Lecture 5Lecture 5MorphologyMorphology

The Analysis of Word StructureThe Analysis of Word Structure

MorphologyMorphology

Words like Words like read,read, language, tall, on, etc.language, tall, on, etc. must be must be learned and stored as separate items in the learned and stored as separate items in the lexiconlexicon ..

However, countless other words can be However, countless other words can be constructed and comprehended by the constructed and comprehended by the application of some general rules.application of some general rules.

Therefore, part of the linguistic competence is Therefore, part of the linguistic competence is the ability to construct and interpret words.the ability to construct and interpret words.

This system of categories and rules involved in This system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation is called word formation and interpretation is called morphologymorphology ..

WordWorddefinitiondefinition

Words are meaningful linguistic units that Words are meaningful linguistic units that can combine to form larger structures can combine to form larger structures (phrases, clauses, or sentences).(phrases, clauses, or sentences).

A ward is associated with a particular A ward is associated with a particular meaning..meaning..

It is a unit of expression that is intuitively It is a unit of expression that is intuitively recognizable by native speakers.recognizable by native speakers.

WordWordidentificationidentification

Words are the physically definable units Words are the physically definable units one encounters in a stretch of writing or one encounters in a stretch of writing or speech.speech.

Words are most stable of all linguistic Words are most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.units, in respect of their internal structure.

Words are uninterruptible.Words are uninterruptible.

Word = free formWord = free form A word is the smallest A word is the smallest free formfree form found in language. found in language. A free form is an element that:A free form is an element that:

ii can occur in isolationcan occur in isolationbirdbird vs.vs. -s-s

and/orand/or

iiii whose position with respect to neighbouring elements isn’t whose position with respect to neighbouring elements isn’t entirely fixed.entirely fixed.BirdsBirds avoid cats. avoid cats. (before a verb)(before a verb)Cats chase Cats chase birdsbirds .. (after a verb)(after a verb)TheThe birds birds (before a noun)(before a noun)TheThe young birds young birds (before something else)(before something else)

MorphemeMorpheme

Concepts that are expressed by a word Concepts that are expressed by a word (free form) in one language may not (free form) in one language may not necessarily have the same status in other necessarily have the same status in other languages:languages:

ArabicArabic EnglishEnglish//--// my mothermy mother

So, we need a simpler alternative.So, we need a simpler alternative.

MorphemeMorpheme

Words have an internal structure consisting of smaller Words have an internal structure consisting of smaller units organized with respect to each other.units organized with respect to each other.

The most important component of word structure is the The most important component of word structure is the morphememorpheme ..

It is the smallest unit of language that carries information It is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function:about meaning or function:builderbuilder == buildbuild ++ -er-er

‘‘construct’construct’ ‘one who does’‘one who does’houseshouses == househouse ++ -s-s

‘‘dwelling’dwelling’ ‘more than one’‘more than one’

MorphemesMorphemesFree and BoundFree and Bound

A free morpheme can be a word by itself; it can A free morpheme can be a word by itself; it can stand alone.stand alone.

A bound morpheme must be attached to another A bound morpheme must be attached to another element; it cannot stand alone.element; it cannot stand alone.

freefree boundboundcarcar -s-ssmilesmile -ed-edtalltall -er-ercarecare -ful-ful

AllomorphsAllomorphs

Morphemes do not always have an Morphemes do not always have an invariant form.invariant form.

The variant forms of a morpheme are The variant forms of a morpheme are called its called its allomorphsallomorphs ..indefiniteness:indefiniteness: a/ana/anpast tense:past tense: d, t, d, t, әәddplural:plural: z, s, z, s, әәzz

Word StructureWord Structure

Complex words consist of a Complex words consist of a rootroot and one or and one or more more affixesaffixes ..

The root morpheme:The root morpheme:ii contributes the most to the word’s contributes the most to the word’s meaning,meaning,iiii belongs to a lexical category.belongs to a lexical category.

An affix:An affix:ii does not belong to a lexical category,does not belong to a lexical category,iiii is always a bound morpheme.is always a bound morpheme.

Word StructureWord Structure

NN V V

VV AffAff AdjAdj Aff Aff

teachteach erer modernmodern ize ize

Word StructureWord Structure

A A basebase is the form to which an affix is is the form to which an affix is added.added.

