lecture 1 - introduction-week 1

57
Biology 250 Human Anatomy and Physiology Instructor: Dr. Frank Sauer

Upload: beethoven138

Post on 12-Jan-2016

235 views

Category:

Documents


10 download

DESCRIPTION

Human Anatomy and Physiology I

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Biology  250    

Human  Anatomy  and  Physiology  

Instructor:  Dr.  Frank  Sauer  

Page 2: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomy  and  Physiology  

•  Anatomy:  studies  the  structure  of  body  parts  and  their  rela:onships  to  one  another.  

•  Physiology:  concerns  the  func:on  of  the  body.  • How  do  body  parts  work  and  carry  out  their  life-­‐sustaining  ac:vi:es.  

Page 3: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

• Gross-­‐Anatomy:    • Study  of  large  body  structures  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  

 

• Microscopic  anatomy:  • Study  of  structures  too  small  to  be  observed  with  the  naked  eye.  

 

• Developmental  anatomy:  • Study  of  structural  changes  during  the  en:re  life  cycle  of  an  organism.  

Topics  of  Anatomy  

Page 4: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

• Gross-­‐Anatomy:  Gross  or  macroscopic  anatomy.  

•  Different  approaches:  •  Regional  anatomy:  all  structures  in  a  parEcular  region  of  the  body  are  examined  at  the  same  Eme  (e.g.,  leg).  •  Systemic  anatomy:    body  structures  are  studies  system  by  system  (e.g.,  cardiovascular  system).  •  Surface  anatomy:    study  of  internal  structures  as  they  relate  to  the  overlying  skin  (e.g.,  idenEfy  muscles  under  skin).  

 

Topics  of  Anatomy  

Page 5: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

 

• Microscopic  anatomy:  • Cytology  (cells).  • Histology  (:ssues).  

 

• Developmental  anatomy:  • Study  of  structural  changes  during  the  en:re  life  cycle  of  an  organism.  • Embryogenesis:  Study  of  structural  changes  occurring  in  the  embryo  before  birth.  

Topics  of  Anatomy  

Page 6: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Different  subdivisions:  Most  of  them  study  the  acEvity/operaEon  of  specific  organs.  

 •  Renal  physiology  =  kidney  funcEon  and  urine  producEon  •  Neurophysiology  =  funcEons  of  nervous  system  •  Cardiovascular  physiology  =  heart  and  blood  vessel  

•  Physiology  oRen  focuses  on  cellular  and  molecular  level.  The  body’s  abiliEes/acEviEes  depend  on  individual  cells  and  the  chemical  reacEons  that  occur  in  the  cells.  

•  Physiology  rests  on  the  principles  of  physics,  molecular  biology,  cell  biology  and  (bio-­‐)chemistry.  

   

Topics  of  Physiology  

Page 7: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomy  and  Physiology  are  closely  connected  because  

funcEon  always  reflects  structure  

Principle  of  complementarity  of  structure  and  funcEon  

Page 8: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Range:  From  atom  to  the  enEre  organisms.    •  Different  levels  of  structural  organizaEon:  

•  Chemical  level:  Atoms,  combine  to  form  molecules  that  associate  in  specific  ways  to  form  cell  organelles.  

•  Cellular  level:  Cells  are  basic  building  blocks  (units)  of  living  things.    All  cells  have  common  func:on  and  organiza:on  but  differ  in  size,  shape,  and  func:on  to  full-­‐fill  specific  role  in  the  body.  

OrganizaEon  of  the  Body  

Page 9: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Tissue  level:  Tissue  =  groups  of  similar  cells  that  have  a  common  func:on.    •  Four  basic  types  of  :ssue:  Epithelium,  muscle,  connec:ve  :ssue,  and  nervous  :ssue.  

•  Organ  level:    Organ  =  discrete  structure  composed  of  at  least  two  :ssue  types  that  performs  a  specific  func:on  for  the  body  (e.g.,  liver,  brain,  blood  vessel.  At  the  organ  level,  extremely  complex  func:ons  become  possible.  Stomach:  lining  is  composed  of  epithelium,  the  wall  of  muscle,  and  nerve  fibers  increase  diges:ve  ac:vity  by  s:mula:ng  muscles.)  

 •  Organ  system  level:  Organs  that  work  together  to  accomplish  a  common  task/purpose  make  up  an  organ  system,  e.g.,  heart  and  blood  vessels  of  the  cardiovascular  system.  

