured- Benchmarking:collectingandcomparingprocessandperformancedatafromothercompanies
Organisinginteams- Team:aunitoftwoormorepeoplewhoshareamissionandcollectiveresponsibilityastheyworktogether
toachieveagoal- Typesofteams:
o Problem-solvingteam:ateamthatmeetstofindwaysofimprovingquality,efficiency,andtheworkenvironment
o Self-managedteam:ateaminwhichmembersareresponsibleforanentireprocessoroperationo Functionalteam:ateamwhosememberscomefromasinglefunctionaldepartmentwhichisbased
ontheorganisation’sverticalstructureo Cross-functionalteam:ateamthatdrawstogetheremployeesfromdifferentfunctionalareaso Virtualteam:ateamthatusescommunicationtechnologytobringtogethergeographicallydistant
employeestoachievegoalso Socialnetworkandvirtualcommunity:anetworkthatlinksemployeesandotherswithsimilar
interests
- Forecasterror=|(Forecast–Actual)|/Actual- Inforecasting,groupsofpeopleinteamscanreduceforecasterror.- TOREDUCEERROR:statisticalaverageofforecastscanbebeneficial- Modifiedconsensusisbeneficial
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Lecture6Marketingdefined- Anactivity,setofinstitutionsandprocessesforcreating,communicating,deliveringandexchangingofferings
thathavevalueforcustomers,clients,partnersandsocietyatlarge(AmericanMarketingAssociation).- Hasbeenappliedtovariousothercontextse.g.services,events,politicalelections,places,socialcausesandnon-
profitinstitutions(Kotler&Levy1969)- Market:thesetofallactualandpotentialbuyersofaproduct.
o Shareaparticularneedorwantthatcanbesatisfiedthroughexchangeo Marketing:managingmarketstobringaboutexchangesforthepurposeofsatisfyinghumanneedsand
wantsThingsamarketrequires:o Abuyero Sellero Exchangeo Informationandknowledgeo Somethingwhichisexchangedo Potentialformutualbenefit
- Searchingforbuyers- Identifyingtheirneeds- Designingproductsandservices- Settingprices- Promotingthem- Deliveringthem
- Marketingstrategy:thewaymarketingactivitiesareputtogethertoachievetheorganisation’saimsfor
thebrand- Marketingmix:asetofmanageableelementsinamarketingplan,adjustedtoimplementthemarketing
strategy
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Atotalproduct
- ‘totalproduct’of3levels1. coreproduct:whatistheproductreallybuying?2. Actualproduct:considersaspectssuchasqualitylevel,features,styling,abrandnameand
packaging3. Augmentedproduct:additionalconsumerservicesandbenefitsbuiltaroundthecoreandactual
productsAproduct:anythingofferedtoamarketforattention,acquisition,useorconsumptionthatmightsatisfyaneedorawantPhysicalgoods Biscuits,laptop,furniture,booksServices Banking,transport,educationExperiences Holidays,concerts,sports,movies
Otherproducts:events,person,political,cause-related,not-for-profit,experiences
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Threecompetitivemarketstrategies:1) Buildabetterproductatthemarketprice2) Buildthesameproductatalowerprice3) Createamonopolythroughcustomerfranchise
Productdifferentiation
- Tocreateamonopolyoverthatsegmentofthemarketrepresentedbytheirloyalcustomers,competingattheindividualproductlevel
- Differentiateby:o Product:quality,features,attribute,customisation,assortmento Services:anytimedelivery,customerservice,supportandaftersalesserviceo Personnel–charmanduniquenessoftheorganisation’s‘face’andpeopleo Channel–location,availability,accessibilityo Astrongbrandname/imageo Gainingspeedandfirstmoveradvantage
Typesofconsumerproducts- Convenience
o Frequentpurchase,littleplanning,comparisonorshoppingeffort,lowcustomerinvolvement,habitualorvariety–seekingbuyingbehaviour
o Lowpriceo Widespreaddistribution,convenientlocationso Masspromotionbytheproducero E.g.toothpaste,magazines,laundrydetergent
- Shoppingo Lessfrequentpurchase,muchplanningandshoppingeffort,comparisonofbrandsonprice,
quality,style,dissonance-reducingorcomplexbuyingbehaviouro Higherpriceo Selectivedistributioninfeweroutletso Advertisingandpersonalsellingbybothproducerandresellerso E.g.majorappliances,televisions,furniture,clothing
- Specialtyo Strongbrandpreferenceandloyalty,specialpurchaseeffort,littlecomparisonofbrands,low
pricesensitivity,complexbuyingbehaviouro Highpriceo Exclusivedistributioninonlyoneorfewoutletspermarketareao Morecarefullytargetedpromotionbybothproducerandresellerso Luxurygoodse.g.Rolexwatches
- Unsoughtgoodso Customerbuyingbehaviour:littleproductawareness,knowledgeorifawarelittleoreven
negativeinteresto Price:varieso Distribution:varieso Promotion:aggressiveadvertisingandpersonalsellingo E.g.Lifeinsurance,RedCrossblooddonations
ProductlineandProductMix- Productline:groupofrelatedproductsofferedbyafirm
o e.g.Canon’sprinterrange- Productmix:entireproductrangeofferedbyafirm
o e.g.Canonsellsprinters,ink,cameras,photocopiersandsoonWhatisabrand?
