learning what is it? how do we study it? how do our biology and the environment contribute to...

LearningLearning

What Is It?What Is It?How Do We Study It?How Do We Study It?

How Do Our Biology and The How Do Our Biology and The Environment Environment

Contribute to Learning?Contribute to Learning?

What is Learning?What is Learning?

Relatively enduring change in behaviour Relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience.that results from experience. Focus of psychologists tends to be on Focus of psychologists tends to be on

observable, measurable behaviour.observable, measurable behaviour. Avoids reference to internal states such as Avoids reference to internal states such as

emotions, although modern learning emotions, although modern learning theorists do consider changes in cognitions.theorists do consider changes in cognitions.

Like memory, it refers to a long-lasting Like memory, it refers to a long-lasting change following environmental exposure.change following environmental exposure.

Evolution of Learning Evolution of Learning TheoriesTheories

Early methodology: Introspection, dream Early methodology: Introspection, dream analysis, free association.analysis, free association.

Early theories: Based on concept of Early theories: Based on concept of unconscious mental processes driving unconscious mental processes driving behaviour (Freud’s influence).behaviour (Freud’s influence).

2020thth Century: Century: Behaviorism: Only observable behaviour can be Behaviorism: Only observable behaviour can be

studied (Watson’s influence in early 20studied (Watson’s influence in early 20thth century). century). Learning is the result of conditioning.Learning is the result of conditioning.

Classical and operant conditioning (Pavlov, Classical and operant conditioning (Pavlov, Skinner).Skinner).

Effect of observing others on learning (Bandura).Effect of observing others on learning (Bandura). Currently: Influences of environment, biology, and Currently: Influences of environment, biology, and

cognition on learning.cognition on learning.

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Passive LearningPassive Learning

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Study of the salivary reflex in dogs led to Study of the salivary reflex in dogs led to his principles of classical conditioning.his principles of classical conditioning.

Based on the work of physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the late 1800s.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Classical conditioning is based on the idea Classical conditioning is based on the idea

that associations are formed between two that associations are formed between two stimuli, one of which elicits a reflex response stimuli, one of which elicits a reflex response such as salivation, eye blinks, startle, fear, such as salivation, eye blinks, startle, fear, etc.etc.

There is an excellent description of Pavlov’s There is an excellent description of Pavlov’s work, written in 1909 by Robert Yerkesand work, written in 1909 by Robert Yerkesand Segius Morgulis of Yale university. It was Segius Morgulis of Yale university. It was collected by Christopher Green of York collected by Christopher Green of York University and is available at the following University and is available at the following website.website.

http://http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/pavlov.htmpsychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/pavlov.htm

Forming the AssociationForming the AssociationAs A Research ProtocolAs A Research ProtocolUnconditioned

StimulusUS

foodloud noise

Unconditioned Response

URsalivation

startle, fear

These are reflex responses.

Forming the AssociationForming the Association

Unconditioned Stimulus

USfood

loud noise


CSsalivation

startle, fear

Neutral Stimulus

sound, light

Varied Responses


USfood

loud noise


URsalivation

startleNeutral Stimulus

sound

In the lab these pairings are calledreinforced trials. They lead to acquisition of the association, or conditioning.

After AcquisitionAfter Acquisition


USfood


URsalivation

Conditioned Stimulus

CSsound, light

Conditioned Response

CRsalivation

The neutral stimulus is now called the Conditioned Stimulus because it now elicits a response that is similar to the UR. That response is now called the Conditioned Response.

What Affects the What Affects the Association?Association?

Laws of AssociationLaws of Association (from 19 (from 19thth century philosophers):century philosophers): Similarity of US and CS.Similarity of US and CS. Contiguity of US and CS.Contiguity of US and CS. Frequency of pairings.Frequency of pairings.

Biological PreparednessBiological Preparedness CognitionsCognitions: :

Expectedness of US (Rescorla-Wagner Expectedness of US (Rescorla-Wagner model): The more surprising the US, the model): The more surprising the US, the more conditioning (learning) occurs.more conditioning (learning) occurs.

Context of learning.Context of learning.

Unlearning the Unlearning the AssociationAssociation

What happens when the CS is no What happens when the CS is no longer paired with the US?longer paired with the US?

The association weakens and The association weakens and gradually disappears.gradually disappears.

It is said to It is said to extinguish.extinguish.

This is called This is called extinction.extinction.

Expanding the Expanding the AssociationAssociation

What happens if a stimulus similar What happens if a stimulus similar to the CS appears, e.g., an reddish-to the CS appears, e.g., an reddish-orange light rather than a red one?orange light rather than a red one?

