learning,memory,mental processes.ppt

8/12/2019 Learning,memory,mental processes.ppt

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Psychology Department


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Learning Relatively permanent change in the immediate or

potential behavior or mental process that results

from past experiences or practiceAcquiring knowledge or developing the ability to

perform new behaviors

It relies on the acquisition of different types of

knowledge supported by perceived information

It leads to the development of new capacities,skills, values, understanding, and preferences


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5 Processes of LearningHabituationClassical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Social Learning

Cognitive Processes in learning


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Five Processes of Learning1. Habituation

Simplest kind of learning

Accounts for learning to ignore a stimulus thathas become a familiar and has no seriousconsequences

The tendency to become familiar with astimulus after repeated exposure to it

Example: Children playing in the schoolplayground


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2. Classical Conditioning An individual learns that one follows another

Gives emphasis on the association of the stimulus withthe response

Learning with association of two stimuli that occur insequence

Also called as Pavlonian Conditioning

Example: A professor holding the class card means that he is

about to call somebody to answer his upcoming question


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2 Basic Componentsa. Natural Reflex (salivation of the dog when food

was placed on its tongue)

Automatic response to a stimulus

b.Neutral Stimulus (sound of the buzzer)

Does not elicit the reflex being studied, although may

elicit other responses

Reflex is anautomatic response to a stimulus, whilethe neutral stimulusis one that does not elicit the

reflex studied, although it may elicit other responses


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Phase 1: Before Conditioning

UCS

(meat powder)

UCR

(salivation)

Neutral Stimulus

(Buzzer)

Orienting

Response


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Phase 2: Process of ConditioningNeutral Stimulus followed by UCS

(buzzer) (meat powder)UCR

(Salivation)

Phase 3: After Conditioning has occurredCR

(Salivation)CS

(Buzzer)


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Basic Processesa.Acquisition

A neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)are paired

Example: A child learns to fear (CR) the Dental Clinic (CS) byassociating it with the reflexive emotional reaction(UCR) to a

painful tooth extraction (UCS)

b. Stimulus Generalization Individuals ability to react to novel stimuli that are similar to

familiar ones

A conditioned response (CR) is elicited not only by theconditioned stimulus (CS) but also by the stimulus similar tothe conditioned stimulus(CS) Example: A child fears (Conditioned Response) all Dental clinic

(Conditioned Stimulus) and other places that smells like them(Similar CS)


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c. Stimulus Discrimination

A process complimentary to generalization Discrimination is a reaction to differences

Limited in such that some stimulus similar to the CS donot elicit the CR Example: A child learns that his mothers Dental Clinic is not

associated only with Tooth Extraction UCS

d. Extinction

The CS is presented alone with the UCS. Gradually, the

CS no longer elicits the CR Used to describe the elimination of the CR by repeatedly

presenting the CS without the unconditioned stimulus

Example: A child visits the dentist several times for

prophylaxis. Fear gradually decreases


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3. Operant Conditioning

An organism learns a response by operating on itsenvironment. A response an individual makes will be followed by a

particular consequence Primary aim: To analyze how behavior is changed by its

consequences Example: A student who never stops making side

comments and intolerable, non-sense noise will bereported to the Discipline Office


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Componentsa. Operant

Response that operates in the environment

Example: When the child says she is hungry and is then fed, thechild has made an operant response that determines when food

will appear

b. Reinforcer Increases the probability that an operant behavior will occur again

2 Main Types

Positive Reinforcers or Rewards

Stimuli that strengthen a response if they are presented afterthe response has occurred

Negative Reinforcers

Unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a response if they areremoved after the response has occurred

Also increases the frequency of behavior but uses an aversive orunpleasant stimulus


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Schedules of Reinforcementa. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcer is delivered every time a particular responseoccurs

b. Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement administered only some of the time

Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule Variable-ratio (VR) schedule

Fixed-interval (FI) schedule

Variable-interval (VI) schedule


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Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

a. Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

Provides reinforcement following a fixed number ofresponses

Example: FR3-3 responses are required for reinforcement

b. Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

Gives reinforcement only after making a certain numberof responses but that number varies unpredictably

Example: Lotto and/or Slot Machine


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c. Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI)

Gives reinforcement for the first response that occursafter some fixed time has passed since the last reward,regardless of how many responses have been madeduring the interval

Example: Receiving a salary on fixed dates such asevery 15thor 30thof each month

d. Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)

Provides reinforcement for the first response after some

period of time, but the amount of time varies. Example: Additional points given to the students,

when they kept quiet after some time the professorwas out.