- Abrandisanameterm,sign,symbolordesign,oracombinationofthese,intendedtoidentifythegoodsorservicesofonesellerandtodifferentiatethemfromthoseofcompetitors1. Attributes:productattributes2. Benefits:functionalandemotionalbenefitsderivedfromtheproductattributes3. Values:reflectingbuyer’svalues4. Personality:
a. Brandname:verbalpartofthebrand
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b. Brandmark:uniquesymbolthatidentifieswiththebrandc. Logo:abrandnamewritteninadistinctivewayd. Trademark:legallyprotectedbrandnameorbrandmark
Brandequity- Brandequityisthevalueofthebrandbasedonextenttowhichithashighbrandloyalty,nameawareness,
perceivedquality,strongbrandassociations,associatedgoodwill,andotherassetse.g.patents,trademarksetc./differentialeffectthatknowingthebrandnamehasoncustomerresponsetotheproductanditsmarketing
o Somebrandslargelyunknown,whereasothershaveafairlyhighdegreeofconsumerbrandawareness.However,someenjoybrandpreference(buyersselectthemovertheothers),andsomecommandahighdegreeofbrandloyalty
Typesofbrands- Manufacturerornationalbrands
o Brandownedbythemaker;intentistocreatecustomerloyaltytowardtheproductsofaparticularmanufacturer
- Distributororprivatebrandso Abrandownedbyretailersorotherintermediaries,intendedtobuildloyaltytothefirm
- Genericbrando Carriesneitheramanufacturernoradistributorbrand.A‘noname’brand.
- Co-brandingo Theuseof2individualbrandsonasingleproducte.g.Telstravisacard
- Licensingo Alegalagreementallowinganorganisationtousethetrademarkofanotherorganisation
Newproductdevelopmentstrategy- Rapidchangesinconsumertastes,technologyandcompetition,acompanycannotrelysolelyonitsexisting
products- Customerswantandexpectthenewandimprovedproductsthatcompetitionwilldoitsbesttoprovide- Acompanycanobtainnewproductsthrough:
o Acquisitiono Internalnew-productdevelopmentprocess
1. Ideasgeneration
- Thesystematicsearchfornewproductideas,e.g.through:o Internalsourceso Customerso Competitorso Distributorso Othersources
2. Ideasscreening
- Everystagefromhereispurposedtoreducethenumberofideasgenerated- Purposeofscreening:spotgoodideasanddroppooronesassoonaspossible
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3. Productanalysis
- Areviewofthesales,costs,andprofitprojectionstofinoutwhethertheysatisfythecompany’sobjectives.Iftheydo,theyproductcanmovetotheproduct-developmentstage.4. Productdevelopment
- R&Dorengineeringdevelopstheproductconceptintoaphysicalproductor‘prototype’.Beforethisstage,theproducthasexistedonlyasaworddescription,adrawingorperhapsacrudemock-up
- Alargejumpininvestmentisneededforthisstage.Itwillshowwhethertheproductideacanbeturnedintoaworkableproduct5. Concepttesting
- Takingaproductideatoconsumerstotesttheirreactions6. Commercialisation
- Thedecisiontolaunchfull-scaleproductionanddistributionofanewproduct
Introduction:Aperiodofslowsalesgrowthastheproductisbeingintroducedtothemarket
- Why?o Newtomarket,notusedatallo Littleretailerinteresto littlefundsforpromotion/awareness
- Whattodo?o Buildawareness(media/net)o Getfirst-timetrialo Getsomeretailers
Growth:Periodofrapidmarketacceptanceandsalesgrowth- Why?
o Consumer’swordofmoutho Someretailerswanttosello Competitorsenter
- Whattodo?o Grabmarketshareo Grabretailers(exclusivedeals)o Buildbrandbyfightingcompetitors
Maturity:Aperiodofslowdowninsalesgrowthastheproductgainedacceptancebymostofbuyers- Why?
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o Normal:everyoneusesito Reachesmarketpotential
- Whattodo?o Makegoodmoneyo Keepcustomerloyalo Productvarietyandinnovationo Lineextensions
Decline:Periodofdropinsalesandprofitsascustomersswitchtonewproducts- Why?
o Changingconsumerlifestyleo Newtechnology
- Whattodo?o Cutcosts–maximiseprofitso Newmarkets?Newuses?
