Educ

atio

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iton

dese

rtif

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ion

A T

ea

che

rrsquos

Gu

ide

desertification

Learningto combat

An

acti

vity

and

edu

cati

onal

gui

de t

o un

ders

tand

and

com

bat

the

phen

omen

on

of d

eser

tifi

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on d

evel

oped

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he U

nite

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Com

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Des

erti

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ide

The oasis nourishes the body the desert nourishes the soulhellip

ndash (Berber proverb)

desertification

Learningto combat

Desertification is a wide-ranging problem as it has both natural and human dimensionsIt generates environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources thatleads to poverty and hunger everywhere To combat desertification is to contribute tothe eradication of poverty Every one of us can get involved at our own level to combatdesertification Children who are particularly receptive and who demonstrate aspontaneous interest in questions relating to nature and the environment can be thefront line players in this collective combat To help them better understandenvironmental problems and stimulate their search for possible solutions theeducational system should promote the notion of sustainable development

Targeted to educators and their pupils during their final years at primary school thiseducational kit aims to clarify scientific knowledge on desertification Environmentalproblems present as many challenges as there are socially responsible andimaginative solutions to preserve and restore fertility in the worldrsquos drylands

We are particularly grateful to the Governments of Italy and Switzerland for their supportin the UNESCO and UNCCD Secretariat joint initiative encouragement that has helpedmake this kit a reality We hope that it will be a useful contribution to the on-goingefforts of the international community to combat desertification a phenomenon thatcan be contained once shared collective responsibility has been accepted andunderstood Famine and poverty are not inevitable Letrsquos give the present generationand those generations to come the means to preserve themselves

Koiumlchiro MatsuuraUNESCO Director General

Foreword

Hama Arba DialloUNCCD Executive Secretary

21

Contents

Teacherrsquos notes 6

Part One The Situation 9

General presentation of desertification

UNIT 1 10

What is desertification

UNITEacute 2 14

Where does desertification occur

UNIT 3 18

How does desertification occur

UNIT 4 22

Climate change and desertification

UNIT 5 26

Man and the drylands

UNIT 6 30

Dwellings of the drylands

UNIT 7 34

Water resources

UNIT 8 38

Plants

UNIT 9 42

Fauna

UNIT 10 46

Biological diversity

UNIT 11 50

Environmental consequences

of desertification

UNIT 12 54

Socio-economic consequences

of desertification

Part Two The Solutions 59

Solving the problems of desertification

UNIT 13 60

Raising awareness about the problem

UNIT 14 64

The role of the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

UNIT 15 68

Mobilizing and involving people

UNIT 16 72

Measuring and evaluating the problems

UNIT 17 76

Re-establishing a favourable environment

UNIT 18 80

Developing sustainable agricultural practices

UNIT 19 84

Utilizing renewable energies

UNIT 20 88

Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

Glossary 92

List of countries signatories tothe Convention 97

ConceptFruit of international collaboration this kit hasbeen designed by the United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) andthe Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)It seeks to demonstrate that drought anddesertification are worldwide problems affectingevery region of the planet A global effort from theinternational community is necessary to combatdesertification andor limit the effects of drought

This kit will help bring the combat againstdesertification into the classroom It is composed of five elements

1 a teacherrsquos guide

2 case studies from different regions throughoutthe world

3 a cartoon lsquoThe School Where the Magic TreeGrowsrsquo inspired from one of the case studies

4 a second cartoon lsquoThere is No Rug Big Enoughto Sweep the Desert Underrsquo created on theoccasion of the UNCCDrsquos First Conference of theParties held in Rome Italy in 1997

5 a wall poster for the classroom

Educational objectives of the kitTo improve the visibility of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

To explain in simple terms the content of the UNCCD

To provide teachers with a solid educationalfoundation on the themes of desertification

To encourage teachers and pupils to act locally to combat desertification

To contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on the theme of desertification

To present case studies intended to give teachersconcrete examples of projects undertakenconforming to the objectives and within the spiritof the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification

To demonstrate that desertification although aserious problem can be tackled in a fun andexciting way This is the role of the two cartoonsincluded in the kit

Beneficaries of the kitThe kit is especially aimed at teachers and theirpupils at the end of primary school education

How to use The teacherrsquos guide(this document) The educational guide contained in this kit isaddressed to teachers around the world living inareas affected by or under threat fromdesertification For this reason the guide shouldbe seen as a general presentation to be adaptedto the specific realities and preoccupations ofeach region or country The guide begins with thedifferent problems of desertification which theteachers could integrate into lessons (faunaflora crop varieties or rearing methods of landexploitation socio-economic problems etc) Itpresents the major objectives of the Conventionand proposes several solutions to combatdesertification

ndash Presentation by unit The guide is composed of work units providingreferences for thought and activities for teachersand pupils with each work unit presenting atheme that contributes to the elaboration of smalllocal projects The teacher could compile thelesson by using several units depending onhisher time schedule and could support eachunit with hisher own experiences and problemsencountered locally without neglecting to explainthe problems and specificities of other countriesAfter each lesson it would be useful to providethe pupils with a short summary of the mostimportant points

Teacherrsquos notes

6

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d Ea

rth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESCO

1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

ers

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d E

arth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat

An

acti

vity

and

edu

cati

onal

gui

de t

o un

ders

tand

and

com

bat

the

phen

omen

on

of d

eser

tifi

cati

on d

evel

oped

fro

m t

he U

nite

d N

atio

ns C

onve

ntio

n to

Com

bat

Des

erti

fica

tion

A T

ea

che

rrsquos

Gu

ide

The oasis nourishes the body the desert nourishes the soulhellip

ndash (Berber proverb)

desertification

Learningto combat

Desertification is a wide-ranging problem as it has both natural and human dimensionsIt generates environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources thatleads to poverty and hunger everywhere To combat desertification is to contribute tothe eradication of poverty Every one of us can get involved at our own level to combatdesertification Children who are particularly receptive and who demonstrate aspontaneous interest in questions relating to nature and the environment can be thefront line players in this collective combat To help them better understandenvironmental problems and stimulate their search for possible solutions theeducational system should promote the notion of sustainable development

Targeted to educators and their pupils during their final years at primary school thiseducational kit aims to clarify scientific knowledge on desertification Environmentalproblems present as many challenges as there are socially responsible andimaginative solutions to preserve and restore fertility in the worldrsquos drylands

We are particularly grateful to the Governments of Italy and Switzerland for their supportin the UNESCO and UNCCD Secretariat joint initiative encouragement that has helpedmake this kit a reality We hope that it will be a useful contribution to the on-goingefforts of the international community to combat desertification a phenomenon thatcan be contained once shared collective responsibility has been accepted andunderstood Famine and poverty are not inevitable Letrsquos give the present generationand those generations to come the means to preserve themselves

Koiumlchiro MatsuuraUNESCO Director General

Foreword

Hama Arba DialloUNCCD Executive Secretary

21

Contents

Teacherrsquos notes 6

Part One The Situation 9

General presentation of desertification

UNIT 1 10

What is desertification

UNITEacute 2 14

Where does desertification occur

UNIT 3 18

How does desertification occur

UNIT 4 22

Climate change and desertification

UNIT 5 26

Man and the drylands

UNIT 6 30

Dwellings of the drylands

UNIT 7 34

Water resources

UNIT 8 38

Plants

UNIT 9 42

Fauna

UNIT 10 46

Biological diversity

UNIT 11 50

Environmental consequences

of desertification

UNIT 12 54

Socio-economic consequences

of desertification

Part Two The Solutions 59

Solving the problems of desertification

UNIT 13 60

Raising awareness about the problem

UNIT 14 64

The role of the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

UNIT 15 68

Mobilizing and involving people

UNIT 16 72

Measuring and evaluating the problems

UNIT 17 76

Re-establishing a favourable environment

UNIT 18 80

Developing sustainable agricultural practices

UNIT 19 84

Utilizing renewable energies

UNIT 20 88

Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

Glossary 92

List of countries signatories tothe Convention 97

ConceptFruit of international collaboration this kit hasbeen designed by the United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) andthe Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)It seeks to demonstrate that drought anddesertification are worldwide problems affectingevery region of the planet A global effort from theinternational community is necessary to combatdesertification andor limit the effects of drought

This kit will help bring the combat againstdesertification into the classroom It is composed of five elements

1 a teacherrsquos guide

2 case studies from different regions throughoutthe world

3 a cartoon lsquoThe School Where the Magic TreeGrowsrsquo inspired from one of the case studies

4 a second cartoon lsquoThere is No Rug Big Enoughto Sweep the Desert Underrsquo created on theoccasion of the UNCCDrsquos First Conference of theParties held in Rome Italy in 1997

5 a wall poster for the classroom

Educational objectives of the kitTo improve the visibility of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

To explain in simple terms the content of the UNCCD

To provide teachers with a solid educationalfoundation on the themes of desertification

To encourage teachers and pupils to act locally to combat desertification

To contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on the theme of desertification

To present case studies intended to give teachersconcrete examples of projects undertakenconforming to the objectives and within the spiritof the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification

To demonstrate that desertification although aserious problem can be tackled in a fun andexciting way This is the role of the two cartoonsincluded in the kit

Beneficaries of the kitThe kit is especially aimed at teachers and theirpupils at the end of primary school education

How to use The teacherrsquos guide(this document) The educational guide contained in this kit isaddressed to teachers around the world living inareas affected by or under threat fromdesertification For this reason the guide shouldbe seen as a general presentation to be adaptedto the specific realities and preoccupations ofeach region or country The guide begins with thedifferent problems of desertification which theteachers could integrate into lessons (faunaflora crop varieties or rearing methods of landexploitation socio-economic problems etc) Itpresents the major objectives of the Conventionand proposes several solutions to combatdesertification

ndash Presentation by unit The guide is composed of work units providingreferences for thought and activities for teachersand pupils with each work unit presenting atheme that contributes to the elaboration of smalllocal projects The teacher could compile thelesson by using several units depending onhisher time schedule and could support eachunit with hisher own experiences and problemsencountered locally without neglecting to explainthe problems and specificities of other countriesAfter each lesson it would be useful to providethe pupils with a short summary of the mostimportant points

Teacherrsquos notes

6

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d Ea

rth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESCO

1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

ers

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d E

arth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat

Desertification is a wide-ranging problem as it has both natural and human dimensionsIt generates environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources thatleads to poverty and hunger everywhere To combat desertification is to contribute tothe eradication of poverty Every one of us can get involved at our own level to combatdesertification Children who are particularly receptive and who demonstrate aspontaneous interest in questions relating to nature and the environment can be thefront line players in this collective combat To help them better understandenvironmental problems and stimulate their search for possible solutions theeducational system should promote the notion of sustainable development

Targeted to educators and their pupils during their final years at primary school thiseducational kit aims to clarify scientific knowledge on desertification Environmentalproblems present as many challenges as there are socially responsible andimaginative solutions to preserve and restore fertility in the worldrsquos drylands

We are particularly grateful to the Governments of Italy and Switzerland for their supportin the UNESCO and UNCCD Secretariat joint initiative encouragement that has helpedmake this kit a reality We hope that it will be a useful contribution to the on-goingefforts of the international community to combat desertification a phenomenon thatcan be contained once shared collective responsibility has been accepted andunderstood Famine and poverty are not inevitable Letrsquos give the present generationand those generations to come the means to preserve themselves

Koiumlchiro MatsuuraUNESCO Director General

Foreword

Hama Arba DialloUNCCD Executive Secretary

21

Contents

Teacherrsquos notes 6

Part One The Situation 9

General presentation of desertification

UNIT 1 10

What is desertification

UNITEacute 2 14

Where does desertification occur

UNIT 3 18

How does desertification occur

UNIT 4 22

Climate change and desertification

UNIT 5 26

Man and the drylands

UNIT 6 30

Dwellings of the drylands

UNIT 7 34

Water resources

UNIT 8 38

Plants

UNIT 9 42

Fauna

UNIT 10 46

Biological diversity

UNIT 11 50

Environmental consequences

of desertification

UNIT 12 54

Socio-economic consequences

of desertification

Part Two The Solutions 59

Solving the problems of desertification

UNIT 13 60

Raising awareness about the problem

UNIT 14 64

The role of the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

UNIT 15 68

Mobilizing and involving people

UNIT 16 72

Measuring and evaluating the problems

UNIT 17 76

Re-establishing a favourable environment

UNIT 18 80

Developing sustainable agricultural practices

UNIT 19 84

Utilizing renewable energies

UNIT 20 88

Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

Glossary 92

List of countries signatories tothe Convention 97

ConceptFruit of international collaboration this kit hasbeen designed by the United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) andthe Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)It seeks to demonstrate that drought anddesertification are worldwide problems affectingevery region of the planet A global effort from theinternational community is necessary to combatdesertification andor limit the effects of drought

This kit will help bring the combat againstdesertification into the classroom It is composed of five elements

1 a teacherrsquos guide

2 case studies from different regions throughoutthe world

3 a cartoon lsquoThe School Where the Magic TreeGrowsrsquo inspired from one of the case studies

4 a second cartoon lsquoThere is No Rug Big Enoughto Sweep the Desert Underrsquo created on theoccasion of the UNCCDrsquos First Conference of theParties held in Rome Italy in 1997

5 a wall poster for the classroom

Educational objectives of the kitTo improve the visibility of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

To explain in simple terms the content of the UNCCD

To provide teachers with a solid educationalfoundation on the themes of desertification

To encourage teachers and pupils to act locally to combat desertification

To contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on the theme of desertification

To present case studies intended to give teachersconcrete examples of projects undertakenconforming to the objectives and within the spiritof the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification

To demonstrate that desertification although aserious problem can be tackled in a fun andexciting way This is the role of the two cartoonsincluded in the kit

Beneficaries of the kitThe kit is especially aimed at teachers and theirpupils at the end of primary school education

How to use The teacherrsquos guide(this document) The educational guide contained in this kit isaddressed to teachers around the world living inareas affected by or under threat fromdesertification For this reason the guide shouldbe seen as a general presentation to be adaptedto the specific realities and preoccupations ofeach region or country The guide begins with thedifferent problems of desertification which theteachers could integrate into lessons (faunaflora crop varieties or rearing methods of landexploitation socio-economic problems etc) Itpresents the major objectives of the Conventionand proposes several solutions to combatdesertification

ndash Presentation by unit The guide is composed of work units providingreferences for thought and activities for teachersand pupils with each work unit presenting atheme that contributes to the elaboration of smalllocal projects The teacher could compile thelesson by using several units depending onhisher time schedule and could support eachunit with hisher own experiences and problemsencountered locally without neglecting to explainthe problems and specificities of other countriesAfter each lesson it would be useful to providethe pupils with a short summary of the mostimportant points