It can be the root:It can be the root:black – enblack – en

Or, it can be a larger unit:Or, it can be a larger unit:blacken – edblacken – ed

Word StructureWord Structure

VV

Base for -ed Base for -ed →→ VV

Root and base Root and base →→ AdjAdj AffAff AffAfffor -enfor -en

blackblack enen eded

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationAffixationAffixation

Affixation is the most common morphological process.Affixation is the most common morphological process.

prefixing:prefixing: inter-inter-marrymarry

suffixing:suffixing: kindkind -ness-ness

infixing: infixing: Aff (present) Aff (present) / \/ \k a t a bk a t a b \ | /\ | / RootRoot

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationInternal changeInternal change

Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another:morphemic segment for another:ssiingng ssaangngffoooott ffeeeett

These cannot be considered as examples on infixing:These cannot be considered as examples on infixing:ii English does not have a root *sng (meaning English does not have a root *sng (meaning ‘produce words in a musical tone’).‘produce words in a musical tone’).iiii English does not have a morpheme English does not have a morpheme ii meaning meaning ‘present’ or a morpheme ‘present’ or a morpheme aa meaning ‘past’ in the meaning ‘past’ in the sing/sang case.sing/sang case.

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationSuppletionSuppletion

Suppletion is a morphological process Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in order to a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast.indicate a grammatical contrast.

Basic formBasic form Suppletive formSuppletive formII memebebe wereweregoodgood wellwell

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationStress placementStress placement

A base can undergo a change in the A base can undergo a change in the placement of stress to reflect a change in placement of stress to reflect a change in its category.its category.

VerbVerb NounNounpreséntpresént présentprésentsubjéctsubjéct súbjectsúbjectcontéstcontést cóntestcóntest

Structure ModificationStructure ModificationCompoundingCompounding

It is a common morphological process It is a common morphological process which involves the combination of lexical which involves the combination of lexical categories to create larger words.categories to create larger words.

The elements making up the compound The elements making up the compound are free forms..are free forms..Noun + NounNoun + Noun Adjective + NounAdjective + Nouncampsitecampsite bluebirdbluebirdbookcasebookcase greenhousegreenhouse

CompoundingCompounding

In English, the rightmost morpheme determines the In English, the rightmost morpheme determines the category of the entire compound. This morpheme is category of the entire compound. This morpheme is called the called the headhead ..

NN VV AdjAdj

AdjAdj NN NN VV NN AdjAdj

greengreen house house spoonspoon feedfeed nationnation widewide

DerivationDerivation

Through the addition of an affix, Through the addition of an affix, derivationderivation forms a word with a meaning and/or category forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its base.distinct form that of its base.

basebase derived wordderived wordsellsell sellersellerteachteach teacherteacher

ii category change: verb category change: verb →→ noun nouniiii meaning change: X meaning change: X →→ someone who does X someone who does X

Complex DerivationsComplex Derivations

Since derivation can apply more than once, it is Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create multiple levels of word possible to create multiple levels of word structure.structure.

VerbVerb ++ -ive-ive == Adj.Adj.actact ++ -ive-ive == activeactiveAdj.Adj. ++ -ate-ate == VerbVerbactiveactive ++ -ate-ate == activateactivateVerbVerb ++ -ion-ion == NounNounactivateactivate ++ -ion-ion == activationactivation

[[N N [[V V [[Adj Adj [[V V act] ive] ate] ion]act] ive] ate] ion]

NN

VV

AdjAdj

VV AffAff AffAff AffAff

actact iveive ateate ionion

un-happy-ness ?un-happy-ness ?

(a)(a) NN (b)(b) NN

AdjAdj NN

AffAff AdjAdj AffAff AffAff AdjAdj AffAff

unun happyhappy nessness unun happyhappy nessness

un-happy-ness ?un-happy-ness ?

The prefix The prefix un-un- combines freely with combines freely with adjectives, but not with nouns:adjectives, but not with nouns:unhealthyunhealthy // unhealthyunhealthyhealth + yhealth + y *un + health*un + healthun +healthyun +healthy *unhealth + y*unhealth + y

Therefore, analysis (a) is more plausible than Therefore, analysis (a) is more plausible than analysis (b).analysis (b).

Constraints on DerivationConstraints on Derivation

Derivation does not apply freely to the members of a Derivation does not apply freely to the members of a given category:given category:

ii -ant-ant combines with Latinate bases: combines with Latinate bases:LatinateLatinate NativeNativedefenddefendantant *fight*fightantantservservantant *teach*teachantant

iiii -en combines with monosyllabic obstruent-final base -en combines with monosyllabic obstruent-final base adjectives:adjectives:

whitenwhiten *abstracten*abstracten (disyllabic)(disyllabic)quickenquicken *bluen*bluen (non-obstruent-final)(non-obstruent-final)

Class 1 derivational affixesClass 1 derivational affixes

Class 1 affixes normally trigger changes in segments of Class 1 affixes normally trigger changes in segments of the base.the base.