4P’sofmarketing
- Price:amountofmoneychargedforaproductorservice.o Theonlyelementofthemarketingmixthatproducesrevenue,allothersrepresentcosto Acompanydoesnotusuallysetasinglepricebutratherapricingstructurethatcoversdifferent
itemsinitsproductlineo Adjustsproductpricestoreflectchangingcostsanddemandandtoaccountforvariationsinbuyers
andsituationso Roleofpriceinthemarketingmix:
§ Providesprofitlevel§ Coverscosts§ Helpscommunicatepositioning/strategy
o WhencombinedwithotherP’s,priceinfluencesconsumerperceptionsofvalueo Factorsaffectingprice:
o o Pricinggoals
§ Strategiesmayaimatattractingnewcustomersortoprofitablyretainexistingones§ Lowprices:preventcompetitionfromenteringthemarket,orsetpricesatcompetitors’
levelstostabilisethemarket§ Maybepricedtohelpsalesofotherproductsinthecompany’sline§ Objectivesinclude:
• Simplesurvival• Maximiseshorttermprofit• Growmarketshare• Blockcompetition• Price/qualityleadership(image)
o Priceelasticity:responsiveness/sensitivitytoprice§ Elastic:somepeoplebuymore/lessofaproductasthepricechanges
• Promotionaldealsformoreimpact• Careforpricechanges
§ Inelastic:demandforsomeproductsisunaffectedaspriceschange• Trytoedgeuptheprice• Lessconcernwithpricechanges
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o Costs
§ Setthefloorforthecompany’sprice§ Pricemustcoverallcostsforproducing,distributing,deliveringandsellingtheproductand
alsodeliverafairrateofreturnforitseffortandrisk§ Itisarguedthatmanycompaniespursuethefollowingcycle:lowpriceàincreaseinsalesà
increasedlevelsofproductiontosatisfydemandàincreasedproductiondecreasescostàsetfurtherlowerprices
o Pricingstrategies:
§ Costbased:settingpricesbasedonthecostsforproducing,distributingandsellingtheproduct+afairrateofreturnforitseffortandrisk
• Addingstandardmark-uptocost§ Demandbased:designingaproductsothatitsatisfiescustomersandmeetstheprofit
marginsdesiredbythefirm• Breakevenanalysis:thecompanytriestodeterminethepriceatwhichitwillbreak
evenormakethetargetprofititseeksusingabreak-evenchart(showstotalcostandtotalrevenueexpectedatdifferentsalesvolumelevels)
o costs=revenuesatbreak-evenpoint.Themoneycominginequalsthemoneygoingout.
§ Customervalue-based:settingthepricebasedonbuyer’sperceptionsofvalue,ratherthanonseller’scost
• Usesbuyers’perceptionsofvaluetopriceàpricesettomatchvalue• Companyusesthenon-pricevariablesinthemarketingmixtobuildupperceived
valueinthebuyers’minds.§ Competition-based:settingpricesbasedoncompetitor’sstrategies,costs,pricesandmarket
offerings• Maychargeaboutthesame/above/belowbasedonpositioning• Whatvaluedoestheproductofferrelativetocompetitors?
o Marketskimming§ Pricewellabovethemarket§ Designedtomaximiseprofits§ Idealforhighlysoughtafterproducts
o Marketpenetration§ Pricewellbelowthemarket§ Designedtomaximisesales§ Usewithunknownorsubstituteproducts
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o Everydaylowpricing(EDLP)§ Settingpriceslowerthancompetitorsandnothavinganyspecialsales
o Segmentedpricing§ Settingdifferentpricesfordifferentclients,productformsplacesortimes
o Psychologicalpricing§ Pricinggoodsandservicesatpricepointsthatmaketheproductappearlessexpensivethan
itis
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Lecture7PromotionIMC:integratedmarketingcommunication+thefirm’sPromotionalmix
- Usingavarietyofcommunicationtoolstodeliveraconsistentdeliberatemessagetothemarket(consumersandpublics)
- Blendedmixofcommunicationtoolsnecessarytomeetthegoalsofthefirm- Appropriatebalanceofpush/pullemphasisneeded- Budgetofthefirm(mayruleoutsometools)needstobeconsidered- ResponsivenessofthetargetmarkettodifferentIMCtoolsneedstobeconsidered
Promotionalmixelements:
- Advertisingo Non-personalcommunicationofinformationusuallypaidforandpersuasiveinnatureabout
productsorideasbyanidentifiedsponsorthroughvariousmediaAdvantages Disadvantages
- Manymediachoices- Goodforintroducingnewproducts- Goodatgettingattention- Canreachlargeaudience- Goodforbrandbuilding
Quiteexpensive
o Objectives:§ Toinform
• Tellingthemarketaboutanewproduct• Pricechange• Explaininghowproductswork• Correctingfalseimpressionsandbuildingcompanyimage
§ Topersuade• Buildingbrandpreference• Encouragingswitchingtoyourbrand• Persuadingbuyerstopurchasenow