Teacherrsquos notes

6

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d Ea

rth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESCO

1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

ers

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d E

arth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat

21

Contents

Teacherrsquos notes 6

Part One The Situation 9

General presentation of desertification

UNIT 1 10

What is desertification

UNITEacute 2 14

Where does desertification occur

UNIT 3 18

How does desertification occur

UNIT 4 22

Climate change and desertification

UNIT 5 26

Man and the drylands

UNIT 6 30

Dwellings of the drylands

UNIT 7 34

Water resources

UNIT 8 38

Plants

UNIT 9 42

Fauna

UNIT 10 46

Biological diversity

UNIT 11 50

Environmental consequences

of desertification

UNIT 12 54

Socio-economic consequences

of desertification

Part Two The Solutions 59

Solving the problems of desertification

UNIT 13 60

Raising awareness about the problem

UNIT 14 64

The role of the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

UNIT 15 68

Mobilizing and involving people

UNIT 16 72

Measuring and evaluating the problems

UNIT 17 76

Re-establishing a favourable environment

UNIT 18 80

Developing sustainable agricultural practices

UNIT 19 84

Utilizing renewable energies

UNIT 20 88

Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

Glossary 92

List of countries signatories tothe Convention 97

ConceptFruit of international collaboration this kit hasbeen designed by the United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) andthe Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)It seeks to demonstrate that drought anddesertification are worldwide problems affectingevery region of the planet A global effort from theinternational community is necessary to combatdesertification andor limit the effects of drought

This kit will help bring the combat againstdesertification into the classroom It is composed of five elements

1 a teacherrsquos guide

2 case studies from different regions throughoutthe world

3 a cartoon lsquoThe School Where the Magic TreeGrowsrsquo inspired from one of the case studies

4 a second cartoon lsquoThere is No Rug Big Enoughto Sweep the Desert Underrsquo created on theoccasion of the UNCCDrsquos First Conference of theParties held in Rome Italy in 1997

5 a wall poster for the classroom

Educational objectives of the kitTo improve the visibility of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

To explain in simple terms the content of the UNCCD

To provide teachers with a solid educationalfoundation on the themes of desertification

To encourage teachers and pupils to act locally to combat desertification

To contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on the theme of desertification

To present case studies intended to give teachersconcrete examples of projects undertakenconforming to the objectives and within the spiritof the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification

To demonstrate that desertification although aserious problem can be tackled in a fun andexciting way This is the role of the two cartoonsincluded in the kit

Beneficaries of the kitThe kit is especially aimed at teachers and theirpupils at the end of primary school education

How to use The teacherrsquos guide(this document) The educational guide contained in this kit isaddressed to teachers around the world living inareas affected by or under threat fromdesertification For this reason the guide shouldbe seen as a general presentation to be adaptedto the specific realities and preoccupations ofeach region or country The guide begins with thedifferent problems of desertification which theteachers could integrate into lessons (faunaflora crop varieties or rearing methods of landexploitation socio-economic problems etc) Itpresents the major objectives of the Conventionand proposes several solutions to combatdesertification

ndash Presentation by unit The guide is composed of work units providingreferences for thought and activities for teachersand pupils with each work unit presenting atheme that contributes to the elaboration of smalllocal projects The teacher could compile thelesson by using several units depending onhisher time schedule and could support eachunit with hisher own experiences and problemsencountered locally without neglecting to explainthe problems and specificities of other countriesAfter each lesson it would be useful to providethe pupils with a short summary of the mostimportant points

Teacherrsquos notes

6

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d Ea

rth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESCO

1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

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ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat

ConceptFruit of international collaboration this kit hasbeen designed by the United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) andthe Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)It seeks to demonstrate that drought anddesertification are worldwide problems affectingevery region of the planet A global effort from theinternational community is necessary to combatdesertification andor limit the effects of drought

This kit will help bring the combat againstdesertification into the classroom It is composed of five elements

1 a teacherrsquos guide

2 case studies from different regions throughoutthe world

3 a cartoon lsquoThe School Where the Magic TreeGrowsrsquo inspired from one of the case studies

4 a second cartoon lsquoThere is No Rug Big Enoughto Sweep the Desert Underrsquo created on theoccasion of the UNCCDrsquos First Conference of theParties held in Rome Italy in 1997

5 a wall poster for the classroom

Educational objectives of the kitTo improve the visibility of the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

To explain in simple terms the content of the UNCCD

To provide teachers with a solid educationalfoundation on the themes of desertification

To encourage teachers and pupils to act locally to combat desertification

To contribute to the diffusion of knowledge on the theme of desertification

To present case studies intended to give teachersconcrete examples of projects undertakenconforming to the objectives and within the spiritof the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification

To demonstrate that desertification although aserious problem can be tackled in a fun andexciting way This is the role of the two cartoonsincluded in the kit

Beneficaries of the kitThe kit is especially aimed at teachers and theirpupils at the end of primary school education

How to use The teacherrsquos guide(this document) The educational guide contained in this kit isaddressed to teachers around the world living inareas affected by or under threat fromdesertification For this reason the guide shouldbe seen as a general presentation to be adaptedto the specific realities and preoccupations ofeach region or country The guide begins with thedifferent problems of desertification which theteachers could integrate into lessons (faunaflora crop varieties or rearing methods of landexploitation socio-economic problems etc) Itpresents the major objectives of the Conventionand proposes several solutions to combatdesertification

ndash Presentation by unit The guide is composed of work units providingreferences for thought and activities for teachersand pupils with each work unit presenting atheme that contributes to the elaboration of smalllocal projects The teacher could compile thelesson by using several units depending onhisher time schedule and could support eachunit with hisher own experiences and problemsencountered locally without neglecting to explainthe problems and specificities of other countriesAfter each lesson it would be useful to providethe pupils with a short summary of the mostimportant points

Teacherrsquos notes

6

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

ann

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from

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ESCO

1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

ers

copy Y

ann

Art

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d E

arth

from

Abo

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UN

ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat

ndash Classroom ActivitiesThe class activities at the end of each unit canideally be integrated throughout the schoolcurriculum through the diverse subjects that actas a support to this teaching geography naturalsciences maths writing and oral skills historygardening art theatre music and song sportand nature excursions While they are onlysuggestions everyone should take the initiativeto adapt them to the specific geographic andsocio-economic situation encountered locally(characteristics of your natural and humanenvironment production systems etc) and to theteacherrsquos work schedule

ndash PartnershipsIt is recommended that before beginning a unitpartnerships be forged thus providing input toenhance lessons (in class or outdoor activities)Teachers could invite fauna and flora specialistswho could present the results of their researchwork The participation of elders and parents isalso recommended Invite and involve familieswho may require information to consolidate theirknowledge so they can become involved inexisting or future development projects whilesharing their experiences Surprise your pupils bytaking unexpected initiatives They could proveproductive

ndash GlossaryWords or expressions underlined throughout thetext are explained at the end of the guide

The case studies (accompanying document)The commitment by pupils to undertake smallschool projects is the challenge posed by the kitBy way of concrete and successful examples theteacher can draw upon each of the case studiesthat comprise the compilation which have allbeen carried out within the spirit of the UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification andconform to its objectives The teacher mayaccompany classroom lessons on desertificationby using these positive examples Attentivereading of the case studies should provide theteacher with the required knowledge base in thefield of combating desertification They areintended to encourage children to adopt anenvironmentally friendly attitude towards the rarenatural resources found in their region and theirnatural world The global approach of this

collection presenting both the causes andconsequences of desertification as well as thepossible solutions in the different continentsaffected by desertification aims to raiseawareness among the pupils to the universalcharacter of environmental problems In additioncomparing methods employed by different peoplewill help all those concerned to think globallyenlarging the horizons for each of them

ndash Pratical activitiesAt the end of each case study classroom activitiesare proposed to help the teacher incorporate thecase studies throughout the course Whendiscussing a particular project in class theteacher could invite the children to respond byasking them to locate the country on the map andcompare the situations to those featured in thestudy Finally tasks including drawingassignments question and answer discussionsand role-playing could be assigned tocomplement the classroom activities

ndash GlossaryThe words underlined throughout the text areexplained in the glossary at the end of thecollection

The cartoons (accompanying documents)The two cartoons demonstrate that despite theseriousness of desertification the subject can beapproached in an attractive way that encouragesfun The cartoons are intended for the pupils The cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough toSweep the Desert Under has been reprinted froma previous version produced within theframework of the First Conference of the Partiesof the UNCCD held in Rome Italy in 1997The cartoon The School Where the Magic TreeGrows is a loose adaptation of a case studycarried out by a NGO lsquoJUNDEPrsquo that set up aschool nursery project to combat desertificationin Chile

The wall poster (accompanying document)The poster is designed to visually present thedifferent regions of the world affected bydesertification It also proposes several simpletechniques to combat desertification

7

1The situationGeneral presentation of desertification

copy Y

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1

Definition of desertificationIs Earth our planet losing its name The earth is being degraded According toestimates 24 billion tons of fertile soil disappear annually and over the past 20years the surface area lost is equal to all of the farmland of the United Statesof America Roughly one third of the worldrsquos land surface is threatened bydesertification or put in another way desertification already affects one quarterof the total land surface of the globe today

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines the termdesertification as lsquoland degradation in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areasresulting from various factors including climatic variations and humanactivitiesrsquo (UNCCD Art1a) Desertification is a dynamic process that is observedin dry and fragile ecosystems It affects terrestrial areas (topsoil earthgroundwater reserves surface run-off) animal and plant populations as wellas human settlements and their amenities (for instance terraces and dams)

What is desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the phenomenon of desertification

10

1

gt

The causesThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification adopted a definition ofdesertification that attributes the causes ofthis phenomenon to both climatic variationsand human activities It addslsquodesertification is caused by complexinteractions among physical biologicalpolitical social cultural and economicfactorsrsquo

Climatic variations High and sustainedtemperatures lasting for months withinfrequent and irregular rainfall leads todrought with the effect that vegetation hasdifficulty growing This natural phenomenonoccurs when rainfall is less than the averagerecorded levels As a result severehydrological imbalances jeopardizeproduction systems

Human activities in countries where majoreconomic resources are dependent onagricultural activities there are few or noalternative sources of income Soils becomedamaged through excessive use whenfarmers neglect or reduce fallow periodsnecessary to sufficiently produce enoughfood to feed the population This in turncauses soil to lose organic matter limitingplant growth and reducing vegetation coveras a consequence The bare soils are thusmore vulnerable to the effects of erosion

When violent winds and heavy downpoursdestroy the vegetation which is then carriedaway by the sudden gushes of water theharvests tend to be poorer and the livestock

suffer they eventually becomemalnourished As a consequence theincome of the rural communities diminishesAccording to the Convention landdegradation brings about a decline or an endto soil productivity vegetation arable andgrazing lands as well as forests In the mostextreme cases hunger and poverty set inand become both the cause andconsequence of land degradation

11

1 Dead trees in India copy Carole Equer UNESCO

2 Sahelian landscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Village close to Gao in Mali The landsurrounding populatedareas is particularlydegradedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Forest fires in thesouth-west of Bouakeacutein Cocircte drsquoIvoirecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Desertification is caused by the complexinteractions between physical biologicalsocial cultural and economic factorsSpontaneous or human induced bush and forest fires can severely degrade theenvironment

2 3

4

United actionCombating desertification requires acoherent and co-ordinated policy that bringstogether the means and know-how of allthose involved It is within this frameworkthat governments around the world havedeveloped the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (See Unit 14)

The Convention is an agreement betweendeveloped and developing countries on theneed for a global team effort to addressdesertification It includes specific nationalcommitments for concrete action at the locallevel where the combat againstdesertification must primarily andvigourously be fought

Actions to undertake to combatdesertificationCombating desertification comprisesactivities that improve lands in arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas with a view tosustainable development (See Unit 17)Objectives include

anticipating andor limiting landdegradation

repairing degraded land

raising awareness and informing thosewho are affected by the problems ofdesertification at all levels

improving the social contextcombating poverty improvingeducation and health conditionsdeveloping knowledge of sustainablemanagement practices and naturalresources eradicating military conflictsthat kill men and destroy theenvironment

15 California in the USA

Coachella Valley Mecca HillsDesertification is a globalphenomenon that affects everycontinent regardless of its level of economic development In developed regions such asCalifornia eroded areas and land degradation are also found copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5

What is desertification

12

The moment has arrived tobegin your wall chart

All the pupils are invited toparticipate in classroomactivities drawing writingcollages etc

They will be proposedthroughout the desertificationcourse and can be added tothe desertification wall chartBegin by tracing the contoursof the worldrsquos continents on alarge piece of blank paper(See world map on thedesertification poster)

Each pupil writes on aseparate piece of paper a wordthat symbolizes the desertThe pieces of paper are thenfolded and collected

A pupil then selects one ofthem by chance and draws onthe blackboard in the form of a pictogram the wordcorresponding to the desertThe class must guess theword

Each pupil can begin hisherdesertification notebook bywriting down activities oncombating desertification

The pupils can also drawpaint and paste photos abouttheir environment and on thedesert in their notebook

Ask the pupils to definedesertification at thebeginning of their notebook

13

Classroom

Surface area of the worldrsquos drylandsAlmost half of the terrestrial land surfaceequal to 645 billion hectares is made up of drylands (47 according to the WorldAtlas of Desertification UNEP 1997) They are distributed among all the greatregions of the planet One billion hectares is hyper-arid these arereal deserts such as the Sahara 545 billionhectares are made up of arid semi-arid andsub-humid areas Desertification occurs inthis part of the planet These areas areinhabited by one fifth of the worldrsquospopulation or 12 billion inhabitants in theyear 2000 It is heremdash where the soils areespecially fragile vegetation is sparse andthe climate particularly unforgivingmdash thatdesertification takes place (Land degradationoccurs everywhere but can only be definedas lsquodesertificationrsquo when it occurs in thedrylands) Some 70 of the 52 billionhectares of drylands used for agriculturearound the world are already degraded Thus desertification now damages practicallyone quarter of the total land surface area of the world

Characteristics of the drylandsThe worldrsquos drylands are particularlyaffected by desertification On an environmental basis these regionsare defined by

low precipitation that is infrequentirregular and unpredictable

large variations between day and nighttemperatures

soil that is poor in organic matter

lack of water for consumption

plants and animals adapted to climaticvariables (heat resistance lack ofwater)

The drylands are comprised of arid semi-arid and sub-humid areas the differencebeing in their degree of aridity Aridity is the result of the interaction between variousclimatic factors (rain temperature wind)and evapo-transpiration These elementscombine together to determine the growth of plants and the capacities of animals orhumans to live fittingly in a harsh naturalenvironment

14

2Where does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To identify regions affected by desertification

1

gt

2

15

1 Gobi desert in Chinacopy Yazid Tizi

2 Sand dunes close to Ica in Perucopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3 Kaokoland region in Namibia a general view of Himbas countrycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