•  Organismal  level:  sum  of  all  structural  levels  working  together  to  keep  organism  (us)  alive.  

OrganizaEon  of  the  Body  

Page 10: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Which  are  the  necessary  life  funcEons  ??  

Page 11: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Humans  maintain  their  boundaries,  move,  respond  to  environmental  changes,  take  in  and  digest  nutrients,  carry  out  metabolisms,  dispose  of  waste,  reproduce,  and  grow.  

Necessary  life  funcEons  

Page 12: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Every  living  organism  must  maintain  its  boundaries  so  that  internal  the  environment  remains  different  from  the  external  environment.  

•  Single-­‐celled  organisms:  cell  membrane.  

•  Organisms:  integumentary  system  (skin):  protects  internal  organs  from  drying  out,  bacteria,  heat  and  sunlight.  

 

Maintaining  Boundaries  

integumentary  system  

Page 13: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Muscular  system:  running,  swimming,  and  when  blood,  food,  and  urine  are  propelled  through  internal  organs  of  cardiovascular,  diges:ve,  and  urinary  systems.  

•  Skeletal  System:  provides  bony  framework  that  the  muscles  pull  on.    

•  Cellular  level:  muscle  cells  ability  to  move  by  shortening  is  termed:  contrac:lity.  

 

 

Movement  

Muscular  system  Skeletal  System  

Page 14: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

•  Ability  to  sense  changes  in  the  environment  and  then  respond  to  them.  •  Nervous  system    (all  cells  are  excitable).  

Responsiveness  

Page 15: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

DigesEon  

•  Diges:on  (breakdown)  of  food  to  single  molecules  that  are  absorbed  into  the  blood.  

•  Diges:ve  system    (all  cells  are  excitable).  •  Single-­‐celled  (e.g.,  amoeba)  =  diges:on  factory.  

Page 16: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Metabolism  

•  Term  that  describes  all  chemical  reacEons  within  body  cells.  •  Diges:ve  system    (all  cells  are  excitable).  •  Single-­‐celled  (e.g.,  amoeba)  =  diges:on  factory  •  Catabolism:  breakdown  of  substances  into  simpler  building  blocks  •  Anabolism:  synthesis  of  complex  cellular  structures  from  building  blocks.  •  Cellualr  respira:on:  cellular  combus:on  of  nutrients  with  oxygen  to  produce  cellular  energy  in  form  of  ATP.  

•  Metabolism  involves:  diges:ve,  respiratory,  cardiovascular,  and  endocrine  system.  

Page 17: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

ExcreEon  

•  Removing  wastes  (or  excreta)  from  body.  • Diges:ve  system.  • Urinary  system.  • Respiratory  system  

Page 18: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

ReproducEon  

•  Reproduc:on:  • Cellular:  cell  division.    • Human:    • Reproduc:ve  system  (male/female).  • Endocrine  (hormone)  system.  

 

Page 19: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Growth  

•  Growth:  Increase  in  size  of  a  body  part  or  the  organism  as  a  whole.  

 •  Generally  achieved  by  increasing  the  number  of  cells.    •  Cell  growth:  size  of  individual  cells  can  increase.  

Page 20: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

What  does  the  human  body  need  to  survive?  

Page 21: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Survival  Needs  

•  Nutrients  (food,  diet),  oxygen,  water,  appropriate  temperature,  and  atmospheric  pressure.  •  Nutrients  (diet):  contains  chemical  substances  for  energy  and  cell  building.  • Carbohydrates  (sugars):  energy  source.  • Proteins:  building  block  for  cell  structures.  • Fat:  emergency  energy  source  and  essen:al  for  cell  structure.  • Minerals:  e.g.,  calcium  (bone).  

•  Oxygen:  Essen:al    for  energy  produc:on  in  cellular  respira:on.    

•  Water:  50-­‐60%  of  body  weight.  Provides  environment  of  cellular  reac:ons  and  a  fluid  base  for  secre:ons  and  excre:ons.  

Page 22: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Survival  Needs  

•  Temperature:  normal  (human)  37oC  (98.6oF).  Op:mized  for  all  metabolic  reac:ons.  • Too  high  or  too  low  =  death.  • Muscular  system  generates  most  body  heat.  