§ Toremind• Remindingbuyersthattheproductmaybeneededinthefuture• Remindingbuyerswheretobuytheproduct• Keepingtheproductinthebuyer'smindsduringoffseason
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- Salespromotiono Shorttermincentivesofgiftsormoneythatfacilitatethemovementofproductsfromproducerto
endusero Coverarangeofincentivesthatareusedwithproductspromotedviaeithermassmediaadvertising
orbydirectanddigitalmethodso Salespromotionobjectivesarevaried(consumerpromotionstoincreaseshorttermsalesortohelp
buildlong-termmarketshare)§ Shorttermincentivethatshouldn’tbeoverused§ Designedtoincreasesalesquickly§ Alsohelpsrewardloyalcustomers§ Targetsswitchers§ Targetsnon-usersorusersofotherbrands
• e.g.freesamples,discounts,extraloyaltypoints,coupons,discountonotherproduct,specialin-storedisplays,cash-backoffer,freegift,competitions
- Publicrelationso Consistsofactivitiesthatinfluencepublicopinionandcreategoodwillfortheorganisation
§ Obtainingfavourablepolicy§ Buildingupagoodcorporateimage§ Handlingunfavourablerumours§ Storiesandevents
o Crisismanagement:PReffortaimedatdisseminatinginformationduringanemergencyo Publicrelationsandcorporatecommunications:
§ Mediareleases§ Newsletters,brochures,annualreports§ Sponsorships§ Lobbying§ Conferences,seminars,events§ PRconsultants
o Tradepromotions:marketingactivitiestargetedatthe‘trade’–primarilyretailersandwholesalers- Personalselling
o Adirectface-to-faceinteractionwithpotentialbuyerso Oneway,non-personalcommunicationwithtargetgroupsVSpersonalsellinginvolvestwoway,
personalcommunicationbetweensalespeopleandindividualcustomers§ Facetoface§ Telephone§ Videoconferences/othermeans
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o Moreeffectivethanadvertisingincomplexsellingsituationso Roleofthesalesforce:
§ Finalisethesale§ Managecustomerrelationships§ Findcustomers§ Two-waycommunicationoftenbacktofirm
- Continuousinteractionratherthanepisodicone-waycommunicationandpurchaseactivityo AdvertisingandPRsetsthescene.Salespromotionprovidesvalue-addingincentivestobuy.Trade
promotionensurestheproductisisdisplayedadvantageouslyinstores.Directanddigitalmarketingaimstogainsubscribers,ortoopendialogueanddevelopanongoingrelationshipwithpotentialcustomersthatwillbringaboutasaleoraseriesofsalestransactionssoonerratherthanlater.
o Brokers:facilitatetransactionsbetweenbuyersandsellerso Agents:manufacturingorpurchasingagentsdependingonwhotheyareworkingfor
- Utilitiescreatedbyintermediarieso Formutility:changingrawmaterialsintousefulproductso Timeutility:makingproductsavailablewhenconsumersneedthemo Placeutility:placingproductswhereconsumerswantthemo Possessionutility:doingwhatevernecessarytotransferownershipo Informationutility:addingvaluetoproductsbyopeningtwowayflowsofinformationbetween
participantso Serviceutility:addingvaluebyprovidingserviceduringandpost-sale
Place- Tomaketheproductaccessibletothetargetmarket- Logistics,marketinglogistics,supply-chainmanagement,physicaldistribution,retailing,channelselection- Thelogisticsnetworksmaybeunderstoodasthematerialflowsbetweenspecificpoints,rangingfromthe
supplyoftherawmaterialtothedeliveryofthefinalproductstoconsumersinanoptimisedfashion
- Marketingchannels:networkofinterdependentorganisations–intermediaries–involvedintheprocessofmakingaproductorserviceavailableforuseorconsumptionbytheconsumerorbusinessuser
- Advantagesofusingintermediaries:o Manysupplierslackfinancialresourcestocarryoutdirectmarketingo Customersmaywantpersonalinteractionbeforebuyinglargeticketitems
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o Producerswhocanaffordtosetuptheirownchannelscanoftenearnagreaterreturnbyincreasinginvestmentinmainbusiness
o Throughtheircontacts,experience,specialisationandscaleofoperation,intermediariesusuallyofferaproducerorsuppliermorethanitcanachieveonitsown
- Typesofintermediarieso Wholesales:buyproductfrommanufacturerandreselltoretailer
§ Neitherproducesnorconsumesthefinishedproduct§ Merchantwholesales,rackrobbers,cash-n-carrywholesalers
o Retailers:buyproductfromthewholesalerandthensellitdirectlytoconsumers§ Alltheactivitiesassociatedwiththesaleofgoodsorservicesdirectlytofinalconsumersfor
theirpersonal,non-businessuse§ Canbedoneinstoresoroutofastore(nonstoreretailing)e.g.