4 Nevada in the USA golf in the middle of the desert north of Las Vegascopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

3

equator

Hyper arid

Arid

Semi-arid

Dry Subhumid

Humid

Cold climate

World Map of Aridity Zones

Source CRU UEA UNEP DEWA

4

2Different categories of drylandsThere are four main categories that aredistinguished by their temperatures and rain cycles

Hyper-arid regions rainfall is less than 100 mmyearDrought periods can last longer than ayear Biological productivity is low andthe sole viable activity is nomadicpastoralism

Arid regions generally rainfall does not exceed 200mmyear These regions arecharacterized by farming (sedentary ornomadic) and irrigated agriculture

Semi-arid regions rainfall does not exceed 500 mmyearin areas of winter rains or 800mmyear in areas of summer rainsThese regions are characterized bycattle-rearing and sedentaryagriculture

Dry sub-humid regions rainfall cycles are highly seasonalThese regions are characterized byrain-fed agriculture As with semi-aridregions they are particularlyvulnerable to the phenomenon ofdesertification due to pressure fromthe rising population

These regions undergo the sameprocesses of degradation as a result ofnatural resource over-exploitation andare all characterized by watershortages

Desertification in the drylandsIn all more than 110 countries have drylandsthat are potentially at risk In Africa a billionhectares or 73 of its drylands are affectedby desertification with another 14 billionhectares affected in Asia But it is not just aproblem for developing countries in fact thecontinent that has the highest proportion ofdrylands subject to desertification is NorthAmerica with 74 affected Five countries ofthe European Union are also affected whilemany of the most affected areas are in theformer Soviet Union

Where does desertification occur

5 Ayers Rock Uluru in Australia sand dunescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

16

5

Locate your countryand your region on theworld map (See theposter)

Is your country locatedin a desertificationzone

Locate those countriesthat have arid zones andthose that do not

Select 10 words thatsymbolize the desert

Write a poem usingthese 10 words

On the world map colourthe arid regions in yellowand write the names of thecorresponding countries (ormake and stick country flagson the map) in thedesertification areas

Colour the oceans in blueand the temperate zones in green

What do you notice

On a ball or a sphere madeof paper macheacute draw thecontinents and their desertswith a felt tip pen whilerespecting their dimensions

Decorate the colourful globeby painting the ball andglue sand for the desertareas

You could also use an orangeor any round fruit toachieve the same effect

17

Classroom

3

Over-exploitation of natural resourcesDesertification is the accumulated result ofill-adapted land use and the effects of aharsh climate Four human activitiesrepresent the most immediate causes over-cultivation exhausts the soil overgrazingremoves the vegetation cover that protects itfrom erosion deforestation destroys thetrees that bind the soil to the land and

poorly drained irrigation systems turncroplands salty Moreover the lack ofeducation and knowledge the movement ofrefugees in the case of war the unfavourabletrade conditions of developing countries andother socio-economic and political factorsenhance the effects of desertification The causes are multiple and interact in acomplex manner

3How does desertification occurOBJECTIVE To explain the causes and factors that lead to desertificationgt

2

18

Mato Grosso in Brazil extensive deforestation to the north of Cacegraveres copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

1

3

2 Bush fires often have alarming anddevastating effects on largeplanted areas They are oftenstarted spontaneously but areoccasionally started by people toimprove visibility during huntingor to clear land for cultivationcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Overgrazing is one of the principalcauses of desertification When the herds are too numerouscompared to the availablevegetation the vegetation isunable to regeneratecopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Katiola in the Cocircte drsquoIvoirediamond mines or precious metalopen quarries are a cause ofdesertification Large surfaces arecleared and turned upside downhundreds of metres into theground When the mines are thendisaffected the environment istotally destroyed rendering landrehabilitation almost impossiblecopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Due to the lack of alternative survivalstrategies farmers tend to relentlesslyexploit natural resources (food crops waterfor drinking and washing firewood) to thepoint that they are often over-exploited andcannot regenerate naturally Soil nutrientsand organic matter begin to diminish asintensive agriculture removes quantities ofnutrients greater than the soilrsquos naturalregeneration capacities As a consequencethe soil is unable to recover as it doesduring fallow periods resulting is an ever-increasing spiral of environmentaldegradation and poverty the principalcauses of desertification

The principal causes exacerbating landdegradation derives from the farmersrsquodetermination to maximize soil productivitywhich include

crops cultivated in areas at high riskfrom drought

shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

insufficient use of fertilizer afterharvesting

inadequate crop rotation or worsemonoculture

intensive labour

intense breeding and overgrazing withpressure on vegetation and soiltrampling by livestock

separation of cattle rearing andagriculture eliminating a source of natural fertilizer or organic matter(cattle dung) used to regenerate the soil

deforestation

bush and forest fires

in mountainous regions crops arecultivated along the downward slopingface rather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain

deterioration of terraces and other soiland water conservation techniques

19

4

Deforestation and energyThe use of firewood is one of the principalcauses of desertification In tropical aridareas wood is the principal source ofdomestic energy for cooking and lightingboth in rural and urban populations In order to limit the need for deforestationonly renewable sources of energy (hydraulic wind solar) and gas and petrolshould be encouraged as it can replacewood consumptionDue to the lack of water in the drylandsforest regeneration is very slow reducingthe dynamic growth of vegetation Howeverallowing for rest periods from grazing andincreasing fallow periods generally havespectacular regenerating effects on theforest

Population growthSince the middle of the 20th century manycountries have experienced significantpopulation growth (a greater number ofchildren are born while infant mortalitydecreases slightly but also people tend tolive longer) As a result the rate ofpopulation growth is often high between 2and 3 a year meaning that in certaincountries the population will double withinthe next 20 to 30 years and with it a growingpopulation to feed The ensuing increase inagricultural pressure on land with the addedeffect that the soil in the drylands is notgiven sufficient time to recover leads to aneventual drop in productivity Paradoxallyhuman intervention is required to regeneratedegraded lands People have both the abilityto destroy the land and the capacity torestore and rehabilitate their environment

5 Deforestation is a major cause ofdesertification In dry tropical zones woodis the principal source of domestic energyand is also used in construction In this way large tracts of forest aredestroyed In the drylands forestregeneration is very slow because of waterscarcity copy UNESCO-MAB

3How does desertification occur

5

20

Ask your grandparents how manyinhabitants there were in yourvillagetown when they were yourage Find out how many people livein your villagetown today On a piece of graph paper draw agraph with the years shown alongthe horizontal axis and the size ofthe population shown along thevertical axis Show the evolution of thepopulation in your villagetown onthe graph (See diagram) Has the population increased ordecreased Why What are the environmental andeconomical consequences in yourregion

Ask your grandparents if there aremore or less trees in your area todaycompared to the number of trees when they were your age Are deforestation activities takingplace in your region If so why Is the wood needed for providingenergy Are wooded areas cleared for agriculture In your view what should be done tohalt these activities Are there any alternatives

Calculate the averagenumber of children perfamily in your class Is the number more or lessthan the average numberof children observed inyour grandparentsrsquogeneration What do you think are thereasons for the rise or fallof the population

21

25 000

Years

Population

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0

1940 1960 1980 2000

A graphic example of population growth

Classroom

4Climate change and desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce climatic change and its effects on desertificationgt

The climate of the planet has changed over the course of history Variations in aridand humid climates have been observed in most regions of the planet Thus adesert today could have been a humid and fertile zone in the past and is still inthe process of evolving Moreover todayrsquos forests originally developed from low-lying vegetation made up of grasses and shrubs However if man continues toover-exploit forest resources and influence the climat by gas emissions whoknows what will remain of the forests in the next few decades

2

22

1

The evolution of climateIn arid regions the observed climaticinstability is an unpredictable and complexphenomenon mainly attributed to humanactivity and in particular to gas emissionswhich seem to influence the global warmingof the planet (a phenomenon known as thegreenhouse effect)

The influence of man onclimate change The intensification of human activities inpart from petrol and coal combustion andalso from firewood used for cooking resultsin an ever-increasing quantity of greenhouse

gases being released into the atmosphere(trapping energy) Other sources of gasinclude nitrogen-containing products used inintensive agriculture such as fertilizersLa conseacutequence de lrsquoaugmentation de lrsquoeffetde serre est un reacutechauffement global de laplanegravete Global warming is a consequence of theescalation of the greenhouse effect on theplanet A rise of a few degrees leads to themelting of snow at the poles and on mountainpeaks generating changes in climate thatproduce a rise in sea level (that threatenislands and low lying coastal regions) Stormsand floods variations in mean temperaturesand changes in rain cycles and drought areadditional pressures that can lead to famineand other catastrophes

The greenhouse effect Earth (1) receives thermal energy from the sun (2)Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer theatmosphere (3) protecting us from the ultravioletrays from the sun A portion of the energy isreflected by Earth and returns to the atmosphere(47) A portion is lsquotrappedrsquo by the atmosphere andreturns to Earth (6) Earthrsquos radiation and thermicenergy contributes to the heating of the atmosphereand as a consequence the average temperature risesSeveral gases contribute to the greenhouse effect(trapping energy) water vapour carbonic gases ornaturally occurring carbon dioxide (from plant andanimal respiration) methane (from swampfermentation termite mounds and cattle-producedmethane) nitrogen oxide ozone etc These gaseseither occur naturally or come from human activityprincipally from the combustion of fossil fuels(petrol gas)

3 4

1 Region of Swakopmundin Namibiacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 4 Paintings ofrhinoceros giraffes andelephants on the cavewall in the SaharaSeveral hundred thousandyears ago the Saharanclimate was hot andhumid enabling

elephants giraffes andrhinoceros to roam inwhat today has becomedesert Paintings can alsobe found in Tassili nrsquoAjjerin Algeria where theactual climate is now toodry for these animalscopy Michel Le Berre

23

2

3

7

4

6

5

6

1

4Climate change and desertification

Global and regional variations intemperature at the ocean surface are directlylinked to rain cycles This is the case of thephenomenon known as lsquoEl Nintildeorsquo whoserelentless and devastating rains affect theeastern coast of the Americas Asia and evenAfrica

The consequences of global warming in the drylands During the course of the 20th Century theaverage temperature has risen by between03degC and 06degC This is probably due to theeffects of industrialization that hasincreased greenhouse gas emissionsAnalysis of the consequences of this rise hasled scientists to believe that temperatures inthe drylands will rise by 2degC to 5degC everytime the concentration of greenhouse gasesdoubles a phenomenon expected to occursome time during the middle of the nextcentury

The general rise in temperature willpredictably raise the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to a drop in soilhumidity and an increase in the number ofdroughts The deterioration in the condition of topsoilparticularly in the drylands is aconsequence of temperature variationsrainfall and soil humidity that exacerbate theprocess of desertification

However it is very difficult to predict rainfallpatterns for any given region underconsideration Another Convention theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change adopted in 1992 is dedicatedto finding solutions to global warming

24

5 Mauritania cattle among the dunes close to KiffaYann Arthus-Bertrand

Earth from Above UNESCO

5

The wind is one factor thatcauses soil erosion Can you cite the principalnames of the winds in yourcountry If you can indicate them onthe world map as well astheir wind direction

Place a small low-lying plant(with its roots) inside a glassjar or a transparent plasticbag for a whole day What do you notice on theinside of the jarbag Explain the phenomenon

Does the sun shine brightly in your countryTry this experiment place a pieceof metal wood and plasticoutdoors for a few hours What do you notice when youtouch them Be careful theymay be hot Try this several times during theyear and at different times ofthe day Write down the results to learnand understand how muchvariation there is (or isnrsquot)according to the climatic cycle in your country

Repeat the experiment with a quantity of water in eachreceptacle or bowl made ofthe above mentionedmaterials Is there a difference in thetemperature of the water Which receptacle absorbsmore heat (and thereforeenergy)

25

Classroom

5Man and the drylands

OBJECTIVE To discover how man has adapted to the drylandsgt

It appears that the history ofhumanity began in Africa more thanone million years ago Successive periods of migrationled progressively to the colonizationof all Earthrsquos regions including theharsh and unforgiving areas thatare the drylands

The drylands thecradle of civilizationsThe drylands societies have developedtraditional systems of territorial planningand management in order to benefit as muchas possible from the diversity of availableresources In the various drylands this hasbecome a question of survival Since thedawn of humanity drylands have beensignificant centres of societal developmentThe drylands of the Middle East has beenthe cradle of pastoralism since Neolithictimes and the centre of agriculturaldevelopment Drylands such asMesopotamia Egypt and the easternMediterranean demonstrate the earliestforms of urban civilization borne more than8000 years ago and from which the notionof a centralized state developed Up untilvery recently the drylands have alsopreserved cultures of hunters and gathererssuch as populations of Australian aboriginesand Boschimans from Southern Africa These civilizations maintained theirtraditional lifestyles over a long period oftime as they exercised only limited pressureon their environment

1

1 The Berkouchi of Kazakhstan are nomads that hunt with trained andtamed eagles copy Yazid Tizi

26

2 3

Nomadism a lifestyle adapted to the drylandsNomads are herders who migrate throughoutthe year looking for watering holes andpasture for their animals in a way that allowsthem to utilize the limited resources of theirenvironment over several weeks or months

Traditional nomadic societies are generallyassociated with pastoralism ortranshumance Herds are made up ofanimals that are adapted to the drylandsdromedaries camels goats sheep horsesdonkeys cows llamas alpaca etc Theseanimals who can endure thirst for severaldays are unaffected by adverse and variabletemperatures and do not need shelteragainst the wind or bad weather Certainamong them can also transform vegetationof low nutritive value (straw from grasses)into meat and milk and can store fatreserves in their tail or back

They are used for the transport of goodslabour the functioning of mills and noriasand for the production of milk meat andwool They are also used to create craftgoods from leather wool bone fat etc Nomads also cultivate land and set up smallcultivation plots in hospitable areas In pre-Saharan areas they generally sowbarley while in Central Asia millet andwatermelon are grown

4

4 Camel caravans at Nouakchott in Mauritaniapastoral nomadism provides the populations with aneffective means to manage natural resources in thedrylands The caravan a characteristic of all drylandsand in particular in Africa and Asia is at the originof the great commercial exchange routes that areknown as the Silk Road in Asia and the Trans-Saharanroute in Africacopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 The displacement ofnomads enables theseasonal use of pasturesTraditional societiesgenerally associatenomadism to pastoralismand transhumance The herds are made up of animals adapted todrought conditionscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Ksar of the Anti-Atlas inMorocco over the courseof the centuries man hasevolved in response to theharsh living conditions inthe drylands bydeveloping social andagricultural systemsadapted to theenvironment copy Michel Le Berre