•  Atmospheric  pressure:  force  that  air  exerts  on  surface  of  body.  •  Breathing  and  gas  exchange  depend  on  appropriate  atmospheric  pressure.  •  High  al:tude  (Mount  Everest)  pressure  is  too  low  to  support  adequate  gas  exchange.  

Page 23: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Homeostasis  

Ability  of  the  body  to  maintain  relaEvely  stable  internal  condiEons  in  the  presence  of  constantly  changing  

environmental  condiEons    

•  All  organ  systems  are  involved  in  homeostasis.  •  Communica:on  within  the  body  is  essen:al  for  homeostasis:  nervous  system  and  endocrine  system.  

 

•  All  homeosta:c  control  mechanisms  regulate  event  or  factor  (termed  variable)  and  contain  three  components:  •  Receptor  •  Control  center  •  Effector  

Page 24: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Homeostasis  

 

•  Homeosta:c  control  mechanisms:    

•  Receptor:  some  type  of  sensor  that  monitors  the  environment  and  responds  to  changes  (s:muli)  by  sending  informa:on  to  the  control  center  via  afferent  pathway.  

•  Control  center:  determines  the  set  point,  which  is  the  level  or  range  at  which  a  variable  (e.g.,  blood  oxygen)  is  to  be  maintained.  Analyzes  input  received  from  receptor.  •  Sends  informa:on  to  effector  via  efferent  pathway.  • Effector:  provides  means  to  control  control  center’s  response.  Results  feed  back  to  influence  the  effect  of  s:mulus  (either  shut  off/reduc:on  or  enhancement)  

Page 25: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

NegaEve  feedback  mechanisms  

 

•  Nega:ve  feedback:  output  (effector)  shuts-­‐off  or  reduces  effect  of  the  original  s:mulus.  Variable  changes  in  the  direc:on  opposite  to  that  of  the  ini:al  change  (s:mulus)  to  return  to  “set”  value.  

 

Page 26: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

NegaEve  feedback  mechanisms  

Page 27: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

NegaEve  feedback  mechanisms  

Page 28: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

PosiEve  feedback  mechanisms  

 

•  Posi:ve  feedback:  output  (effector)  enhances  original  s:mulus.  Posi:ve  because  changes  enhance  original  effect  and  proceed  in  the  same  direc:on  as  the  ini:al  change  (s:mulus).  Variable  deviates  further  and  further  from  set  value  or  range.  

Page 29: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

PosiEve  feedback  mechanisms  

Page 30: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomical  Terms  

 

•  Anatomical  posi:ons  describe  body  direc:on,  regions,  and  planes.    

•  Standard  anatomical  posi:on  (anatomical  reference  point):  “standing  at  aden:on”:  body  erect,  with  feet  slightly  apart.    

•  Lef  right  refer  to  sides  of  the  person  or  the  cadaver  being  viewed  –  not  those  of  the  observer.  

•  Direc:onal  terms:  allow  us  to  explain  where  one  body  structure  is  in  rela:on  to  another.  (ears  are  lateral  to  the  nose;  instead  of  ears  are  on  each  site  of  the  head  and  lef  and  right  of  the  nose).  

Page 31: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomical  Terms  

Page 32: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomical  Terms  

Page 33: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Anatomical  Terms  

Page 34: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Regional  Terms  

Axial  Part:  •  main  axis  of  the  human  body  •  includes  head,  neck  and  trunk    Appendicular  Part:  •  includes  appendages  or  limbs,  which  are  

adached  to  the  body’s  axis.  

Page 35: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Regional  Terms  

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Human Anatomy and Physiology, Tenth Edition, by Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn

Figure 1.7 Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.

(a) (b)

Cervical

Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental

Thoracic Sternal Axillary Mammary

Abdominal Umbilical

Pelvic Inguinal (groin)

Anterior/Ventral

Pubic (genital)

ThoraxAbdomen

Back (Dorsum)

Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)

Manus (hand) Metacarpal Palmar Pollex Digital

Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Popliteal Crural (leg) Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal

Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Calcaneal Metatarsal Digital Plantar Hallux

Cervical

Back (dorsal) Scapular

Vertebral

Lumbar

Sacral

Gluteal

Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)

Posterior/Dorsal

Page 36: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Body  Planes  and  SecEons  

•  For  anatomical  studies,  the  body  is  ofen  cut  (sec:oned)  along  a  flat  surface  

   •  Flat  surface  =  plane  

•  Most  frequent  planes:  sagi]al,  frontal,  and  transverse  planes,  which  lie  in  right  angles  to  one  

•  Sec:ons  are  named  for  the  plane  along  which  they  are  cut.  