• Directmail• Catalogues• Telephone• Homeshoppingshows• Internet
- Multi-channelretailing
- Channelchoices
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A–Directo Wellsuitedtoservicefirms(banks,universities,airlines,tradesmen)o Givesfullcontroltomanufacturero Muchmorecomplexbusinessoperations
B–o Commonwithlargerretailchainsormajormanufacturingo Givesmostcontroltoretailero Manufacturerneedsstrongsalesteam
C–o Commonwithsmallerfirmso Hasaspecialistineachstageofchaino Controlvaries,mayleadtoconflicto Worksbestasapartnershipapproach
- Channels(retailer/wholesaler)mustbewillingtowanttotakeonyourproduct- Youneedtodeliveronlogistics,branding,advertisingsupportetc
ABC
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Lecture81. Asystemsviewofbusiness- System:asetofinteractingcomponentsthatformanintegratedwhole
o Boundaryofsystemdefinesitsscopeo Systemscanformahierarchy(asapartofalargersystem)o Systemshavestructure(relatingparts)o Systemshaveprocesses
§ Inputàthroughputàoutput- ABusinessProcess(BP)isastructurednetworkofactivitiessupportedbyinteractionofresources(human
andnon-human)andinformationthatinteracttoachievesomebusinessgoal.o Businessprocesses=businesssystemso Allbusinessprocessesofanorganisationareknowncollectivelyasitsactivitysystem
- Well-designedbusinessprocessesare:o Complete
§ Includesallactivitiesnecessarytoachievethebusinessgoalo Minimal
§ Donotincludeunnecessaryactivities§ Costefficient
o Well-structured§ Logicalsequenceofactivities
o Embedded§ ConnectandinteractwithotherBPsintheorganisationeffectivelyandefficiently
- Outcomesofawelldesignedbusinessprocessis:o Increasedeffectiveness(valueforcustomer)o Increasedefficiency(lesscostforcompany)
- Whatisaninformationsystem?InformationTechnology(IT)
Hardware Software Data Procedures PeopleInformationSystems
1. Buildingthevaluesystem- ActivitySystem(BusinessProcesses)+InformationSystem=valuesystem
o ProcessesalmostalwaysinvolvesomeISo ISonlycreatevaluewhenusedinprocesses
- Operationalfoundationofthebusinesso Daytodayvaluecreationanddeliveryo Wheremoneyismadeandlost
- Afunctionalviewcomplementedbyaprocessview
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- Crossfunctionalprocesses:orderfulfilment
- BusinessProcessManagement(BPM)
- Businessprocessimprovementlogic:(small)improvementxhighrepetitionrate=bigcostsavings- EnterpriseSystemsareprocess-basedsystems
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- ProcessModelling
o Representsbusinessprocessestoanalyseandimprovethemo OfteninvolvedesigningandimplementingITo Performedbybusinessanalystsandmanagerswhoseektoimproveprocessefficiencyandquality
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2. Asocialsystemsview
- Socialnetworking
o Microbloggingcharacteristicse.g.twitter§ Shortmessages§ Everyonecanpublish,oneclickpublicationprinciple,simple§ Tagging,directmessages,referringtootherusers§ Followotherusers,topics,lists
o Enterprisemicroblogginge.g.yammer§ Distributionofshortconversationmessages§ Accessibletoonlymembersoftheorganisation§ Followpeople,communicateinclosedgroupsforteamwork
3. Digitalbusinessdisruption- Digitaldisruptionisthechangethatoccurswhennewdigitaltechnologiesandbusinessmodelsaffectthe
valueproposition(statementthatidentifieswhatbenefitsacustomerwillreceivethroughapurchaseofaproductofservice)ofexistinggoodsandservices
e.g.Starbucks- Concernoverthetasteofanewcoffee
product- SocialMediaSentimentAnalysishas
revealedtastefinebutpricetoohigh
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Lecture9MOTIVATIONANDCULTURETheperformanceprocess:Abilityxmotivationxenvironmentalconditions=performanceMotivationàmotivationtheoriesEnvironmentalconditionsàpayandincentives/culture
MOTIVATION–needstheoriesMaslow’sHierarchyofneeds
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Herzberg’stheory
Motivation–cognitiveissues
EquitytheoryEquitytheoryisbasedintheideathatindividualsaremotivatedbyfairness,andiftheyidentifyinequitiesintheinputoroutputratiosofthemselvesandtheirreferentgroup,theywillseektoadjusttheirinputtoreachtheirperceivedequity.