27

5Man and the drylands

Nomadic knowledgeand the developmentof commerceSeveral nomadic societies have developedan important economic activity at a timewhen sedentary nomads were still farmersThis is particularly the case in northernAfrica the Mediterranean basin and Asiawhere nomadic pastoralism provided thepopulation with resource management skillsimportant in the drylands and acquiredthrough their ability to migrate to hostile

areas Their knowledge of geography and theworkings of the natural environment allowedthem to diversify their resources The caravan originates from the drylandsand is characteristic of arid areasparticularly in Africa and Asia This commercial activity created the greatexchange routes that became the Silk Road(linking South East Asia and theMediterranean basin in Europe) and the Trans-Saharan route in Africa

5

28

5 Wells between Kidal and Timbuctoo in Mali in the drylands good natural resource management particularly water is a question of survival Here in the drylands the nomads assemble together with their herds around the well copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

Imagine you are invited tovisit a nomadic populationOne of the children wouldlike you to drive his herd

Which animals would youtake with you for two weeksand with very little water

Underline the followingcorrect phrases

bull The opposite of a nomadicpopulation is a sedentarypopulation

bull Nomads are only found inAfrica

bull Dromedaries camels andalpacas are examples of thetypes of animals reared bynomads

bull The history of the Earthbegan in Europe

bull Nomads exercise limitedpressure on theirenvironment

Are there nomadicpopulations that live in yourcountry

What are the names of thesepopulations

Do you know how they liveand the type of animals theyrear

Describe their way of life inyour notebook Estimate thedistance covered by thesenomadic populations

Make small paper cut-outwalking figures to representnomadic populations andsitting figures to representsedentary populations andpaste them to the world mapin those areas where they arepresent

29

Classroom

6Dwellings of the drylands

2

OBJECTIVE To introduce the different types of dwellings adapted to drylandsgt

30

1

1 Marsabit district inKenya nomadicdwellings constructedfrom animal skinscopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Terraced roofs in Mzaburban dwellings in theAlgerian Saharacopy Michel Le Berre

3 Kenya a mobile homestructure of a zarebacopy Gisbert Glaser

4 The yourt unchanged forcenturies can be set upin less than an hourThick layers of felt coverits willow structure itstill shelters nomadicKazakh shepherds todaycopy Gilles Santantonio

3 4

Different types of dwellings in the drylandsIn the majority of drylands masons andarchitects have developed a know-how thatallows them to utilize local resources in asustainable way while providing comfortThe dryland dwelling must meet theconstraints imposed by the climate For instance by preventing a rise in roomtemperature during the day while conservingheat at night the occupants are assured acertain comfort Other considerationsinclude wind and dust resistance Two distinct dwelling types exist dependingon whether sedentary or nomadic lifestylesare practiced In some cases both can beobserved within the same population forexample the Tuaregs Ajjer of central Saharalive under canvas during certain periods andin stone huts with thatched roofs at othertimes

Six major categories of dwellings can beobserved

The urban dwellingThe urban dwelling in sculpted stone orearth (toub piseacute) is generally made up ofsmall clusters of huts Due to irregularrainfall the terraced roof is often preferredproviding additional space for drying certainproducts (fruits grains) and for itsventilation In certain regions it is possibleto find windmills that help facilitate thecirculation of air to provide natural

ventilation Dwellings made of earth ierammed earth or clay for walls or floors aswith piseacute are ill adapted to the torrentialrains which can destroy entire villages

Oasis dwellingScattered throughout the oasis therebyfacilitating access to work and thesurveillance of possessions the oasisdwelling is more commonly found inNorthern Africa and the Middle East The dwellings are most frequently of thepatio type Rather small rooms surround thecourtyard that is both a space for recreationand a work area so as to perform such tasksas weaving The rooms shelter both thefamily unit and domestic animals

The domed roof dwellingThis type of dwelling is more commonlyfound in the Sahara and the Middle East The dome is made by assembling toub orstone bricks reducing the use of wood thatis particularly slow growing in the drylandsThe dwellingsrsquo spiral form plays an importantrole in their ventilation by increasing airvolume while minimising the surface areaexposed to the sun It is possible to amplifythis effect by rough-casting the outer wallthat reflects light while keeping the innerwall free of casing Warm air rises andescapes to the outside due to the porousnature of the walls

31

6Dwellings of the drylands

The underground dwelling In the quest for lower temperatures somesedentary populations have been driven tomove into caves or dug outs carved from theearth In this way they benefit from theinsulating effect of the earth that guaranteeshomogenous temperatures throughout theyear (See the case study from Italy) The troglodytic dwelling existed in China andTurkey thousands of years ago

Tents and yourts Characteristic of nomadic dwellings tents aregenerally textile-based constructionsDepending on the region they may be madeof woven fabric wool or goatrsquos fur as withtents found in the Middle East or made withfelt or animal skins typically used in CentralAsia Tents and yourts are stable soliddwellings that are easy to set up with eachmove or relocation Their heavy weightnecessitates the use of powerful tractionanimals such as camels and dromedaries For populations living in tents the herd is notsurprisingly the primary source of fuel as wellas raw materials for the dwelling

Zareba and leafy sheltersOf diverse forms pleated or boarded thefragile constructions made of vegetation canbe found throughout most of the worldrsquosdrylands It may comprise a principaldwelling for one of the transhumance sitesor an additional volume close to the solidconstruction In certain regions thesematted constructions are easily taken apartand can be easily relocated with eachsettlement An intermediate dwellingbetween a tent and a hut is thus obtained

32

5 Cappadoce in Turkey underground dwellings or troglodyticscopy Michel Le Berre

6 Algerian Sahara a mobile home a family tent of the Tuaregs copy Michel Le Berre

5

6

In your notebook draw and colour examples oftraditional houses in yourvillagetown that areadapted to combat heat anddrought conditions

Explain how theseadaptations improve thecomfort for the habitants

Draw on a piece of paper adwelling that you would like to live in and paste it to yournotebook

Explain the reasons behind yourchoice

What clever tricks are used in your house to combat heatwind and dust

Describe them to yourclassmates and compare themmaybe certain adaptations canbe used in your home

Construct models of housesmade from cardboard straw orclay Which house is more resistantto rain Which house is morewind resistant

33

Underline the followingcorrect phrasesIn the drylands traditionaldwellings include

bull builidings with severalfloors (levels)

bull low level buildings madefrom sculpted stone orearth

bull tents and yourtsbull igloosbull houses with swimming

poolsbull zarebas and other leafy

sheltersbull shelters made from metal

sheets

Classroom

7Water resourcesOBJECTIVE To understand the importance of water in the drylands

1 2

gt

The worldrsquos waterWater quality and the availability offreshwater resources are two of the majorenvironmental issues confronting humanitytoday In a way they can be considered asthe single most important issue since waterrelated problems affect the lives of severalmillion people In the coming yearsdifficulties relating to water shortages willeffectively concern everyone and enormoussums of money will have to be invested inwater management Despite this effort itwill be difficult to improve the situation of33 of the total world population who donot have access to water and some 50 ofwhom lack basic sanitary conditions This lsquohydric stressrsquo already affects 17 billionindividuals and could affect 5 billionindividuals by 2025 Floods and drought killmore people and create more environmentdamage than any other form of naturalcatastrophe The international community iscurrently combining efforts to improve watermanagement and distribution around theworld to ensure a secure future for thosepopulations threatened by the scarcity offreshwater

The water cycleWater is a natural resource vital to plantanimal and human life All life is impossiblewithout it as it regulates the metabolism ofevery living organism 70 of the worldrsquossurface is covered with water but only 3 is freshwater of which 79 is in the form ofpolar ice and 20 exists as inaccessibleunderground sources Only 1 is easilyavailable from rivers lakes and wells Under the impact of solar energy water inlakes and oceans evaporates to theatmosphere in the form of water vapourWhen the temperature drops water vapourcondenses and forms clouds if thetemperature drops still further then thewater contained in the clouds falls to earthas rain Surface water in lakes rivers andunderground reserves originate from thisrainfall Surface or underground watersources finally rejoin the seas and oceansthereby completing the cycle

34

1 In the drylands more than anywhere else water avalibilitydetermines domesticliving conditions as wellas the development ofpastoralism andagriculturecopy UNESCO-MAB

2 Good water managementis vital to combatdesertification In order to prevent waterloss by evaporation watershould be given directlyto the plantcopy Pleyton Johnson FAO

3 Problems linked to watershortages affecting 17 billion people alreadycould affect 5 billionpeople in 2025copy Gisbert Glaser

4 Drylands are characterisedby extreme evaporationand therefore surfacewater is extremely rare People have to resort todifferent means to accessunderground reservoirscopy UNESCO-MAB

3 4

Water management Water availability influences domestic life aswell as the development of pastoralism orcertain agricultural techniques In drylandsmore than anywhere else the availability ofwater is a vital requirement These areas arecharacterized by a high rate of evaporationand surface waters (rivers lakes) generallytended to disappear relatively quickly Peopletherefore had to develop different ways toaccess underground sources (aquifers) to re-route the flow toward areas that require itparticularly the oases Rainwater penetratesthe earth as it flows and replenishes theunderground reserves the presence of treesbushes and other plants help limit water loss(run-off)

People have invented diverse solutions to access use and distribute water they include the following

the collect and storage of rain waterimpluvium watertanks (See the casestudy from Italy)

the transport of water by constructingcanals or by digging galleries foggarasor qanat inclined galleries which drainand channel run-off and undergroundreserves along several kilometres thewater is then distributed through asystem of canals and basins (See thecase study from Algeria)

the digging of wells to accessunderground water pendulum wellsand noria systems using animaltraction to raise water

irrigation by sprinkling the finedroplets allow water to be more easilytaken up by plants drop by dropwater is delivered directly to the plantby irrigation canals

the setting up of water tribunals orassemblies that co-ordinate the useand distribution of water (See the casestudy from Algeria)

35

A

1

23

4

5

6

7

AB

DC

E

A bull cloudsB bull sunC bull lakeD bull riviegravereE bull oceanF bull trees

1 bull evaporation2 bull transpiration3 bull condensation4 bull precipitation5 bull run-off6 bull percolation7 bull underground

drainage

7Water ressources

Differing waterconsumptionsDue to human activities water use iscontinually rising and varies considerably in different countries according to lifestylesand water availability

bull Industrialized countries use on average 300 litresper personday according to theirlifestyle

Australia 1430 lppd

Ireland 142 lppd

bull Developing countries consume a lot lesswater between 10 to 30 litresppday

Madagascar 36 lppd

Somalia 8 lppd

Water scarcity and poor water qualitythreatens public health food and energyproduction and the regional economy It is estimated that 40 of the worldrsquospopulation (80 countries) suffer watershortages In the drylands pratically allwater reserves are utilized and are oftenthreatened with dessication or pollution

Water for consumptionTo be fit for consumption (potable) watershould be transparent should not containsoilearth or silt in suspension and shouldnot be polluted Pollution has diverse originschemical substances (salts metals diverseminerals) agricultural and human waste(fertilizer pesticides manure dung washingwater) bacteria diverse larvae etc Water can also be an agent for the spread ofnumerous diseases such as typhoidpoliomyelitis dysentery and choleraIn hot countries where high temperaturesencourage germ proliferation it isrecommended to boil water to kill germsrendering it fit for drinking and foodpreparation The inaccessibilty and scarcity of potable water are important causes ofmortality in developing countries less than50 of the population have ready access topotable water Diseases related to waterquality account for the death of almost 13 million people a year of which 5 millionchildren die every year from dysentery

36

5 Douguia in Chad a water pump at a local school In certain regions of the world freshwater is abundant and is consumed in large quantities however in other regions the slighest water drop is treated as precious copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5

Water relay the class divides up into severalteams Each team receives areceptacle filled to the top withwater The receptacle should beof the same size One after the other your team-mates have to carry thereceptacle across a predefinedobstacle course spilling as littleas possible The team who has spilled theleast is pronounced the winner

Do you know of ways to savewater maybe at home Describethe techniques and add them toyour notebook then share themwith your classmates The best of them will be notedon a sheet of paper and pasted tothe wall chart

Set up a water assembly inyour class Designate rolesamong yourselves some willplay the role of the villagersothers could be the waterdeciders The water lsquomasterrsquo calculatesthe daily consumption ofwater for drinking washingcleaning gardening etc The different actors devisetogether techniques forreducing water consumption

Place several large receptaclesoutdoors to collect waterduring the rainy seasonMeasure the quantity ofrainwater daily What do you think therainwater could be used for Discuss this in class

Measure the quantity ofwater used in your home on adaily basis Ask one of yourparents to help you Compare your results withthose of your classmates

37

Classroom

8PlantsOBJECTIVE To understand how vegetation is adapted to heat and water shortage

32

gt

Plant adaptations to drought It is known that living organisms haveevolved throughout the course of Earthshistory The processes of evolution enableanimals and plants to adapt progressively totheir environment In this way animals fromcold regions possess fur or thick plumagewhile animals from hot regions possessclose-cropped fur and long legs to distancetheir body from ground surface heatMoreover vegetation in drylands presentcharacteristics acquired over time thatallows them to survive high temperaturesand water shortages To prevent dessicationand therefore save water the vegetation hasreduced the number and surface area ofleaves which develop into scales or thornsThe loss of leaves during the hot and dryseason also helps to save water They orient their leaves towards the shadedevelop rounded or padded forms and stockwater in specific organs such as thickenedstems (fleshy succulent plants cacti) andoversized trunks (baobabs) Such plants optimize water absorbtion byspreading out their roots horizontally over alarge area below the plant or by driving theirroots deep into groundwater reserves (Seediagram)

38

1

1 The so-called Brush lily with its characteristic form that correspondsto its reproduction cycle is highly toxic particularly for cattle Its scientific name Boophane haemanthoides comes from booswhich means beef and phonos meaning to kill The cricket Dictyophorus spumans absorbs the plant toxins thathelp protect it from predators Its black carapace trimmed with red and orange warns predators of its toxic qualities copy Jean-Michel Battin

Only halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)develop in certain soils of the drylandswhere they contain a high salt content(salinity)

Plants protect themselves from herbivores in two ways

by transforming certain organs intothorns that ward off herbivores This is the case of cacti euphorbias andacacia thorns etc

by producing toxic substances(molecules) when giraffes chew on acacialeaves the tree produces poisons thatdisturb the animal The giraffe soon learnsnot to graze on the tree for too long The majority of euphorbias are so toxicthat they are not at all grazed byherbivores

2 3 4 7 Succulent plantssuch as Cacti andeuphorbias contain waterreserves in their thickstalks leaves and trunkscopy Jean-Michel Battin

5 Vegetation prevents soilerosion because of theirdeveloped roots that bindthe earth Cacti stabilizefragile soils copy UNESCO-MAB