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Use of Negative Reinforcementa. Escape learning

Increasing a particular behavior to end or escape from anaversive stimulus

Example: Some students give more time for studiesand improve their study habits to put an end to lowgrades

b.Avoidance Learning

A warning stimulus signals an aversive stimulus and theorganism learns to avoid it by emitting the appropriateresponse to the warning stimulus

Example: Taking the other way when you see the person

you hate approaching your way


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Use of Punishment Used to decrease the frequency of a behavior Can be an effective means to eliminate undesirable

behavior (Scwartz, 1984)

To ensure its effectiveness:

Intense

Immediate Alternative behaviormust be positively reinforced


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4. Social Learning

Learning from the experiences of others

Example: A girl always says thank youwhenever she receives something because she

observes this from her mother, who serves asher model

Banduracame up with several processes oflearning

Vicarious conditioning

Observational learning


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Processes of Learninga. Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by seeing or hearing about the consequencesof other peoples action

Example: An IT student who has heard a batch matebeing sent to the Office of Student Affairs for goingto class drunk

b. Observational Learning Learning by watching what others are doing

Modelthe person being watched.


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Requirements to determine whetherobservational learning has occurred

Attention

Retention Ability to reproduce the behavior

Motivation


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2 Phases of Complex LearningComplex Learning (Wolfgang Kohler) Intimately related to memory and thinking

a. Initial Phase Problem solving to derive a solution

b. Second Phase

Solution is stored in memory and retrieved whenever asimilar problem exists


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Behavioral Approach Was first used byJohn B. Watson in the early 1910s. Later,

B. F. Skinner expanded and popularized the behavioralapproach

Explains that events in the environment are understood topredict a persons behavior, not thoughts, feelings, or other

events that take place inside the person

Cognitive Approach Explains that learning involves complex mental processes,

including memory, attention, language, concept formation,and problem solving


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Factors that Influence Learning AbilityAge

Motivation

Prior experience Intelligence

Learning and Developmental Disorders


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Memory The ability to recover information about past

events or knowledge. The ability to store information so that it can be

used at a later timeAn organism's ability to store, retain, and

subsequently retrieve information. Human memory can store information from any of

our senses


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Types of Memory Episodic Memory

A memory of specific eventthat happened while you werepresent

Semantic Memory Contains generalized knowledgeof the world that does not

involve memory of a specific event

Procedural Memory Also called skill memory because it involves on how to do

things

Consists of a complicated sequence of movements that cannotbe described adequately in words


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Steps of Memory Storage Encoding

Putting Information into memory.

Storing

Refers to how a system maintains or remembersinformation.

Retrieving

Getting the stored information out of memory Forgetting

Inability to recall a particular piece ofinformation accurately


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3 Causes of forgetting (Ebbinghaus, 1985)

Retrieval Failure

Due to the inability to recall theinformation

Decay Theory This suggests that if people do not use

information stored in long term memory,it gradually fades until it is lost

Interference theory

Forgetting of information in long termmemory is due to the influences of other

learning


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Interference can be:

Retroactive Interference / Inhibition

Learning new information hampers memoryof older material

encounter material to be remembered

encounter interfering material

memory test for material to be remembered

Proactive Interference / Inhibition

Already learned information hampers

person's ability to remember new material encounter interfering material

encounter material to be remembered

memory test for material to be remembered


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Stages of Memory Sensory Memory

First stage wherein the on information from the sensessight, sound or smell is held in the sensory register.

Short-term Memory

Allows one to recall something from several secondsto as long as a minute without rehearsal.

Long-term Memory

Can store much larger quantities of information forpotentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole lifespan).


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Stages of Memory


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Short Term Memory 6 reasonswhy information is stored in our short term

memory.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first bit of information in a series

due to increased rehearsal. Recency effect

The tendency to remember the last bit of information due to theshorter time available for forgetting.

Distinctiveness

If something stands out from information around it, it is oftenremembered better. Any distinctive information is easier toremember than that which is similar, usual, or mundane.


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Short Term Memory Frequency effect

Rehearsal, as stated in the first example, results in bettermemory. Remember trying to memorize a formula for your mathclass. The more you went over it, the better you knew it.