The organism may respond, The organism may respond, although probably less reliably.although probably less reliably.

This is called This is called stimulus stimulus generalization.generalization. The organism has The organism has generalized the response to the generalized the response to the similar stimulus.similar stimulus.

Refining the AssociationRefining the Association

If an organism can learn to generalize If an organism can learn to generalize the association, can the animal also the association, can the animal also refine it?refine it?

Can the organism learn to discriminate Can the organism learn to discriminate one stimulus from another and learn to one stimulus from another and learn to respond only to one, e.g., to respond only to one, e.g., to discriminate the reddish-orange light discriminate the reddish-orange light from the red one?from the red one?

YESYES

Refining the AssociationRefining the Association

If an organism produces the If an organism produces the response to one stimulus and response to one stimulus and does not produce it for another, does not produce it for another, we call this we call this stimulus stimulus discrimination.discrimination.

Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Outside the LabOutside the Lab

The classical conditioning perspective can be The classical conditioning perspective can be used to explain, at least in part:used to explain, at least in part: PhobiasPhobias AddictionsAddictions

Note that such behaviour includes an Note that such behaviour includes an emotional component (fear, anxiety, relief, emotional component (fear, anxiety, relief, pleasure, etc.).pleasure, etc.).

These are like reflex responses—automatic, These are like reflex responses—automatic, and not within our immediate control. and not within our immediate control.

Cues in the environment become conditioned Cues in the environment become conditioned to elicit the conditioned response.to elicit the conditioned response.

A Real Life A Real Life ExampleExample

A True Case StudyA True Case Study

Two-year old Jane developed the habit Two-year old Jane developed the habit of the felt under pad for the family rug. of the felt under pad for the family rug. As she grew older she also ate the fuzz As she grew older she also ate the fuzz from wool blankets, and knitting wool). from wool blankets, and knitting wool).

When asked why she did it, Jane said it When asked why she did it, Jane said it felt good in her mouth.felt good in her mouth.

Unfortunately, sometimes she ate so Unfortunately, sometimes she ate so much that it blocked her bowel and much that it blocked her bowel and actually threatened her life. actually threatened her life.

A Real Life ExampleA Real Life ExampleA Case Study: Part 1A Case Study: Part 1

Each time her mother saw her doing this, Each time her mother saw her doing this, she would quickly distract her and play she would quickly distract her and play with her for a while.with her for a while.

As Jane grew older, the behaviour As Jane grew older, the behaviour generalized to eating the filter tips of generalized to eating the filter tips of cigarettes that she picked up from the cigarettes that she picked up from the ground. ground.

Finally, when she started school, on the Finally, when she started school, on the very first day, Jane actually ate the new red very first day, Jane actually ate the new red wool socks that her grandmother had wool socks that her grandmother had knitted for her first day at school right off knitted for her first day at school right off her feet!her feet!

A Case Study: Part 2A Case Study: Part 2

Needless to say, her parents were Needless to say, her parents were extremely concerned. This terrible extremely concerned. This terrible habit was risking their child’s life habit was risking their child’s life through either a bowel blockage or through either a bowel blockage or serious infection.serious infection.

Having tried everything that they could Having tried everything that they could think of with no effect (distraction, think of with no effect (distraction, punishment, reward for stopping, punishment, reward for stopping, consulting the family physician) they consulting the family physician) they decided that a psychologist or decided that a psychologist or psychiatrist might help. psychiatrist might help.


After considerable testing and interviewing, After considerable testing and interviewing, the psychiatrist explained that she thought the psychiatrist explained that she thought that Jane found eating wool rewarding that Jane found eating wool rewarding because it drew her mother’s attention away because it drew her mother’s attention away from the baby. That felt really good to Jane from the baby. That felt really good to Jane because she was probably feeling displaced because she was probably feeling displaced by her baby brother. by her baby brother.

Once the behaviour was established, it Once the behaviour was established, it became so pleasurable that it rewarded itself. became so pleasurable that it rewarded itself.

In addition, it then was also comforting in In addition, it then was also comforting in anxiety producing situations, such as the first anxiety producing situations, such as the first day at school.day at school.


What follows is an explanation in What follows is an explanation in classical conditioning terms. Later classical conditioning terms. Later we’ll see one in operant conditioning we’ll see one in operant conditioning terms.terms.

How would you advise the parents to How would you advise the parents to treat Jane, based on this explanation.treat Jane, based on this explanation.