They usually also affect the assignment of stress.They usually also affect the assignment of stress.part-ialpart-ial final consonant of the base final consonant of the base

changes from /t/ to /∫/changes from /t/ to /∫/prodprodúúct-ivect-ive stress shifts to second stress shifts to second

syllable (cf. syllable (cf. prpróóductduct))public-itypublic-ity final consonant of the base final consonant of the base

changes from /k/ to /s/, and stress changes from /k/ to /s/, and stress shifts to second syllable (shifts to second syllable (ppúúblicblic vs. vs. publpublíícitycity))

Class 2 derivational affixesClass 2 derivational affixes

In contrast, class 2 affixes tend to be In contrast, class 2 affixes tend to be phonologically neutral, having no effect on phonologically neutral, having no effect on the segmental makeup of the base or the the segmental makeup of the base or the stress assignment.stress assignment.

prompt-nessprompt-ness no change triggeredno change triggeredhair-lesshair-less no change triggeredno change triggeredhope-fulhope-ful no change triggeredno change triggeredself-ishself-ish no change triggered no change triggered

InflectionInflection

InflectionInflection is the modification of a word’s form. is the modification of a word’s form. Inflectional affixes signal grammatical Inflectional affixes signal grammatical

relationships but do not change the grammatical relationships but do not change the grammatical class.class.

The base to which an inflectional affix is added The base to which an inflectional affix is added is the is the stemstem..

The stem includes the root and all derivational The stem includes the root and all derivational affixes.affixes.

English Inflectional AffixesEnglish Inflectional Affixes

{-s pl}{-s pl} noun pluralnoun plural{-s 3{-s 3rdrd sg} sg} present third person singularpresent third person singular{-ing vb}{-ing vb} present participlepresent participle{-ed pt}{-ed pt} past tensepast tense{-ed pp}{-ed pp} past participlepast participle{-er cp}{-er cp} comparativecomparative{-est sp}{-est sp} superlativesuperlative

Inflection vs. DerivationInflection vs. Derivation

Inflection and derivation are both marked Inflection and derivation are both marked by affixation.by affixation.

So, the distinction between the two So, the distinction between the two processes can be subtle.processes can be subtle.

It is not always clear which function a It is not always clear which function a particular affix has.particular affix has.

Three criteria help distinguish between Three criteria help distinguish between inflectional and derivational affixes.inflectional and derivational affixes.

Category ChangeCategory Change

The output of inflection:The output of inflection:[[N N [[N N book ] s ]book ] s ] [[V V [[V V work ] ed ]work ] ed ]

There is no change in either the category of the base or the type of There is no change in either the category of the base or the type of meaning it denotes. meaning it denotes. (another form of the word)(another form of the word)

The output of derivation:The output of derivation:[[N N [[V V govern ] ment ]govern ] ment ] [[N N [[N N king ] dom ]king ] dom ]

There is a change in the category of the base and/or the type of There is a change in the category of the base and/or the type of meaning it denotes. meaning it denotes. (another word)(another word)

OrderOrder

The derivational affix must be closer to the root than the The derivational affix must be closer to the root than the inflectional affix. This means that the former combines inflectional affix. This means that the former combines with the base before the latter.with the base before the latter.

NN NN

NN NN

NN AffAff AffAff NN AffAff AffAff

neighbourneighbour hoodhood ss *neighbour *neighbourss hoodhood

ProductivityProductivity

The distribution of inflectional affixes is The distribution of inflectional affixes is considerably freer than that of the considerably freer than that of the derivational affixes.derivational affixes.-ize-ize vs.vs. plural plural -s-s

modern-izemodern-ize (cf. *new-ize)(cf. *new-ize)legalizelegalize (cf. *lawful-ize)(cf. *lawful-ize)

However, the suffix -s can combine with However, the suffix -s can combine with almost any noun that allows a plural form.almost any noun that allows a plural form.

Summing upSumming up

Morphology is concerned with the structure and Morphology is concerned with the structure and formation of formation of wordswords in human language. in human language.

Words consist of smaller formative elements called Words consist of smaller formative elements called morphemesmorphemes ..

These elements can be classified in a number of ways These elements can be classified in a number of ways ((freefree vs. vs. boundbound , , rootroot vs. vs. aff ixaff ix ).).

Operations that can combine and modify morphemes Operations that can combine and modify morphemes include include aff ixationaff ixation , , internalinternal changechange , , suppletionsuppletion , and , and compoundingcompounding ..

The two basic types of word formation in English are The two basic types of word formation in English are derivationderivation and and inflectioninflection ..

SyntaxSyntax

Syntactic Data and Syntactic RulesSyntactic Data and Syntactic RulesConstituent Order, Case Marking, and Constituent Order, Case Marking, and

Thematic RolesThematic RolesPhrases and Constituent StructurePhrases and Constituent Structure