6 Bolivia halophytesgrowing on salt-rich soilsthey are particularlytolerant to high saltconcentrations copy Yazid Tizi

4 5

39

6

bushes

persistant parts of the different plants

flowering plants bulb plants annuals

trees and shrubs

8Plants

Types of plantformations and ecosystemsDepending on the climate and soil typevarious groups of plants developconcurrently to form living communities that are the basis of terrestrial ecosystems The phenomenon of desertification limitsvegetation cover to a single level In drylands six major types of plantformations are observed

1 lichen forms that develop in coastaldrylands

2 the formation of fleshy orsucculent plants (cacti euphorbiassenecios)

3 shrubland steppes withdiscontinuous cover

4 herbaceous savannah with openspaces where grasses predominate

5 the shrub bushland (shrub malleecatinga) where plants often possessthorns

6 dry forests with tall trees that shedleaves during the dry season

CactiCacti are plants that are characteristic of thearid environment Originating from drylandsin the Americas they are found from theUnited States of America through CentralAmerica to Chile Cacti whose thornsreplace leaves to limit evaporation helpcombat desertification by providing structureto the soil with their roots The fruits andbranches of certain cacti (prickly pear) are fitfor human and domestic animal consumption(See the case study from Ecuador) In Africaeuphorbias have developed similaradaptation strategies to drought Whenanimal or plant species which aregeographically distant andor belong todifferent families evolve in a similar waydue to comparable environmental pressuresevolutionary convergence is said to occurEuphorbias and cacti are a good example ofthis type of evolutionary convergence

40

7

Which plants characterizethe arid environment inyour region

Which plants characterizeother arid regions

Are there any similarities inplant type

Paste photos or pictures ofthese plants on the wallchart

Which tree plays an importanteconomic role in your region

Describe the tree and all itspossible uses

Identify a tree that yourecognize well Visit it regularlyand keep a check on it If needsbe water it occasionally addsome compost etc

Do you see any improvement inthe condition of the tree overdays weeks

Place several of these plantsin plastic pots (Only selectplants that are abundant inyour area) Calculate thequantity of water needed forwatering Do certain plantsneed more water than othersto grow

Why do you think this is so

Which of the following plantshave adapted to aridity over the course of evolution

bull cactibull hyancinthsbull orchidsbull euphorbiasbull palmsbull baobabsbull water liliesbull fernsbull bamboobull eucalyptus

41

Classroom

9FaunaOBJECTIVE To understand the adaptations of animals to drylands

32

1

gt

1 Like cameleons theagama lizard can rapidlychange its colour fromdull to iridescent copy Jean-Michel Battin

2 Dromedaries are vital in the drylands theyhardly drink they cantravel very long distancesand they can carry heavy loads The femalesprovide milkcopy Michel Le Berre

3 Thanks to its long neckthe giraffe can reach thehighest branches to feed copy UNESCO-MAB

4 National Park ofLangebaan in SouthAfrica ostriches possesslong legs that distancetheir body from groundsurface heatcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

5 The chameleon can movearound unnoticed thanksto its ability to changecolour depending on itsenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

4 5

Some adaptations by animals in aridenvironmentsIn the drylands animals like plants areconfronted with two major problemsresistance to extreme heat and the lack orabsence of water While heat and drought arefactors that limit the development of animalpopulations maintaining animal populationsin the drylands is linked to physicaladaptations (morphology physiology andbehaviour) that compensate for the negativeeffects of these factors

Adaptations that reduce the effects of heatThe majority of animal species (invertebratesreptiles rodents sloths etc) live at groundlevel where temperatures are at their highestHere temperatures can reach 57degC yetanimals cannot survive temperatures beyond42degC so how do they protect themselvesCertain animals resist heat constraints byadaptation and evolution

The surface of their paws is greaterwhich helps them walk on shiftingsands (the very large hooves of theaddax antilopes are well adapted towalking on sand)

Cushions and hairy paw pads isolatethem from the heat (jerboas hares) In arid areas the large variability insoil texture coupled with hightemperatures render movement

difficult Certain species havedeveloped furry cushioned solesisolating them from the heat Certain lizards possess enlargedscales the length of their digits toprevent them from sinking into thefine dry sand

Their ears are elongated to helpdissipate heat and act as a fan(fennecs elephants deserthedgehogs) as well as their long legsthat distance their body from theground (ostrich antelope)

They sweat to reduce bodytemperature by cooling the animalTranspiration is the only physiologicalway to reduce heat that is known tohumans and certain mammals

They stock food reserves as fat incertain parts of their body (the humpof the dromedary zebu sheeprsquos tail)These reserves are transformed intoenergy andor water during periods ofdrought In this way a dromedary cango without water for a week

43

copy M

iche

l Le

Ber

re

9Fauna

Their behaviour enables them toisolate themselves from heat and limitevaporation They remain in the shadeor bury themselves in the ground(snakes) where thermal conditions aremore favourable

They orientate their body according tothe sun to either heat up or cool down(crickets)

They forage at night or at dusk(rodents)

Compenstating for water scarcityDuring the dry season in the drylandsvertebrates can lose up to 30 of their bodyweight in water (dromedary rodent) andamphibians from 40 to 50 (frogs toadsetc) Certain species compensate for this byreducing evaporation (thanks to theirwaterproof skin) and the loss of water byexcretion urine is very concentrated andtheir faecal matter is dry as seen in jerboasfor instance They also recuperate waterfrom night mists and from the humid walls oftheir burrows Certain species survivewithout having to drink on a daily basis(moufflons dromedaries and goats) whileothers can transform starch found in graininto water (rodents)

All these adaptations enable animals to livein the hostile arid environment and arecharacterized by genetically inheritedfeatures acquired over a long period ofevolution Their co-existence with otheranimal and plant species provides animportant balanced ecosystem thatmaintains life in the drylands and is avaluable resource to the populations thatdepend on them The conservation of theseorganisms is thus of vital importance and avaluable asset to the development of theseparticular regions

44

6

7

6 Young Kobus kob kob antelope Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa different species of antelope are appreciated by hunters for their lsquobushmeatrsquo However their relentless hunting threatens the well-being of the populationcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 Frog adapted to drought (Hyperoliusnitidulus)

During the dry season the frog changes colour becoming white in order to reflect light heat and to conserve humidity copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

Choose 5 animals found inyour region Observe themif you can and find out asmuch information aspossible about them inbooks or by asking oldermembers of your family

Draw an imaginary animalthat possesses all thecharacteristics necessary toresist heat and drought

Give it a name and presentit to the class

Make 5 animal identity cardsthat describe theircharacteristics family groupspecies geographic locationbehavioural and physicalcharacteristics etc

Organize a miming gameusing the above identitycards Mimic an animal byimitating certain adaptationsto heat water shortage(behaviour specificity oflimbs etc)

The class must guess the animal

Which of the following animalshave developed adaptations toheat to over the course ofevolution

bull frogsbull dromedariesbull ostrichesbull horsesbull chameleonsbull fishbull dogsbull snakesbull elephantsbull antelopes

45

Classroom

10Biological DiversityOBJECTIVE To explain the roles of biological diversity or the diversity of life forms

21

gt

What is biologicaldiversityDuring the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development commonlyknown as the lsquoEarth Summitrsquo (Rio June1992) the international communityelaborated the Convention of BiologicalDiversity Biological diversity or biodiversityrefers to the variety and variability of plantsanimals and micro-organisms living on EarthIt is a recent concept used to describe thedifferent expressions of life forms andincludes multiple biological ecological andeconomical considerations Biodiversityincludes genetic species and ecosystem orhabitat diversity

The importance of biodiversityBiodiversity contributes ecological goodsthat are indispensable to life on Earth suchas oxygen production water and nutrientcycling waste assimilation water and aircleansing and climate regulationFurthermore biodiversity provides aformidable stock of raw materials necessaryfor the development of food medicinescience and technology Thus it is of utmostimportance to conserve biodiversity for bothpresent and future generations Humanintervention has resulted in the loss of

biodiversity species extinction and thedecline of genetic capital These pressuresare linked to human population growthindustrial development and the over-exploitation of natural resources that allcontribute in accelerating environmentalturmoil on a global scale

The role of biodiversityin the drylandsThe biodiversity we see today is the fruit ofbillions of years of evolution shaped bynatural processes and increasingly by theinfluence of humans It forms the very webof life of which we are an integral part andupon which we so fully depend More thananywhere else societies in the drylandsdepend on the use of biodiversity for theirdaily needs and their economic and spiritualdevelopment The greater the variety ofresources at their disposal the greater theircapacity to survive climatic difficulties andthe uncertainties of the environment

46

1 Wildlife is a very lucrativemarket as tourists areready to pay a lot ofmoney to observe animalsin the wildcopy Thomas Schaaf

2 Many plant species suchas the baobab are both asource of food medicinalplants and fibres as wellas firewoodcopy Michel Le Berre

3 The co-existence ofplants and animalsadapted to theirecosystem is the basis forbiological equilibrium

4 Lichens composed of an alga and a fungus They are indicators of a pollution-freeenvironmentcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 South Africa Aloedichtoma The variety of shapes and coloursfound in the wild are theresult of millions of yearsof evolution contributingto biodiversity richness copy Jean-Michel Battin

3 4

Desertificationthreatens biologicaldiversityLand degradation transforms fertile soilsinto deserts that are no longer fit forcultivation Organisms that cannot adapt tosuch hostile conditions do not survive eventhough it is important to conserve a largediversity of species to guarantee a stablearid ecosystem Survival adaptations ofanimals and plants in the drylands aredetermined by genetic characteristics thathave evolved over the centuries Howeverthe rapidity of the desertification processmeans that organisms cannot adapt quicklyenough to these sudden changes andtherefore risk disappearing from theseregions The co-existence of plants and animalswhich are adapted to their environment is atthe heart of a balanced ecosystem providingthe life-supporting conditions in thedrylands Local populations use and dependon these essential resources to live

47

5

10Biological Diversity

Biodiversity culturalrichness and identityMany wild species participate in the culturallife of local dryland populations forinstance by providing elements used forjewellery or corporal decoration Biodiversityalso includes the numerous medicinal plantsand other natural resources whose virtuesare passed on from one generation toanother On a spiritual level certain speciesplay an important role as totems or mythicaltribal ancestors The fact that Tuaregsemploy one hundred words to describedromedaries (according to its age sexcolour physical form origin etc) attests totheir importance

What is endemismA species is said to be endemic when it isfound only in one place or specific regionThe rate of endemism indicates that certainworld regions are unique for their fauna andflora and represent particularly valuableconservation areas However due to thecomplexity of these ecosystems thesecentres of endemism are often under threatfrom foreign species that risk spreadingdangerously and threaten the localequilibrium The rate of endemism variesbetween 10 to 25 in the drylands whileislands tend to have a higher rate ofendemism due to their isolation InMadagascar 70 of plants are endemic andin Australia more than 90 are endemicplants Lemurs small primates found only inMadagascar are endemic to MadagascarThe addax antelope is endemic to Sahara

48

6 Bouakeacute market in Cocircte drsquoIvoire by conserving biodiversity populations assure the necessary resources for a balanced and healthy dietcopy Ameacutelie Dupuy

7 In the drylands trees and shrubs represent up to 50 of cattle fodder during the dry season but only 5 during the humid season copy UNESCO-MAB

6 7

Compile a list of all theanimals you know thatare found in your region

Is it possible for yourteacherschool to organizean excursion close to yourschool so that you canobserve local animalsclosely

Is it easy to identify anendemic plant or animal inyour region

Underline the following correctphrases

bull lemurs are endemic to Madagascar

bull cameleons are endemic to Chad

bull addax antelope are endemic to Central Europe

bull kangaroos are endemic to Australia

bull pineapple is endemic to Latin America

Make a sculpture in papier macirccheacuteof your favourite animal of thedrylands

Which animal is linked to yourdaily life andor the wealth ofyour culture

Why is it important

Identify a plant or animalthat is protected by law inyour country

49

Is there a plant or animal inyour country that isassociated with a local legendor myth

Ask the older members ofyour community

Classroom

11Environmental consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

Human activities in the drylandstogether with climatic factors anddrought conditions influencechanges in the natural environmentand its productivity In returnthese changes bear consequenceson human populations and thequality of life

Soils erode or disappearThis precious covering the very flesh of theplanet is painfully slow to form and can bedestroyed terrifyingly fast Just a thin layer ofsoil can take centuries to develop but ifmistreated can be blown and washed away ina few seasons Soil is now rapidly vanishingall over the planet Despite the fact that animals and plants areable to adapt to the drylands desertificationhas serious consequences on theenvironment Depending on the type ofagricultural technique employed differentforms of land degradation occur The following have been observed

loss of nutritive matter (due toagricultural over-exploitation)

loss of soil surface due to wind andrain erosion particularly due to theloss of vegetation (See the case studyfrom Spain)

landslides occur by the action ofwater also due to the effects ofvegetation loss (See the case studyfrom Kenya)

increased salinity and soil acidification(due to irrigation malpractice) (See the case study from the Aral Sea)

1

50

1 Mustang in Nepal wind erosion In somecases the wind causesland erosion if violentenough the superficiallayers are blown awaycopy Yazid Tizi

2 When drought periods aresustained the soil surfacehardens and begins tobreak up Cracks appearforming deep fissures thatdamage the soil structure

When rains eventualarrive the water seepsinto the cracks ratherthan being retained onthe surfacecopy Jean-Michel Battin

3 Soil salinity hasimmediate consequenceson the ability ofvegetation to maintainand regenerate itself copy Michel Le Berre

4 Erosion removes part ofthe soil and oftenunearths root systemscopy Michel Le Berre

2 3

soil pollution (due to the excessiveuse of chemical fertilizer)

the effects of compression and theencrusting of the soil surface (due toheavy use of agricultural machinery)

Water becomes scarce or is threatenedLand degradation in the drylands can havedirect consequences on the water cycle If there is low rainfall then drought ensuesgroundwater reserves do not refill watersources become depleted wells run dryplants and animals die and humans have tomigrate to more hospitable regions

On the other hand during periods of highrainfall the ensuing floods kill people andanimals notably in regions where vegetationcover is reduced or totally destroyed The torrential rain flow causes a substantialloss of soil which is then flushed out by therains and when the land becomes dry againa hard crust forms on the surface thatrenders it impermeable reducing waterinfiltration

Biodiversity declineLand degradation due to drought salinity orover-exploitation has immediateconsequences on the capacity of vegetationto maintain or reconstruct itself Animalspecies dependant on this vegetation haveto migrate to other areas to find sufficientresources or they risk disappearingaltogether The importance of this lossderives from the fact that animal and plantspecies from the drylands are particularlywell adapted to this extreme environmentThey act as indicators of the environmentalcondition of these areas and theirdisappearance is a sign of significant habitatdegradation Moreover these species remainimportant resources for the populationTheir disappearance increases foodinsecurity and the impoverishment of theworldrsquos most fragile populations