Associations When we associate or attach information to other information it

becomes easier to remember. Many of us use this strategy in ourprofessions and everyday life in the form of acronyms.

Reconstruction

Tendency to fill in the gaps in our memory and often believethese represent true memories.


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Improving your Memory Metamemory

Refers to the knowledge about how ones own memoryworks

3 types of knowledge Metamemory includes the understanding of ones

abilities and limitations

Metamenory involves knowledge about different

types of tasks. Metamemory involves knowledge of what types or

strategies are most effective in remembering newinformation

Rote rehearsal


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Mnemonics (knee-monics) Strategies for placing information in an organized

context in order to remember it

Incorporate visual and verbal forms of elaborative

processing ensuring their effectiveness Devices

Rhyme, acronyms, acrostics and pegwords

Loci Method

Keyword Method Organization

PQRST Method

(Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and Test

Preview


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Mental ProcessesWeform conceptswhen we try to understand symbols in

our environment

We exercise critical thinkingin order to organize thesymbols into a meaningful whole

When we modify and apply the concepts in problemsolving or making plans, we engage in creative thinking

Thinking about our thoughts and feelings, about oursituations, our goals, and our capacities is mental process

called metacognition

It involves reflectionthinking about experiences andprojectionthinking about our future

Listening to intuitionthe creative side of thinking to

maximize potentials


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Mental Processes Use of symbolic process by the brain

Ideation, the sequence of producing ideas concerned with thesolving of specific problems or incongruities in models ofreality (Stratton and Haye, 1991)

The deliberate exploration of experience for a purpose (DeBono, 1991)

Purposeful manipulation of words and images. Formingconcepts, solving problems, making decisions and being

creative Thinking is a process by which a new mental representation

is formed through transformation of information by complexinteraction of the mental attributes of judging, abstracting,reasoning, imagining, and problem-solving (Solso, 1988)


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Major Mental Process

1. Concept Formation

Refers to the discernment of properties commonto a class of objects or ideas a basis for other

mental processes Concept

Represents a category of objects, events,

qualities or relations whose members sharecertain features

Refer to objects such as books, etc..


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Kinds of Concepts

Logical Concepts

This was form when we identify thespecific features possessed by all the

members

Natural Concepts

Concepts formed through everydayexperiences


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Principles of Concept FormationA. Association

Learning the basic concepts by observing thevisual and sensory cues of objects and events

Identifying the features that are common tothem and form a definition of concepts fromtheir common characteristic(s)

Identifying and recognizing these conceptsdepending on our experiences and knowledgeabout them.


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B. Critical Thinking

Principled Thinking (Siegel, 1980) Done to assess the characteristics of the

categories we just made

Involves the correct assessing of statements

using analysis and logic Serves as foundation for evaluation and

decision-making

Necessary for this skill to be developed


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C. Analysis

Breakdown of the materials into itsconstituent parts and detection of therelationships of its parts of the way they areorganized (Bloom, 1956)

Tow or more items are compared andcontrasted

Then relationship is established between oramong the concepts


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Relationships

Semantic Relationship Involves similarities or differences

Large-big; elderly-old (synonyms) Beginning-end; first-last (antonyms)

Symbolic Relationships Those that are comparable purely in terms of

the symbols that make up their components,

with no respect to their meanings Mom - dad; see - toe (same word

configuration) ten - ago; amaze - blind (same number of

letters)


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Relationships

Phonetic Relationship Pairs of word thats that sounds alike like

homonyms, rhymes

Sew - so; two to (homonyms)

Grieve peeve; crime rhyme (rhymes)

Class Relationships

Involves pairs that belong to the same

classification Hair mammal; feather bird (one is the

attribute of other)

Cockatoo parrot; lovebirds budgerigar (allare of the same classification)


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Relationships

Functional Relationships

Can be seen if one item changes into other or is used forthe other

foot football; hand volleyball (one acts on the other)

Egg larva; baby child (one develops or changes intoother)

Quantitative Relationships

Are expressed as similarities or differences as to quantity,degree or number.

4 16; 8 64 (square roots and square) Meter yard; liter quart (length or quantity)

Pattern Relationship

Those that possess similar figural attributes (size, shape,

pattern color)


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Higher Forms of Analytical Thinking Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant facts.

Differentiating between fact and opinion.