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Incentivesandperformance- Typicallycashpaymentslinkedtospecificgoalsforindividual,grouporcompanywideperformance.- Successoftendependsonhowcloselyincentivesarelinkedtoactionswithinemployee’scontrol- E.g.:
o Bonus:additionalpaymenttoregularwageorsalaryo Commissionsareaformofcompensationthatpaysemployeesbasedonsalesmadeo Profitsharing:employeesreceiveaportionofthecompany’sprofitso Gainsharing:tiesrewardstoprofitsachievedbymeetingspecificgoalssuchasqualityand
productivityimprovemento Payforperformance:lowerbasepaybutrewardswithbonuses,commissionsorstockoptionso Knowledgebasedpaytiedtoemployee’sknowledgeandabilitiesratherthantotheirjob
Culture‘thecollectiveprogrammingoftheminddistinguishingthemembersofonegrouporcategoryofpeoplefromothers’
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Powerdistance:extenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganisationswithinacountryexpectandacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally
Individualismandcollectivism
- Individualism:tiesbetweenindividualsareloose:everyoneisexpectedtolookafterthemselvesandimmediatefamily
- Collectivism:peopleintegratedintostrong,cohesivegroupswhichcontinuetoprotecttheminexchangeforloyalty
MasculinityandFemininity
- Masculinesocietiesoccurswhenemotionalgenderrolesareclearlydistinct:men–assertive,toughandfocusedonmaterialsuccess,whereaswomenaresupposedtobemoremodest,tenderandconcernedwiththequalityoflife
- Femininesocietiesoccurwhenemotionalgenderrolesoverlap
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Uncertaintyavoidance- Extenttowhichthemembersofaculturefeelthreatenedbyambiguousorunknownsituations
Longandshorttermorientation
- Longtermorientation:fosteringvirtuesorientedtowardfuturereward(perseveranceandthrift)- Shorttermorientation:fosteringofvirtuesrelatedtothepastandpresent
Practicalapplicationsrelatingtoculturaldifferences
- Culturalintelligence- Internationalcommunicationandnegotiation- Internationalmanagementandleadership- Multicultural/ethnicmarketing
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Lecture11IndustrialrelationsandHRmanagementHRM:
- Assumesthatallpersonnelactivitiesareintegratedwitheachotherandstrategicallywithorganisationalobjectives
- Anapproachtothepracticeandstudyoftheemploymentrelationshipthatfocusesontheorleofmanagementinelicitingeffortandvaluefromemployees
IR(employmentrelations)- ‘Thestudyoftheformalandinformalruleswhichregulatetheemploymentrelationshipandthesocial
processeswhichcreateandenforcetheserules’
- Theemploymentrelationshipisaneconomicexchangeinthelabourmarket- However:
o Labourisnotnecessarilyacommodityinthesamewayasothercommoditieso Employeesbringtheir‘labourpower’orcapacitytoworkinreturnforwages
§ Employershirecapacitytoworkratherthanactualworkefforto Themanagementprocessiscrucialtoturning‘labourpower’intolaboureffortandproductivity–or
commitment,effortandcomplianceo Employmentisapowerrelationship–employeesubmitstoauthority
- ‘Contractsofemployment’regulatetheemploymentrelationshipandsomeofthemanyissuesthatariseinthatrelationshipe.g.recruitment,pay,performance
o Socialcontract§ Contextualfactors(society,economy,ideas)§ Institutions(organisationsthemselves,employerassociations,governments,courts,unions
etc)o Legalcontractbetweenemployeeandemployero Psychologicalcontract
§ ‘theperceptionsofbothpartiestotheemploymentrelationship,organisationandindividual,ofthereciprocalpromisesandobligationsimpliedinthatrelationship’
1) Recruitmentandselection- Recruitment=attraction- Selection=discrimination- Waysofapproach:
o Fromanorganisational/HRperspective:§ Interestinqualityandquantityofapplicants§ Searchfor‘ideal’worker
o Fromtheindividualperspective§ ‘exchangeperspective’alsorecognisesindividualneeds
o Fromthesocial/criticalperspective:§ Recognisesexternalinfluencese.g.stateoflabourmarketaswellaspartiese.g.union,
markets,thelawandsocialnorms- Internalsources
o Existingemployees(transfer/relocationorpromotion)o Existingemployees(friends,relatives,contactsinthecommunity)o Formeremployees(e.g.recallfromlayoff)
- Externalsourceso Externallabourmarket–local,regional,internationaletc
2) Selectionprocess
o Securingdata;understandingcriteria(qualifications,workexperience,abilitytoperformgiventasks),excludedcriteria:race,sex,age,religion,familyresponsibilitiesetc.,attemptingtohavevalidandreliablepredictorsandutility
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- Themainaimofallselectiontechniquesistopredictfuturejobperformanceor‘organisationfit’- Meta-analysisofliteratureonpersonnelselectionmethodsinclude
o Worksampletestso Generalmentalabilitytestso Employmentinterviewo Peerratingso Jobknowledgetests
- Thetopthreepairsofpredictorsare:o Generalmentalabilitytest+integritytest(.65)o Generalmentalabilitytest+worksampletest(.63)o Generalmentalabilitytest+structuredinterview(.63)
- Thefivepoorestpredictors:o Assigningpointstotrainingandexperience(.11)o Yearsofeducation(.10)o Interests(.10)o Graphology(.02)o Age(-.01)
- Discrimination
Theemploymentrelationship- Anemploymentrelationshipis:
o Betweenemployersandemployees(differentpartiesoractors)o Eachwithinterestandrightso Conflictandcooperationo Ongoing,continuouso Openended,anexchange–abargainedrelationship
Settingrules:1. Managerialprerogative- E.g.‘take-it-or-leave-it’contract;companypolicies/HRMpolicies2. Individual‘contracting’or‘bargaining’- Jointdecisionsofmanagementandanemployee3. Collective(orenterprise)bargaining- Jointdecisionsofmanagementandmorethanoneemployee–oftenrepresentedbyaunion
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4. Decisionbythirdparties- E.g.NES,modernawards
3) Performancemanagement- Discretionaryeffort
o Effortthatemployeesvolunteerovertheminimumamountrequiredtokeeptheirjob- Effortbargain(orwage-effortbargain)
o Anyadjustmentinworkeffortbyworkershavingregardtotheirviewsregardingtheadequacyoftheirlevelofpay
o Ifworkersperceivethatthebalancebetweenwhattheyarerequiredtodoandwhattheyarepaidtodoisunfair,theymaydeliberatelyreducetheireffort.