4

51

11Environmental consequences of desertification

Consequences of land degradation(See also the case studies from Spain and Kenya)

bull Erosion the loose particles and nutritiveelements of the soil are flushed out

bull In irrigated lands where water fromunderground reserves is often pollutedevaporation leads to a rise in the mineralsalts to the surface resulting in high salinityrendering the soil unsuitable for crops sincethey are intolerant of high saltconcentrations and may consequently die

bull The vegetation cover is not given enoughtime to re-establish itself during intensivegrazing periods or when grazing activitiesaffect plots that have already beencultivated

bull Due to the acceleration of erosion by rainas a direct result of clearings anddeforestation the forest ecosystemdisappears This has severe consequenceson soil fertility as well as on thepreservation of animal and plant species In fact roots maintain soil structure and can limit soil erosion since they contribute to water infiltration which reduces waterrun-off encouraging the composition of arich and productive soil Also tree leavesreduce the action of the wind on the soilsurface Dead tree parts that fall to theground decompose and enrich the soil withorganic matter

5 6

5 6 Examples of hydraulic erosion Soils are washed away by the rains when they dry up a crust forms that renders the soil impermeable thereby reducing water infiltration copy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

52

Organize an excursion closeto your school Look for anarea damaged by erosion

How could you stop theerosion process and makethe soil more fertile

Find 2 large buckets

In the centre of one of themplace a compact mix of waterand soil

In the other bucket placesome plants and theiraccompanying soil in thecentre

Now water the 2 bucketswith a substantial quantity ofwater What do you notice

Do you know of a polluted areanearby

In your view how long has this areaexisted and what needs to be doneso that this area becomes lesspolluted and eventually restored

Try this experimentTake 4 buckets filled with soil Plant an equal number of grasses ineach Place two bucketspermanently in the sun

Place the other two in a shady areaLabel the buckets Regularly waterone of the buckets placed in the sunand one in the shade

Do the same with the other 2buckets (water one of them and notthe other) Keep a check on thebuckets and at the end of a fewweeks describe and compare thegrasses

What do you notice What do youthink has happened

53

Classroom

12Socio-economic consequences of desertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the physical and biological consequences of desertificationgt

1

1 The encroachment of thedesert around the oasesnecessitates permanentcrop protectioncopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 In the drylands rainstend to fall suddenly asviolent downpoursleading to flooding alongthe length of riversparticularly whereembankments aredegradedcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 When drought conditionsand low soil fertilitybecome overwhelmingpeople and animals do not have enough resourcesto feed themselves andthey are obliged to move to other areascopy R Faidutti FAO

4 Due to general droughtconditions in the Sahel thenomads in Mali encounterin neighbouring BurkinaFaso the same degradedlands and lack of foodcopy F Botts FAO

2 3

Consequences of desertification on human populationsThe growth of poverty and dependanceDesertification leads to poverty with all thesocial economical and cutural consequencesthat this entails Poverty then drivespopulations to over-exploit the remainingnatural resources triggering a vicious cycleaccelerating land degradation still furtherPoverty is thus both a cause and aconsequence of desertification Desertification affects the lifestyles of nearlyone billion of the worldrsquos population

It weakens populations and institutionsrendering them more vulnerable to globaleconomic factors The shortfall in earned taxreceipts due to low productivity has

consequences on the capacity ofgovernments to reimburse their foreign debtand develop national socio-economicprogrammes The persistance of drought anddesertification reduces national foodproduction and furthers the need to turn toforeign products Moreover food aid caneventually lead to a reduction in localagricultural production particularly if itbecomes more costly to produce locally thanto resort to imported products that aredistributed for free by the internationalcommunity

Socio-economic development in disequilibriumDrought and diminishing soil fertility lead tothe migration of the rural population This creates problems in the urbanenvironment as well as in rural areas not yetaffected by land degradation yet witness themigration of new arrivals The inflated growthof urban centres leads to a reduction in thestate budget allowance intended for ruraldevelopment which accentuates the ruralexodus and raises food insecurity Rural populations often lose theirpossessions during severe droughtDesertification can drive whole communitiesto migrate towards cities or regions wheresurvival conditions are initially morepromising but ultimately are very difficultsocial stability and cultural identity arethreatened and the makeshift dwellingswhich are insanitary and illegal aresometimes sources of ethnic or religiousconflict

4

55

12Socio-economic consequences of desertification

Economic refugees are increasinglynumerous in Africa estimates place thenumber at 10 million individuals over thepast twenty years The population of cities is swelling Immigrantsare often forced to settle in urban slums whilerural areas are deserted Between 1965 and1988 the proportion of Mauritaniarsquos peopleliving in the capital Nouakchott rose from 9to 41 while the proportion of nomads fellfrom 73 to 7

Currently there are more Senegalese in theBakel region of France than in the villagesthey left behind yet given the chancepeople would prefer to stay Desertification does not only concerndeveloping countries but also developedcountries this is due to the immigration ofpopulations forced to abandon their landrendered unsuitable for cultivation and thehuge amounts of money spent on disasterrelief and humanitarian aid

Desertification also encourages politicalinstablity and has played some part insparking off about ten of the armed conflictscurrently in progress in the drylands The displacement and migration of refugees(following war or natural catastrophe) hasdisastrous consequences on theenvironment (deforestation reckless over-exploitation of natural resources)accelerating desertification Harsh livingconditions and the loss of cultural identityalso diminish social stability

5

6

5 Mobile shifting sands gradually engulf dwellings thusleading to the abandonment of certain villagescopy UNESCO-MAB

6 During armed conflict refugees are often obliged to settle temporarily in camps where they try to survive in often appalling conditions Poor hygiene and relentless exploitation of resources contribute to the intensification of environmental degradation copy F Loock UNESCO

56

What are the principalcauses of human and animalmigration in your regionand in your country

Do your family stock foodreserves in case of hard timesWhich types of foodstuffs arestored and how are theystored

On average how manyanimals make up a herd inyour region

Are the numbers more or lessthan the numbers foundduring your grandparentsrsquogeneration

Which type of person orpopulation has recentlysettled in your region orrecently moved away

Would you like to leave your villageor region Why

Where would you go Explain yourexpectations of life elsewhere

Do you know of someone that hasleft your community and leadsanother kind of life elsewhere inanother region

What has this changed for himher

57

Classroom

2The solutions

copy A

meacutel

ie D

upuy

Solving the problems of desertification

13Raising awareness about the problemOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

2

The role of the internationalcommunityThe acceleration of land degradation in thedrylands has mostly occurred from themiddle of the 20th Century The internationalcommunity decided to respond to this bydeveloping soil conservation programmes to

ensure the continued reproductionand long term preservation ofthreatened natural resources (water flora fauna)

satisfy the needs of the populationthat live in areas affected bydegradation by better managing thenatural resources that allow for awell-balanced economic and socio-cultural development while assuringecological equilibrium

International research programmes have beenconducted to better understand thefunctioning of drylands They have beensupported by certain United Nations agencies(UNESCO FAO WMO UNEP etc) and byregional intergovernmental organizations(CILSS IGAD SADC UMA) or non-governmental organizations NGOsThe first determined effort to combatdesertification began at the end of the greatSahelian drought and famine of 1968-1974 inwhich over 200000 people and millions oftheir animals died The United NationsSudano-Sahelian office was set up in 1973

originally to assist 9 drought-prone countriesin West Africa though its activities spread tocover 22 countries south of the Sahara andnorth of the equator Over the decades international meetings havecontributed to our knowledge ofenvironmental problems and accords havebeen signed announcing concrete projects Certain important conferences have markedthe end of the 20th Century

The Stockholm Conference (Sweden) 1972This was the first international conferencethat addressed environmental issues relatedto those concerns linked to the future ofhuman populations Among the principlesoutlined during the summit theinternational community recognized thatunder-development and population growthare at the root of most of the environmentalproblems encountered today Man has aparticular responsibilty to safeguard andmanage this natural heritage in the longterm The use of non-renewable naturalresources the challenges of biodiversityconservation and the control of pollutionmake it necessary to plan long term co-ordinated action

1 2 3 Faced with desertencroachment theinternational communityhas responded over the lastfew decades by developingprogrammes to combatland degradation

International conferencesprovide the forum to helpin our understanding ofenvironmental problems 1 copy Michel Le Berre

2 3 copy UNESCO-MAB

4 An oasis threatened by desert encroachmentcopy J Balderi FAO

61

13Raising awareness about the problem

The Nairobi Conference (Kenya) 1977This first conference on desertificationmanifested a response by the internationalcommunity to the terrible droughts of theSahel and to the 1968-1974 faminethreatening economical and ecologicalequilibrium It contributed to the in-depthanalysis of the problems of desertification APlan of Action to combat desertificationalong with a series of recommendationsaimed at helping affected countries to defineand implement measures was establishedto mobilize and coordinate assistanceamong the international community

The Rio de Janeiro Summit (Brazil) 1992The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) wasmarked by firm commitments from countriesand the international community whichappear in Agenda 21 a plan of actionassuring both the protection of theenvironment and the notion of sustainabledevelopment Two international conventionsemerged as a direct result of the RioConference the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (1992) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(1993) Developing nations insisted thatdesertification as an issue plays an equallyimportant role during talks held during theEarth Summit and in 1994 the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification was ready to be signed bygovernments The three Conventions applythe principles of co-operation andinternational solidarity as they aim to findcommon solutions to environmentalproblems and socio-economic development

3 4

62

In class design aquestionnaire on the subjectof desertification and carryout a survey in your villageto determine the extent ofpeoplersquos knowledge oncombating desertification

Organize a class discussion Each pupil is allocated a unit(lesson) and will give a classpresentation on the chosen subject The class could interact freelyduring the discussion on thepossible solutions to combatdesertification and drought It may help to read the case studiesfirst

Underline the following correct phrasesbull International projects exist to combat

desertification bull The desertification problem should be

tackled exclusively by developing countries

bull Once countries have signed the Convention they are not expected to do anything else

bull A Great Drought struck the Sahel during the years 1968-1974

bull The international community meets regularly to define conventions on environmental protection

bull If countries do not establish Nation Action Plans to combat desertification then the Convention is not doing what it set out to achieve

bull The Rio Conerence of 1992 is also known as- the Earth Summit- the UNCED- the Convention of Biological Diversity- the UNCCD

63

Which agencies of the UnitedNations do you know Can you explain their role andpurpose The class could divide up intosmall groups each representingan agency of the UnitedNations developing a specificproject Each group could then explainto the rest of the class how theproject could be implementedunderlining its objectives

Classroom

14The role of the United NationsConvention to CombatDesertificationOBJECTIVE To introduce the history of public awareness

to the global problem of desertificationgt

1

1 The African continent is the most seriouslyaffected bydesertification African countries werethe first to respond to the problemcopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3 4 One of the objectivesof the UNCCD is toinitiate activeparticipation amongpopulations in response to decisions taken bygovernments to combatdesertification It aims to facilitate co-operation betweencountries of the Northand South while takinginto consideration theparticular needs ofdeveloping countriescopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

General objectives of the ConventionForging partnershipsThe United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) officially entitledUnited Nations Convention to CombatDesertification in countries seriouslyaffected by drought andor desertificationparticularly in Africa is an internationalagreement adopted in 1994 in Paris FranceBy the end of the year 2000 the Conventionwas ratified by 172 countries marking aturning point in international policydemonstrating a growing awareness of theimportance assigned to the problems ofdesertification

The Convention clearly emphasizes that thepopulations who suffer directly fromdesertification and who thereforeunderstand the fragility of their environmentbetter than anyone must be closely involvedwith decisions that influence their way oflife The Convention aims to combatdesertification and ease the effects ofdrought in those countries seriously affectedby drought andor desertification

The objectives of the UNCCD seeks toimprove land productivity to restore (orpreserve) land to establish more efficientwater usage and to introduce sustainabledevelopment in the affected areas and moregenerally improve the living conditions ofthose populations affected by drought anddesertification

The UNCCD is particularly committed toactively encouraging the participation oflocal populations to respond to governmentdecisions made on desertification issuesThe UNCCD seeks to facilitate co-operationbetween the different administrative sectorsof countries of the North and South whilepaying particular attention to the needs ofdeveloping countries

Focusing action on AfricaThe continent of Africa is the most severelyaffected by drought and desertification TheAfrican countries were the first to rallytogether to combat the problem inpartnership with other countries in theworld Facilitating access to newtechnologies knowledge and its transferamong populations to alleviate the effects ofdrought and to combat desertification arethe major challenges facing the Convention

Specific objectives of the ConventionPromoting sustainable development Sustainable development satisfies presenthuman needs in an equitable way withoutcompromising the needs of futuregenerations Thus if one tree is cut downthen another should replace it therebyconnecting the economy and theenvironment in a way that is bothharmonious and well balanced Put anotherway it is essential to consider the best wayto use resources in the long term withoutexhausting its supply

65

14The role of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

A variety of activities help achieve thisobjective such as limiting population growthand not carelessly wasting resources so thatour children can benefit from them too

Developing education and training It is important that every individual hasaccess to information and understands theaction proposals communicated by the mediaand literature Reading and writing skillsprovide people the opportunity to becomebetter informed and help them understandand organize projects that combatdesertification Education therefore enablesthem to share knowledge and better managethe available resources

Measuring human development Sustainable development reflects on the wellbeing of human beings The progress ofhuman development can be measured byobserving the advantages of populations tosuch benefits as education health andincome An indicator helps determine the state ofhuman development in each country The HDI (human development index) iscalculated on the basis of three indicators

the level of education evaluated bythe literacy rate and the percentageof children in full time education

the level of health measured by lifeexpectancy at birth

the income of citizens measured byGDP per capita

These measurements help calculate the HDIof each country By applying the yearlycalculations to the country it is possible tosee whether there is an improvement ordeterioration in human development

Creating an enabling environmentFor affected countries and the people of thedrylands living conditions must be right ifdesertification is to be tackled effectively It is hard for governments or local people togive much attention to the crisis if they areconstantly preoccupied with economicandor physical survival Local people needto have secure and equitable rights to theland they tend as they will be less willing tolook after the land if they feel that it may betaken away from them The Conventionrecognizes the need for an enablingenvironment making it possible for them topursue sustainable development Combating desertification can only beachieved in the long term Changes shouldbe introduced at the international level aswell as the local level

4

copy Dominique Roger UNESCO

66

In your notebook explain therole and importance of theUnited Nations Convention toCombat Desertification

Underline the following correctphrases

The UNCCD bull is an international Conventionbull does not involve countries of the

Sahelbull has been signed by at least 150

countriesbull is based on the notion of

sustainable developmentbull aims to improve the

participation of localpopulations on decisions madeby government

bull involves combatingdesertification

Carry out a study looselybased on the humandevelopment index (HDI) inyour country Place thestatistics on your wall chartand attempt to associate thesocio-economic situation ofyour country with theproblems faced bydesertification