   

Page 37: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Sagi]al  Plane  

Sagi]al  plane:  ver:cal  plane  that  divides  body  into  lef  and  right  parts.    

•  Median  plane:  Sagidal  plane  exactly  in  the  middle  •  Parasagi]al  planes  (para  =  near):  all  other  sagidal  

planes  that  offset  from  the  midline.    

Page 38: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Frontal  Plane  

Frontal  (coronal)  plane:  ver:cal  plane  that  divides  body  into  anterior  and  posterior  parts.    

Page 39: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Transverse  or  horizontal  plane  

Transverse  or  horizontal  plane:  divides  body  into  inferior  and  superior  parts.    

•  Transverse  secEon  =  cross  secEon  

Page 40: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Body  Planes  

•  Different  sec:ons  reveal  different  structures  and  details.  

Page 41: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Oblique  secEons  

•  Sec:ons  based  on  cuts  made  diagonally  between  horizontal  and  ver:cal  planes  

•  Seldom  used,  because  sec:ons  are  difficult  to  interpret  

Page 42: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Membrane-­‐lined  body  caviEes  

•  Two  sets  of  internal  body  cavi:es  •  Dorsal  body  cavity  •  Ventral  body  cavity  

•  Cavi:es  are  closed  to  the  outside  and  provide  different  degrees  of  protec:on  to  the  organs  within  them.  

•  Dorsal  and  ventral  cavity  differ  in  developmental  origin  and  lining.  

•  Dorsal  cavity  is  not  recognized  in  many  anatomical  references.  

Page 43: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Dorsal  body  cavity  

•  Dorsal  Cavity  protects  the  fragile  nervous  system  organs.  

 •  Two  subdivisions:  •  Cranial  cavity:  located  in  the  skull,  encases  the  brain.  

•  Vertebral  (spinal)  cavity:  runs  within  the  bony  vertebral  column  and  encloses  the  spinal  cord.  

 •  Cranial  and  vertebral  caviEes  are  conEnuous  

(connected).  

•  Brain  and  spinal  cord  are  covered  by  membranes  called  meninges.  

Page 44: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Ventral  body  cavity  

•  Ventral  Cavity  protects  internal  organs.    •  Two  subdivisions:  •  Thoracic  cavity:  located  in  the  skull,  encases  the  brain  

•  Abdominopelvic  cavity:  runs  within  the  bony  vertebral  column  and  encloses  the  spinal  cord.  

 •  Ventral  body  cavity  houses  viscera  or  visceral  

organs  =  Internal  organs  in  a  body  cavity.  

Page 45: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Ventral  body  cavity:  the  thoracic  cavity  

•  Thoracic  cavity  is  surrounded  by  ribs  and  muscles  of  the  chest.  

•  Thoracic  cavity  is  subdivided  into:  •  Lateral  pleural  caviEes,  which  house  the  lungs.  • Medial  mediasEnum:    • Contains  pericardial  cavity,  which  encloses  the  heart  and  surrounds  thoracic  organs  (e.g.,  esophagus,  trachea).  

Page 46: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Ventral  body  cavity:  the  abdominopelvic  cavity  

• Abdominopelvic  and  thoracic  cavi:es  are  separated  by  diaphragm  (dome-­‐shaped  muscle  involved  in  breathing).    

•  Abdominopelvic  cavity  is  subdivided  into  two  parts,  which  are  not  physically  separated  by  muscle  or  membrane:  

•  Superior  porEon  =  Abdominal  cavity:  contains  e.g.,  stomach,  intes:nes,  spleen,  liver.  •  Inferior  porEon  =  Pelvic  cavity:  located  in  bony  pelvis  and  contains  urinary  bladder,  reproduc:ve  organs,  and  the  rectum.  

Page 47: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Membranes  of  the  the  Ventral  body  cavity  

• Walls  of  ventral  body  cavity  and  outer  surfaces  of  organs  covered  with  thin,  double-­‐layered  membrane,  the  serosa  (or  serous  membrane).    