o Employersmayperceivethatemployeesdonotexpendenougheffortsinreturnfortheirpay- Performancemanagement:processthroughwhichmanagersensurethatemployee’sactivitiesandoutputs
arecongruentwiththeorganisation’sgoals- Performanceappraisal:process/techniquethatmonitorsorassessestheprogresstowardsachievingdesired
goalsorotherperformancestandard- 5mainaspectsofaperformancemanagementsystem
o definingperformance§ withaspectsofperformancearerelevanttotheorganisation
o facilitatingperformance§ removingobstaclesthatlimitperformance
o encouragingperformance§ providingsufficientrewardsthatarevaluedbyemployees
o measuringperformance§ measuringthoseaspectsofperformanceimportantforachievingcompetitiveadvantageand
organisationalstrategye.g.performanceappraisalo feedingbackperformanceinformation
§ providingfeedbacksotheycanadjustperformance
4) TerminationHowtoterminate?1. Givingnoticeundercontract2. Byagreement3. Repudiation4. Frustration/impossibility5. Wrongfuldismissal
- Equityvefficiency- Harsh,unjustorunreasonable(FairWorkAct)
o Harsh:disproportionatetotheactions/misconduct/performanceoftheemployeeo Unjust:notguiltyofallegedconducto Unreasonable:decidedoninadequateinformation
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Lecture12:Sampleexamquestion:Usingtheprinciplesofethicalpositionandissueintensity,discusstheethicalimplicationsoftheHealthyPotioninitiatives.BALANCESCORECARD:
- Correctfinancialstatements- Adequatecontrolsexisttoencourageethicalbehaviour- Learningandgrowth:caringforemployeesandrespectingtherightsofemployees- Customer:e.g.aftersalesprocessesactuallycaterforwhatcustomersneedandwant
1.Whataresomeethicaldilemmaswecommonlyfaceinbusiness?2.Whatfactorsseemstoaffectjudgementsaboutsituationsthatinvolveethicalaspects?3.Howdowedetermineaperson’sethicalposition?4.Whatistherelationshipbetweenethicalpositionandtheintensityofanethicaldilemma?5.Whataresomeofthedrivingfactorsforanexampleofanethicalissue?Ethics:
- Branchofphilosophyconcernedwithprinciples,valuesandbeliefsthatdefinerightandwrongbehaviour- Subjective- May/maynotbecoveredbylaws
Factorsaffectingethicalbehaviour
- Moralfoundationstheoryo Allmoralorethicaldilemmasinvolveatleastoneofthefollowing:
§ Care/harm§ Fairness(equity)/cheating§ Liberty/oppression§ Loyalty/betrayal§ Authority/subversion§ Sanctity/degradation
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- Individualcharacteristicso Ethicalposition(basicconvictionsaboutwhatisrightandwrong)o Egostrength(apersonalitymeasureofthestrengthofaperson’sconvictions-strongegogenerally
leadstomaintainingethicalstance)- Issueintensity:importance,meaningfulness/trivialnessofanissue
o Extenttowhichanethicalissueisrelevantandimportanttoanindividual
- Organisationalculture:leadersactingethicallyencourageethicalbehaviourfromemployees
o Sharedbeliefs,valuesandnormsheldbytheentitieswithinanorganisationo Values–basedmanagements:anapproachtomanaginginwhichmanagersestablishandupholdan
organisation’ssharedvalues- Structuralvariables:statementsofethicalpositionthatgovernbehaviourofpeople
o Organisationalcharacteristicsandmechanismsthatguideindividualethicso E.g.performanceappraisalsystems,rewardallocationsystems,ethicalbehaviourofmanagers
Ethicalpositioncanbedeterminedbytwobasicfactors:
1. Theextenttowhichapersonmightrejectuniversalmoralrulesinfavourofrelativism- Absolutismvsrelativism
o Absolutism:absoluterules(stealingpencil,stealinglaptopbothethicallywrong)- Evolutionarypsychology2. Theextenttowhichapersonisidealisticinhis/hermoralattitudes–highidealismvslowidealism- Idealism:high–thereisalwaysacorrectanswer
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Actioncharacteristicdependonculturalbackgroundàsituationcharacteristicsàpersoncharacter
- One’sethicalpositiondeterminesone’sattitudetoethicalscenarios- Moralintensityisapredictorofagreementaboutscenarios