67

With your classmatescompile a catalogue showingthe level of informationavailable to you and yourcommunity ondesertification for examplebooks or other mediaavailable in your schoollibrary community centreetc as well as local activitiesor projects on desertification Make a list of people whomay be considered as expertson the various themes ofdesertification Make thiscatalogue available toeveryone you could exhibitthe catalogue alongside thewallchart for everyone toread

Classroom

15Mobilizing and involving people

The most important partnership to be forged when tackling desertification isbetween aid donors national governments local administrations and thepeople of the drylands themselves Over the years experience has shown thatthe phenomenon cannot be tackled effectively unless the people concernedare fully committed and involved The people of the drylands are their owngreatest resource in this combat as they know their land better than anyoneIn some ways their skills may be greater as they are confronted by far moredifficult conditions than populations in other regions Every man woman andchild is called upon to combat desertification

2 3

OBJECTIVE To explain the importance of uniting the whole community to achieve collective action to combat desertification

gt

68

1

Broadening the focusMost attempts to fight desertification haveconcentrated more on its symptoms than onits causes They tended to concentrate onalleviating its effects and on reducing thehuman activities that seemed to immediatelycontribute to them They sought to tackleover-cultivation overgrazing deforestationand faulty irrigation directly withoutaddressing the underlying social andeconomic pressures that produced themThis often resulted in blaming the victims ofdesertification for the damage causedwithout making a serious attempt tounderstand the forces outside their controldriving them to over-exploit their land

National actionprogrammes Combating desertification is expensive All countries even the most developedamong them and those who are unaffectedby desertification are called upon to financeprojects to reverse the desertificationprocess Funds may come from co-operativeprojects fund-raising donations etc The money is used to put a stop todeforestation to curb soil erosion to forgepartnerships and common plans of action todevelop new methods while adaptingexisting methods to the conditions of eachcountry to educate the population and so on

The Convention attempts to integrate socialand economic issues into the heart of itsanalysis and implementation by attributingan equal focus on these issues as granted tothe physical and biological aspects ofdesertification

Combating desertification also relies on theelaboration of National Action Plans (NAP) Each country should adopt a participatoryapproach whereby all members of societyjoin forces to combat land degradation andare supported by their government whoaccept for example to attribute power towomen farmers and livestock breeders inorder to combine their joint efforts In abroader sense children should also play anactive role in the protection of theenvironment

Involving the wholepopulationAdults should be informed and made awarethat there are inexpensive and easy ways toimplement methods to combat drought It is thus important to organize

bull information open days for ruralcommunities organized by specialists whofor example explain how to use solar or windenergy biogas etc

bull collective action to elaborate commonprojects (for example reforestry projectscreation of a green shelterbelt surroundingthe village) with the families (youth womenand the older generation) and with farmersbreeders and political representatives

1 2 4 5 All levels ofsociety are called upon tocombat desertificationBy organising informationopen days workshops andlocal projects it is possibleto involve the wholecommunity includingyouth women and theolder generationcopy UNESCO-MAB

3 The phenomenon of desertification cannotbe fought effectivelyunless everyone at alllevels is fully involvedcopy UNESCO-MAB

6 Knowing how to read and write helps developand guide onersquos futureand to combatdesertificationcopy Ines Forbes UNESCO 54

69

15Mobilising and involving people

The older generation as guardians ofimportant traditional knowledge should beinvolved in reducing land degradation andalleviating the effects of drought In fact theproblems of desertification cannot be solvedunless all levels of society are mobilized

Learning to combatdesertification in schoolA basic education such as being able to addread and write is the first step towardscombating desertification School is animportant means for the transfer anddiffusion of information which enablespeople to communicate with others affected

by desertification More importantly it helpsdevelop skills and techniques to combat desertification while promoting techniquesthat may help others Technical manuals oreducational guides developed for schoolsshould not only be targeted at teachers andtheir pupils but also shared with parents andthe local population via the children

6

70

Organize an interview with localpolitical representatives mayorcommunity leaders chiefs etcand ask them about the concreteactions that are (or not) beingundertaken in the community tocounter the effects of droughtand desertification Write what is being said in yournotebook Invite them to visit theschool to talk on the subject Invite your parents and yourlocal community to the meetingto discuss with the decision-makers the problems encounteredat the local level due to theeffects of desertification

Organize an exhibition oncombating desertification Use the posters sculpturesschool assignments and thewall chart that the whole classhas assembled together duringthe desertification lessonsand invite everyone from thevillage to attend

Discuss in class how you wouldexplain to an imaginary newcomerto your villagetown theimportance of combatingdesertification giving examples ofthe activities undertaken or to beundertaken at your school orhome

71

Classroom

16Measuring and evaluating problemsOBJECTIVE To explain how the Convention establishes the monitoring of the combat

against desertification

32

gt

1

1 Region of Burao inSomalia dessicatedriverbedcopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 3 Scientific research andthe regular monitoring ofenvironmental changesare vital for workingeffectively to combatdesertification and therehabilitation of degradedecosystemscopy UNESCO-MAB

4 The range finder follows the movements of animals fitted with a tracker to studybehavioural patterns and also to protect them copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

5 Satellitecopy European Space Agency

6 Mars Express spacecraftcopy European Space Agency

7 Teledetectioncopy UNESCO

4 5

The Conventionexercises follow-upactivitiesAction plans to combat desertification areundertaken in the long term and requireregular monitoring Observatories have beencreated to carry out measurements andcollect data Several stations performobservations on farmed and non-farmedplots of land For example the UNESCO MABprogramme (Man and the Biosphere) studiesthe interaction between man and nature andin particular the impact of man on theenvironment through the world network ofbiosphere reserves among others They have been established as permanentrepresentative sites of research trainingbiodiversity conservation and developmentsupport The Sahara and Sahel Observatory(OSS) and its network of observatories andlong term ecological monitoring ROSELT(Reacuteseau drsquoobservatoires de surveillanceeacutecologique agrave long terme) measure thebiological potential of drylands around theSahara There are several sites to the northand south of the Sahara and in the Sahel

The ROSELT Observatories perform threemain duties

the long term surveillance of changesin natural resources

monitoring the development ofhuman activities on the territory

finding solutions to enable therestoration of biological resources in disturbed ecosystems

Measuring the degradationIn order to measure land degradation as wellas the advances made in combatingdesertification quantitative and qualitativeinformation needs to be made available onenvironmental and socio-economical factorsBy taking advantage of this informationcalled indicators scientists organizationsand governments can avoid duplication ofefforts and save money which could bedeployed elsewhere An indicator is quantitative information thatenables an evaluation of an activity or thedevelopment of a given situation (ie thepopulation growth in ten years) in view ofbetter natural resources management forsustainable development Indicators have for example been created tomeasure water quality the concentration ofnitrates should not exceed 50 mgl a criticalthreshold beyond which human health can beaffected These base indicators helpdetermine the progress made in combatingdesertification They are employed in theevaluation the follow-up and the predictionof effects of a given phenomenon or activityThe UNCCD explicitly recommends [Art16] thestudy and use of indicators in the physical(climate soil) biological (biodiversity) social(health amenities) and economical(production wealth) state

73

16Measuring and evaluating problems

Photos taken by satellite(teledetection)They are used to

provide a general overview of thestate of the vegetation of a regionand to rapidly obtain information thesame information gleaned fromstudies taken on the ground would betime consuming and more costly

regularly monitor observed changesdegradation clearings reforestationetcBy taking photographs over severalyears it is possible to determine thedevelopment of the vegetation so asto make decisions on those crops to be favoured or avoided in case ofdrought

GISOnly computers are able to exploit thenumerous measurements taken ondesertification Geographers and computerscientists have developed geographicinformation systems (GIS) to produce mapsphotographic pictures and virtual imagesThey aim to rapidly present regionalcharacteristics in a global dimensionprogression of drought rain temperaturewater availability human amenities (villagessettlements) infrastructure (trails roads)etc

7

ltlt

ltlt

ltlt

A

DE

F B

C

A SatelliteB Angle of viewC Area PhotographedD Photos transmissionE Receiving stationF Data storage in electronic

format

74

6

In class organize the pupils intoplaying the roles of a mayor andhis councillors You want to undertake a studyon the situation of yourenvironment (determine thefactors that influence yourenvironment) and need to definesimple indicators in relation tocombating desertification Think of 3 indicators that couldbe examined throughout theschool year (ie weekly waterconsumption etc)

Underline the following correctphrases UNESCO is

bull a NGObull an United Nations organizationbull involved in studying the

relationship betwenn man and theenvironment

bull involved in the promotion ofsustainable development

bull involved in financing projects in developing countries

Tell the story of animaginary satellite 0X99 sent into space What does it photograph andstudy every day as itencircles Earth

Draw a diagram of yournearby environment iebetween your villagetown andyour school Mark on yourdrawing the points of interestas well as the fields treeswatering points etc Show your drawing to oldermembers of your family How has the surrounding areachanged compared to whenthey were young

75

Classroom

17Re-establishing a favourableenvironmentOBJECTIVE To introduce concrete methods to combat desertificationgt

1

1 2 4 Nurseries provide asource of young plantsthat can be replantedquickly It is important to select local species thatgrow rapidly and areadapted to the harshclimatecopy UNESCO-MAB

3 Gour in Nigeriaconstruction of awindbreak to hold backthe sand dunescopy P Cenini FAO

5 Another example of awindbreak constructioncopy UNESCO-MAB

2 3

Fertilize the land to restore it To combat desertification it is necessary torestore and fertilize the land Nutritive elements such as nitrogenphosphorus calcium magnesium etc in the soil are necessary for plants to grow When the soil has lost all its nutritiveelements or a part of its constituents(removed by wind or water) it is said to bedegraded or exhausted and its productivitydiminishes as a consequence It can also accumulate such toxic elementsas salt that need to be eliminated

As these elements become exhaustedthrough intensive agriculture it becomesnecesssary to re-establish soil fertility eitherby using synthetic fertilizers or by preparingmuch cheaper compost It is principallyprepared from plant waste manureagricultural trimmings (straw) and biologicalhousehold waste Water hyacinths thoughharmful in rivers can be tranformed intofertile matter that supplies nutritiveelements to the soil as compost After several weeks in a pit and with theheat and humidity humus is produced It canthen be spread among the crops and used toprepare the soil before seedlings areplanted The soil regenerated with organicmatter in this way will produce more fruitfulharvests The restructuring of the soil is avery effective and particularly sustainableway to maintain soil fertility (See cartoonThe School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

The presence of livestock could also beexploited to enrich the soil By consumingcrop leftovers (millet maize) the animalsreturn nutritive elements to the soil thatenriches it with nitrogenous matter in theform of dung Dung also restores thecapacity of soil to produce a more plentifulharvest The herd also provides meat andmilk In this way farmers and cattle rearerscan help each other

Combating the effectsof windSome simple mechanical means to alleviatethe effects of wind that prevent thedisplacement of sand and dust include

the construction of fences or barriersfrom local plant species woven palmsplanted hedges (rows of maize or milletthat protect beans and onions) or metalsheeting around villages and crops (Seethe case studies from China Gambiaand Ecuador)

4

77

17Re-establishing a favourable environment

planting vegetation whose rootsprotect and fix the soil

prohibiting livestock from grazing toprotect the areas of plantation

ReforestationReforestation requires the creation ofnurseries to nurture young plants amonglocal species selected for their rapid growthand adaptation to the harsh climateReforestation is a long-term action since treegrowth is slow Fortunately trees have a longlife cycle so the investment is generallyviable (See the case studies from Chile and India)

Trees play several roles

bull they fix soil elements and prevent theirloss by water and wind

bull they act as obstacles to the wind (wind-breaker) to protect crops (trees should bepruned to be more effective)

bull they enhance soil fertility many treesproduce nitrogen (due to the presence ofbacteria in roots) that fertilizes andincreases soil productivity

bull they facilitate water penetration into thesoil during the rains and contributes tomaintaining humidity for a long time

bull they provide shade for animals and people

bull they supply nutritive elements fruit treesdiversify food sources trees provide fodderfor livestock (during the dry season)

bull they are a source of firewood (cooking)and construction materials (framingstructures for huts) (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)

However they should be used in asustainable way trees should be replaced asthey are being cut down Alternative energysources could also be explored to ease thepressure on tree logging (See Unit 19)

Actions to avoidRelentless tree logging

Bush fires that are not effective in the long term It is common to losecontrol of such fires that have adestructive action on the soil andlandscape (See the case study fromGambia)

Neglecting natural manure in favourof synthetic fertilizer (industriallymade products are costly) The continued use of natural fertilizeris recommended to maintain goodharvests

The cultivation of only one type ofcrop the monoculture

The shortening of crop cycles and thereduction of fallow periods

Intense breeding and overgrazingadding pressure on vegetation andaggravating the trampling of soil bylivestock herds

The cultivation along the downwardsloping face in mountainous regionsrather than following the naturalcontour lines of the mountain and thedeterioration of terraces

5

78

Make a poster demonstrating the dos and donrsquots of combatingdesertification Include the bestfarming practices that contributeto combating desertification aswell as the farming techniquesthat should be avoided You canpaste it to the wall chart

How does this list compare to thetechniquesmethods employed inyour villagetown

Make a model that representsthe vegetation that can beplanted locally to combatdesertification

Ask the local farmers whichplants are the most usefulfor combating desertificationie bamboo plants used tostabilize the land (See the case study fromKenya)

Discuss in class the differentroles played by trees

Explain why it is important toprotect them

What in your view is theprincipal function of a tree

Defend your point of view

Underline the following correctphrases

bull the loss of soil nutrients leads to adrop in productivity (harvests aresmaller)

bull chemical fertilizers should replacemanure whenever possible

bull windbreaks can be made frommetal or plastic sheeting

bull tree planting is a short-termaction since trees grow rapidly

bull trees have the effect ofdestroying the soil

bull fallow periods should besufficiently long to allow the soilto recover

79

With your parents construct awindbreak from dry grasses tohelp them protect their crops

Classroom

18Developing sustainable agricultural practicesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

3

gt

It is less costly to prevent the phenomena of desertification from taking placethan to solve the problems it causes Once the damage has been done it hasto be repaired which is a long and costly process Despite the severity of landdegradation it is not necessarily the final stage By employing good agriculturalpractice the trend can be reversed To preserve soil productivity sustainablelong-term practices must be applied

2

80

1

4

Preventing soilexhaustionAs the population grows and with it thedemand for agricultural products traditionalfarming systems are gradually abandonedand given way to the introduction ofmonoculture accelerating the desertificationprocess still further As a result anincreasing number of productive lands areunder pressure to the point where theybecome sterile Farmers and cattle breederswith little or no income seem to have noalternative but to exploit new marginallands