Deriving principles from examples

Developing imaginary products.

Writing compositions.

Analyzing newspaper and magazine articles.

Determining whether or not a set of statistical data isrelevant or properly used.

Determining the notes to be taken and theorganization or content in an outline.


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Logic or Logical Thinking

Aristotle introduce a system of reasoningprocessof validating arguments called syllogismhasthree parts: major and minor premises and aconclusion

Example:

Stress can cause illness.

Linda suffers stress in her studies.

Linda is sick.Therefore stress might be the cause of Lindassickness


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A conclusion reached by means of syllogistic reasoningis considered valid if the premises are true and theform is correct.

Syllogistic reasoning may also differ between culturesbecause customs, religious practices, thinking andreasoning, level of intelligence and education affects

one persons reasoning Inductive Reasoning

Starts with specific information that leads to ageneralization

Deductive Reasoning

Form a general statement, proceed to a situation,and determine the application


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2. Problem solving

Is the cognitive process through whichinformation / concepts are used to reach a goalthat is sometimes blocked by some kind ofobstacle (Sdorow, 1980)

Synonymous to synthesis which is puttingtogether the elements and parts so as to form anew whole (Bloom, 1956)

Productive thinking (Guildford)

Production of new information from a giveninformation

Consists of cognitive operations that follow apattern


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Steps in solving everyday problem

Analyze the problem, its manifestations and itscauses

Decide what information and tools are needed

Design solutions and alternatives Evaluate advantages and disadvantages of each

possible solution

Act on the chosen solution

Monitor and evaluate every step and its effects

Be creative and patient until problem is solved


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Strategies in solving problems

Trial and Error Trying one possible solution at a time until one

solution is chanced upon to solve the problem

Using insight A solution based on previously learned concept

and behavior

Listening to ones gut feel or intuition

Being sensitive and perceptive to ones feelingsand thoughts about the factors and situations

within the context of the problem.


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Using algorithms

Algorithms are rules or formula that help solveproblems

Systematic patterns of reasoning that guarantee acorrect solution in situations where there is

multiplicity of possible actions

Using heuristics Are general principles that allow a person to solve

a problem by doing what is important or possibleat the moment They are mental shortcuts which depends on the

availability of solutions


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Problem solving should be (Bransford and Stern,

1984)I Identify the problemD Define and represent the problemE Explore possible strategies

A Act on the chosen strategiesL Look back and evaluate the effect of

your activities


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Creative Thinking

Problem-solving challenges ones creative thinking The quality of the solution to a problem is an

outcome of ones creative thinking Saturation

The problem solver defines the nature of the problem andgathers relevant information

Deliberation The problem solver analyzes the information and designs

possible solution considering the advantages and disadvantages

Incubation The problem solver relaxes and allows the subconscious mind to

work

Illumination

The problem solver gets a clear picture of what to do


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Strategies Use brainstorming to stimulate ideas

Use the delphi technique to make the best of the

experiences of the people involved and to avoid thegut feel of one person overriding the gut feel of allthe others

Try lateral thinking (de Bono, 1979)

Challenge anything that blocks the solution Persist and review the objectives while in the

process


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Strategies

Be imaginative and take risk in what is notordinary

Ask help where you may Break the problem to make it easier to cope with

Be open-minded, be flexible. Consider the devilsadvocate ideas

Grow in knowledge by reading, listening to others,and involving yourself in different learningexperiences


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3. Metacognition

Thinking about ones thinking. Taking time to think about ones thinking will

make a difference in the expressions andoutcomes of ones action.

Thinking about ones thoughts that affect onesfeelings and action may make the person realizethe impact of his emotions on his behavior.

Form of thinking in which an individual develops

an awareness of his characteristics, attitudes,beliefs, and actions.

It may be useful to observe your activities ineveryday life.


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Executive Control

A person who has a realistic self-concept is able to make plansfor himself

He is able to set short-term and long-term goals for his life

He determines the strategies to achieve his goals and directs

his efforts and resources to the achievement of the goals He controls his behavior to be able to solve problems affecting

the realization of his goals

Projective Thinking (de Bono, 1979)

Form of thinking that encourages individuals to think for thefuture

What one must develop and exercise is the kind of thinkingthat anticipates the future, the kind that goads us to act onwhat we project will be necessary for the futurefor ourselves

learning,memory,mental processes.ppt

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