A Case Study:A Case Study:Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning

ExplanationExplanation

Case Study: Classical Case Study: Classical Conditioning Conditioning

Forming the AssociationForming the Association

UR following the US now becomes CR following Neutral

Stimulus. The Neutral Stimulus is now called the CS.Feel good all over.

USAttention from

mom.

Neutral Stimulus,now CS

Feel of rug felt in mouth.

Jane acquires an association between mom’s attention and feel of rug felt. Both now make her feel good.


Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization Jane starts to eat cigarette filter tips, Jane starts to eat cigarette filter tips,

fluff from wool blankets, knitting fluff from wool blankets, knitting wool.wool.

These feel similar in her mouth and These feel similar in her mouth and become associated with the feel of the become associated with the feel of the rug felt—rug felt—they make her feel good.they make her feel good.

The stimulus has The stimulus has generalizedgeneralized from from rug felt to similar items: Filter tips, rug felt to similar items: Filter tips, fluff, knitting wool.fluff, knitting wool.


Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination

Jane refuses to put cotton batten Jane refuses to put cotton batten in her mouth. Says it feels in her mouth. Says it feels ‘awful’.‘awful’.

Jane is now Jane is now discriminatingdiscriminating between stimuli—eats wool, between stimuli—eats wool, won’t eat cotton.won’t eat cotton.


Based on this explanation, what Based on this explanation, what would you recommend to change would you recommend to change Jane’s undesirable behaviour?Jane’s undesirable behaviour?


Extinction. At Last!Extinction. At Last! In spite of their concerns, the parents In spite of their concerns, the parents

gradually learn to ignore incidents of wool gradually learn to ignore incidents of wool eating.eating.

They also remove as much wool, and They also remove as much wool, and similar items from the environment.similar items from the environment.

Child’s life becomes more active and Child’s life becomes more active and interesting—school, larger circle of friends.interesting—school, larger circle of friends.

There are fewer opportunities for wool There are fewer opportunities for wool eating and it is no longer rewarded by eating and it is no longer rewarded by mom’s attention. The habit slowly mom’s attention. The habit slowly extinguishes.extinguishes.


Why would advertisers use pictures of attractive females to advertise their products, particularly products that would be purchased by men?

Why do beer and liquor ads and commercials feature beautiful women, images of adventure, and people having fun or playing sports?

Is there something in these pictures that makes you feel good? Will you associate that feeling with the product?

Why does the sound of the can opener make the dog run for the kitchen?


Where else might we see classical Where else might we see classical conditioning at work in our environment?conditioning at work in our environment? Why do grocery stores have bake shops that let the Why do grocery stores have bake shops that let the

smell of baking waft over the whole store?smell of baking waft over the whole store? How do we acquire tastes for unpleasant-tasting, How do we acquire tastes for unpleasant-tasting,

often bitter foods, e.g., olives, coffee, dill pickles, often bitter foods, e.g., olives, coffee, dill pickles, martinis, etc.?martinis, etc.?

Why would a child that is abused at home react Why would a child that is abused at home react badly to a teacher who looks like her father?badly to a teacher who looks like her father?

How do we develop positive or negative reactions How do we develop positive or negative reactions to certain music, people, social activities, types of to certain music, people, social activities, types of clothes, etc. that did not affect us at first?clothes, etc. that did not affect us at first?


Considered passive learning Considered passive learning because:because: The learner is not an active The learner is not an active

participant in the learning.participant in the learning. Associations are formed without the Associations are formed without the

conscious awareness of the learner.conscious awareness of the learner. Explains the attachment of Explains the attachment of

emotional responses to situations emotional responses to situations where one would not necessarily where one would not necessarily expect an emotional response.expect an emotional response.

One More ExampleOne More Example

L’il AlbertL’il Albert John Watson’s application of Pavlov’s principles.John Watson’s application of Pavlov’s principles. The first known example of a conditioned phobia.The first known example of a conditioned phobia.

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotionhttp://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm.htm provides a copy of Watson and Rayner’s provides a copy of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) description of their conditioning of (1920) description of their conditioning of Albert. Note the very careful procedure and Albert. Note the very careful procedure and notes as they tried to be sure that the learned notes as they tried to be sure that the learned fear was associated with just the rabbit, and fear was associated with just the rabbit, and then extended to other furry items.then extended to other furry items.

learning what is it? how do we study it? how do our biology and the environment contribute to...

Documents

conditioning learning

learning bandura

context of learning

stimulus similar

similar stimulus

modern learning theorists

result of conditioning

operant conditioning