•  Part  of  membrane  lining  the  cavity  walls  is  called  the  parietal  serosa.    

 •  Part  of  membrane  lining  the  organs    is  called  the  visceral  serosa.    

Page 48: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Membranes  of  the  the  Ventral  body  cavity  

•  Parietal  serosa  folds  on  itself  to  form  visceral  serosa.  

Note:  Parietal  serosa  always  fused  to  cavity  wall  .  

Page 49: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Parietal  and  visceral  serosa  are  separated  by  fluid,  called  serous  fluid  

•  Serous  fluid  allows  the  organs  to  slide  without  fric:on  across  cavity  wall  and  one  another.  •  Especially  important  for  moving  organs,  e.g.,  heart  and  stomach.  

Page 50: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Naming  serous  membranes  

•  Parietal  pericardium  lines  the  pericardial  cavity.  •  Folds  back  to  form  visceral  pericardium.  

•  Parietal  pleurae  line  walls  of  thoracic  cavity,  visceral  pleurae  cover  the  lungs  •  Parietal  peritoneum  associated  with  walls  of  the  abdominopelvic  cavity,    

visceral  peritoneum  covers  most  organs  within  the  cavity.  

Page 51: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Naming  serous  membranes  

•  Parietal  pleurae  line  walls  of  thoracic  cavity,    visceral  pleurae  cover  the  lungs  

     •  Parietal  peritoneum    associated  with  walls  of  the    abdominopelvic  cavity,    visceral  peritoneum  covers    most  organs    within  the  cavity.  

Page 52: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Abdominopelvic  Regions  and  Quadrants  

•  Abdominopelvic  cavity  is  large  and  contains  several  organs.                  

•  Medical  personnel  use  scheme    consis:ng  of  a  transverse    and  ver:cal  plane  passing  through  the  umbilicus    at  right  angles.  

Page 53: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Abdominopelvic  Regions:  Nine  Regions  

•  Anatomists  use  scheme  consis:ng  of  two  transverse    •  and  two  parasagidal  planes.  

Page 54: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Abdominopelvic  Regions:  Nine  Regions  

•  Anatomists  use  scheme  consis:ng  of  two  transverse    •  and  two  parasagidal  planes.  

 epi  =  upon  Gastri  =  belly  Hypo  =  below  Iliac  =  superior  part  of  the  hip  bone  Lumbus  =  loin  Chondro  =  car:lage  

Page 55: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Abdominopelvic  Regions:  Nine  Regions  

•  Umbilical  region:  centermost  region  deep  to  and  surrounding    the  umbilicus.    •  Epigastric  region:  superior  to  umbilical  region.    •  Hypogastric  (pubic)  region:  located  inferior  to  the  umbilical  region  

•  Right  and  lef  iliac,  or  inguinal  regions:  located  lateral  to  the    hypogastric  region.  

•  Right  and  lef  lumbar  region:  lateral  to  the  umbilical  region.  

•  Right  and  lef  hypochandriac  region:  lateral  to  the  epigastric  region    and  deep  to  the  rips  

Page 56: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Abdominopelvic  Regions:  Nine  Regions  

•  Anatomists  use  scheme  consis:ng  of  two  transverse    •  and  two  parasagidal  planes.  

Page 57: Lecture 1 - Introduction-Week 1

Other  Body  CaviEes  

•  Oral  (mouth)  and  digesEve  cavity  •  Oral  cavity  contains  teeth  and  tongue  •  Oral  cavity  con:nuous  with  Diges:ve  cavity,  which  consists  of    diges:ve  organs,  and  opens  to  the  body  exterior  at  the  anus.  

•  Nasal  cavity:  located  in  the  posterior  of  the  nose,  part  of  respiratory  system  passageways.  Open  to  exterior.  

•  Orbital  caviEes:  located  in  the  skull  and  present  eyes  to  outside.  

•  Middle  ear  caviEes:  located  in  the  skull  just  medial  to  eardrum  and  contain  :ny  bones  that  transmit  sound.  .  Open  to  exterior.  

•  Synovial  caviEes:    joint  cavi:es,  enclosed  within  fibrous  capsules  that  surround  freely  movable  joints  (elbow,  knee  joints)..  Membranes  surrounding  synovial  cavi:es  secrete    a  lubrica:ng  fluid  that  reduces  fric:on  as  bones  move  across  one  another.