o Highertheintensity,lowertheagreementwithaction- Someinteractionbetweenmoralintensityandethicalposition- Gendereffectsforidealism
ANEXAMPLEETHICALISSUEcheating+lying
- Self-perceptionofbeinghonourablevs.enjoyingthebenefitsofcheating
individualandsituationaleffectsonethicalbehaviourIndividual Situational
- Age- Religion- Egostrength- Ethicalposition- Income- Gender- Locusofcontrol- Machiavellianism- Culture
- Economicconditions- Managerialinfluence- Organisationalpolicy- Peers- Referentother- Reinforcement- Responsibilityforconsequences- Scarcityofresources
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Week13–courseoverviewandexaminformationCustomer:leadindicatorFinancials:lagindicatorCasestudy:
- Thisisafictitiouscasetoillustratethecourseandbusinessconceptso Marcusdevelopsacreamthathasahighprobabilityofalleviatingbaldnessinmen.o Ingredient:liquorice,ginger,sorboleneo Factory–10people
§ Orderingredients§ Manageproductionprocess§ Managecashposition§ Managestock§ Payemployees§ Doaccountsreceivable§ Doaccountspayable§ Generalledger
- Examquestion:outlinethevariousorganisationalformsthatareappropriateateachstageoftheorganisationallifecycle
o Marcusandhiswife:SoleshareholdersofBaldPeoplePtyLtdo www.baldpeople.com.au
Market FactoryinVietnam FactoryinAustraliaEurope Tick CrossUSA Tick TickAustralia Maybe Tick
o MYoBnolongerappropriatebecausecan’ttakethegrowingvolumeàSAPo Evelynàchemotherapytraumao Kaiyingàalopeciao $150million–IPO(initialpublicoffering)àSWOTanalysis
o competitiors
§ acquirecompany/beacquired§ merge
o soletradero partnershipo incorporation–privateo publiccompanyo franchiseo merger/acquisition
- HowcouldyouassessthestrategichealthofHP- HowwouldyouapplythatstrategicanalysistoHP
o S:§ Uniqueproduct§ Profitable§ Nocompetitor§ StrongIP
o W:§ FounderCEO/IP
• Wholepersonalityoforganisation–whathappenstotheorganisationifthispersondiesunexpectedly
§ Singleproducto O:
§ Developmentofcream
MYoBBusinessProcesses
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§ R&Do T:
§ Espionage§ Competitiveplayingstrategicgames§ Luxurygood
- Production/supplychainissueso MRPissues:
§ Managingingredients§ Problemsofsourcingwithoffshoreproduction§ Importanceofsales/activityforecasts
• FORECASTING:akeyingredientforcash,HR,----planningo A:processo B:additionalinformationrelevanttotaskathande.g.marketingplans,
strategicinformationofowncompanyandcompetitorso Offshoringo Qualitycontrol
§ Continuousimprovement§ Statisticalprocesscontrol§ Sixsigma§ ISO9000
- Marketingstrategyo Product:
§ Productline/productmix(traumacream,alopeciacreamàbothnonluxurygoods,baldnesscream–luxurygood)
§ Marketsegmentation§ Packaging(luxurygood–luxurypackaging)§ Branding
o Pricing:§ Typesofpricing
• Marketbased:whateverthemarketwillpay,wewillcharge§ Priceskimming§ Priceelasticity
o Place§ Distributionchannels
• Initiallymanufactureràcustomer§ Intermediaries§ Intermediaries§ Logistics
o Promotions§ Advertising
• Cancertraumaproduct:E.g.Askanoncologisttoputabrochureintheirwaitingrooms
• Baldnesscream:magazines,sportsshows§ Sellingavenues
o Organisationalstructures§ Keydecisionstomake…
• Centralised/decentralised• Basicphilosophy• Spanofcontrol:numberofpeopleunderneathaparticularpersone.g.Marcusas
CEO§ Types…
• Functionalo CEOàmarketing,manufacturing,finance
• Geographicalo CEOàEurope,OZ,USA
• Product
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o CEOàMens,Trauma,Alopecia• Matrix
• Virtual
- MotivationandBehaviouro Managingtasksandmanagingpeopleo Managingpeople:
§ Needsofpeople• E.g.Factoryworkersmotivatedbypay
§ Expectationsofpeople§ Feedbackandreinforcementofpeople§ Managingincentives§ Managingculturaldiversity
o Maslowo Hofstede
- HRandIR1. Hiring,SelectionandAppointment2. PayandReward3. PerformanceManagement4. Termination
- Ethics
o