It is important to respect the capacity chargefor each plot of land This implies assuringthe maximum production of a given resourceon the land while preserving its long-termcapacity to produce If the capacity charge isexceeded productivity declines (agriculturaloutput falls livestock require more time tofatten) Production methods must thereforebe modified by prohibiting cultivation duringa certain time period (fallow period) or bydecreasing the time livestock spend grazingon the land

Diversify productionDiversifying crop and animal productionenables better use of land resources andprevents the over-production of a singleproduct A plot can sustain different plantsand animals over long periods since theirnutritional needs vary and the resourcesthey remove from the land arecomplementary Polyculture reduces the lossof agricultural products in the case of anatural catastrophe certain productionmethods are better adapted to counterdrought than others Each plant species has specific nutritionalneeds (for example maize rapidly exhauststhe soil compared to other plants)Prolonged monoculture should also beavoided on the same plot of land and asystem of rotational crop production shouldbe established to restore soil fertility

5

microclimatescharacterisingeachaltitude levelcopy Yazid Tizi

3 Agroforesty as anagricultural practice iswidely adopted because it has both economic andecological advantages By exploiting treescereals or other low-lyingplants at the same timegreater yields areproduced since thedifferent types of cropsbenefit from each othercopy UNESCO-MAB

4 Tunisia crops plantedalong the contour line is ajudicious method to adaptagricultural practices totopographic realitiescopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

6 A small well-fed andhealthy herd is betterthan a big herd of under-fed animalscopy UNESCO-MAB

1 Mali 5 Senegaldiversifying agriculturalproduction better employsland resources andprevents over productionof a sole product In thedrylands and oases manhas had to devise cleverways to exploit the fragilenatural resources in asustainable waycopy Yann Arthus-Bertrand Earth from Above UNESCO

2 Nepal terraces stabilizesoils on slopes and reduceserosion They also benefitfrom the different

81

18Developing sustainable agricultural practices

Land restorationLand degradation is not permanent Torestore degraded lands crop techniquesshould be improved by stabilizing the soilwhile enriching them with organic matterselecting and associating different cropvarieties as in polyculture and reducing landpressure (labour and irrigation) (See thecase studies from Spain and the Aral Sea)The slightest water table or source can beused to irrigate small perimeters thatdiversify food sources and reduces pressureon non-irrigated lands It is also important tocombat marked soil salinity by employingthe most effective system of irrigationevacuate water surplus monitor the changesin groundwater reserves (with a piezometer)and soil salinity in the problem areas drainand irrigate and plant trees whose rootshamper the soil from drifting Moreovertrees act as a windbreak and providesupplementary resources (wood leaves andfruit) Governments and NGOs can facilitate theseactivities by offering training courses on theuse of new technologies adapted to droughtThey can also contribute by reducinginappropriate and ill-adapted exploitationtechniques and by promoting communityland management

Reducing the herdIt is not easy to convince local farmers toadopt the idea of giving land time in whichto recover while reducing herd numbersHowever improving cropping techniques incultivated areas may release land for cattlerearing therefore possibly reducing pastoralpressure and the degradation that resultsfrom it In many countries the size of theherd is a source of pride and honour for theherder his family or clan (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows)Education and public awareness cancontribute to spreading another messagewhich is otherwise difficult to grasp byproducing livestock of better quality (andimproving veterinary services) the herderrsquosincome can be maintained or increaseddespite the drop in herd numbersGovernments should intervene to resolveconflicts that may occur because of this On a political level regional national andinternational measures should regulatemarket flows (the importation of cheap meathampers the sale of local meat)

6

82

Dig a large deep hole in theschool garden to make a compostheap Everyone can throw in fruitand vegetable leftovers deadplants and animal droppingswhich should be turned overoccasionally (See cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree Grows) Be careful not to add animalbones or milk as it may get verysmelly

Create a nursery in thegarden of your school Draw the plans select theappropriate plants and usethe compost and thewindbreak (see cartoon The School Where the MagicTree Grows)

Underline the following correctphrases

bull The practice of polyculture isfavoured over monoculturewhich exhausts the soil

bull The charge capacity of land isequal to the maximum amount of crops that can be harvested

bull Every species of plant has thesame nutritional needs

bull Land degradation is definite andirreversible

bull It is better to have fewer well-fedanimals than a hungry herd

Write a letter to the Presidentor the Agricultural Minister ofyour country telling him herthe reasons behind thecreation of the nursery Why not ask them throughtheir Ministries or NGOs whoare undertaking work in thisfield for financial help to buyyoung shoots and tools to getstarted

83

Classroom

19Using renewable energiesOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculture

32

gt

1 Rajasthan in IndiaCamels transporting solar panels Solar panels can beinstalled and used wherever there is enough sun copy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

84

1

2 3 Improved ovens andhearths use less woodcompared to classicsystems because theyconcentrate the heat and are therefore fuel-efficientcopy Michel Le Berre

4 Rajasthan in Indiawomen cooking with a solar ovencopy Madanjeet Singh UNESCO

5 6 Wind energy produceselectricity withoutharmful effects to theenvironment5 copy Jean-Michel Battin

6 copy Michel Le Berre

4 5

TechnologicalInnovationsDevelopment can only be sustainable if it is founded on scientific and technicalknowledge The latest technologicaladvances can provide solutions todesertification by improving on traditionalsystems of production combined with theuse of new sources of energy thatprogressively restore the soil increasecereal and meat production and preventenvironmental degradation

Substituting woodAll human societies use energy which is vitalfor its proper functioning and developmentToday however a large number ofpopulations use wood as their major sourceof energy which contributes further todesertification (through deforestation) andincreases the greenhouse effect (byreleasing carbon dioxide) The non-sustainable use of forest resources(firewood) as a source of energy is a factorleading to desertification Thereforeidentifying and employing alternativerenewable energy sources is important in thefight against desertification Non-polluting and infinite or renewableenergies can replace wood at limited or nocost (the energy source is free) and they caneasily be used by families in villages

Solar energyBright sunny conditions characteristic ofarid and semi-arid regions can satisfyenergy needs in these areas Solar energy can be used in multiple ways

greenhouses integrated into thestructure of the dwelling with panelsthat store energy from the sun inreservoirs (to supply hot water)

parabolic mirrors help cook foodproduce water vapour and run electricwater turbines

panels transform sunrays intoelectricity The electric current is storedin batteries and can be used day ornight Despite the present high cost itis hoped that this option will becomemore affordable in the future

the evaporation power of the sun canproduce distilled water free of saltand germs by using a solar distiller

85

19Using renewable energies

WindThe force of the wind can drive windpropellers that produce electricity A largerudder orientates the wheel so that it facesthe wind while a small blade reduces thespeed of the wheel during strong winds The rotational movement made by the windproduces both electricity and mechanicalforce The wind energy can generate a pumpto extract water from wells fill wateringholes or irrigation basins or activate mills totransform grain into flour (windmill) In California North America the productionof electricity from wind power has reachedindustrial proportions In the drylands wherewinds are frequent (trade winds harmattanscirocco) this form of energy could be animportant complement in the long term Thistype of energy will facilitate land irrigationand the supply of water to the livestock

BiogasBiogas is a gaseous mix produced in afermentation tank (airtight reservoir) or a digestor that derives from thedecomposition of organic matter (dung andplant waste) The process of fermentationthat removes odours and pollution from thetreated matter lasts between 1 and 3 weeksand the biogas produced accumulates in thereservoir The residues from thefermentation can be used as natural fertilizer(compost) The high temperatures in thedrylands are beneficial to the creation ofbiogas Its advantages it is uncostly and can be used for lighting cooking or to drivemotors (generators tractors and cars)Biogas can also be produced in smallinstallations This technique can mosteffectively be developed in regions whereagriculture and cattle rearing coexist

6

86

Compile a list of the differenttypes of energy sources found inyour village wood wind sunpetrol gas etc Which energy type does yourfamily mostly use Why Is it the most economic orenvironmentally friendly form ofenergy

Construct a windmill To do this take a square sheetof paper and fold it diagonally Cut along 23 of the diagonalfrom the edge of the sheet Younow have two corners for eachangle Fold one of the corners andposition it at the centre of thesquare repeat this with the fouralternate tips Then fix the four tips at thecentre of the square with a pinattached to a wooden stick thiswill act as a support handle(See drawing)

Construct a lsquowindspeed testerrsquoby attaching four plastic cupsat the extremities of twobranches or rods in the shape ofa cross that rotates on its axis Notice the speed of the rotationof the cross (the number ofrotations per minute) in areasexposed to the wind andsheltered from the wind Explain how windspeed affectsthe environment

Contact a company thatspecializes in renewableenergies and ask them to makea presentation of theirproducts during the schoolexhibition on desertification Invite all the villagers to themeeting

87

Classroom

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledgeOBJECTIVE To propose methods that combat desertification in agriculturegt

Associate ancient and new practicesIn the past development planners oftentended to neglect the populations of thedrylands Old sustainable ways of using theland were frequently disrupted and nomadsand other dryland populations had toabandon their livelihoods as the systemsinherited by the colonial era were maintainedby young independent states Even thoughthese techniques worked in the homecountries where conditions were verydifferent in the drylands they proveddisastrous often alienating the local people

and deepening their poverty Some projectshowever did succeed The best among themwere often run by organizations that had setout to listen to the local people learn abouttheir techniques and priorities while workingout solutions with them

Increasingly development projects combinednew technologies with traditional practicesand community know-how often reinforcedefforts to combat desertification Theadoption of traditional techniques to combatdesertification has the double advantage oflow cost (in general simple means areemployed and are within the reach of

2

88

1

1 River Chari in Chadcrops protected by smalldikes the length of theriver copy Ameacutelie Dupuy

2 Nepal terrace croppingcopy Gd Onofrio FAO

3 4 Local farmersconstructing small dikesand mini dams to retainirrigation water andprotect the crops3 copy G Bizzarri FAO

4 copy J Van Acker FAO

5 Zimbawe womenremoving weedscopy Wagner Horst UNESCO

3 4

communities in developing countries) and areenvironmentally-friendly in the long term (asthey generally rely on attentive observationsof nature gleaned over generations)

Dynamic traditionalknowledgeThe know-how and techniques of traditionalknowledge are dynamic and progressiveCommunities continue to transfer knowledgethrough their relationships with neighboursmarriages with people from distant landsthe adaptation to new cultural environmentsas a result of conquests and so on (See thecase study from Algeria) Many cultures arealso inspired by developments in modernscience

Re-establishingancient techniques of irrigationTraditional irrigation techniques can be re-established in modern development projectsrespectful of the environment In Algeriapopulations of the Saharan oasesconfronted with population growth andenvironmental deterioration have realizedthat by restoring traditional irrigationtechniques they are supporting practicesthat respect the environment They chose torestore palm trees and rehabilitate foggarasan ingenious effective and sustainabletraditional irrigation system consisting ofunderground galleries that drain water by

the force of gravity Water is captured atdepth and transported by canals that do notdamage the ecosystem (See the case studyfrom Algeria the case study from Italydemonstrates another system of waterstorage by traditional methods)

Techniques to combatland sterility andimprove cropsMulching and the use of agriculturalresiduesDead vegetation such as dry grass strawmaize stalks dead leaves or otheragricultural residues (mulch) spread out overthe naked soil or scattered around the plantscan limit erosion and conserve humidity The straw prevents the soil from compactingretains water and allows it to penetrategradually into the soil

89

20Reintroducing indigenous knowledge

The ZaiumlOne of the most effective techniques torehabilitate degraded land is the zaiuml thatconsists of improving the hole used forplantation a technique perfected by afarmer from Burkina Faso During the dryseason the diameter and depth of the holeis widened and manure is added By concentrating water and fertilizer in thisway millet and sorghum can be grownduring dry spells throughout the rainyseason (since rains are not regular evenduring the rainy season) Tens of thousandsof hectares of degraded lands in the Sahelhave been restored for crop productionusing this technique

The role of women(See the case study from India)There are many cases where women throughtheir multiple daily activities employ orexercise ancestral knowledge transmittedfrom mother to daughter These activities contribute to alleviatingpoverty and often respond to innumerableenvironmental challenges recovering sterileland fto establish small family plots andrestoring unproductive lands Regardless ofthe situation in which they live the rationalmanagement of energy resourcespreservation of soil quality or medicinal plantknowledge women are confronted with the fundamental problem of meeting thedaily needs of their family while preservingthe environment in which they live

5

90

Interview women or village eldersin your village town aboutancient medicinal recipes preparedwith local plants Compile therecipes into a book describing thesymptoms and the illness and thepositive effects of the medicine Compare recipes and select one ofthem that can be made in classThen go back to the elders andshow them the new recipes in thecollection

Draw a village where the hillsare cultivated using theterracing technique Is there a village of this type inyour regioncountry What types of crops arecultivated in this way Why

Ask your family whethercultural practices aredifferent today than theywere many years ago

Underline the following correctphrases

bull development projects increasinglyassociate new technologies withtraditional practices

bull traditional techniques areexpensive

bull erosion can be limited byspreading dead leaves and plantson the soil surface

bull the foggara is a modern system ofirrigation

bull all levels of society should beinvolved in combatingdesertification particularlywomen and children

bull zai is a technique that reversesland degradation

91

Classroom

Glossary

gt

aAborigine (n) a native of a countrywhose ancestors are considered to be theoriginal population of a particular areaThey are indigenous or native to thecountry ie aborigines in Australia

addax (nm) an antelope found inSaharan Africa with spiral ringed antlers

Agenda 21 an action plan developed byworld governments during the UnitedNations Conference on Development andEnvironment (Rio de Janeiro June 1992)Agenda 21 alerts us to the urgentproblems faced today and aims toprepare the world for the comingchallenges of this century It reflects aglobal agreement and growing politicalawareness at the highest level for co-operation in the domain of environmentand development It is primarily a role ofgovernment to effectively implement theaction plans

alpaca (n) a cud-chewing grazingmammal domesticated in South Americaand closely related to the llama It possesses a long fleece of fine longwool The alpaca belongs to the family of Camelidae (camels dromedariesllamas etc)

amphibian (n) a group of scaleless four-legged vertebrates of which the young(larvae) live in water while the adults liveon land They are made up of families ofnewts salamanders frogs and toads

antelope (n) a ruminant herbivorousmammal possessing hooves They areparticularly found in the steppes of Asiaand Africa

arable (adj) deacutesigne les terres cultiveacuteesou aptes agrave lrsquoagriculture

arid (adj) characterized by lack of rainIn scientific terms rainfall is less than200 mmyear thereby constituting an aridclimate

atmosphere(n) the gaseous envelopethat surrounds the earth

bbaobab (n) a tree found in Africa andspecially adapted to drought Its swollentrunk stores water while the twistedbranches are reduced in size Almost allof the baobab can be used (trunk fruitsleaves)

barley (n) a flowering grass cultivated asa cereal for food and used in theproduction of beer

biogaz (n) domestic or commercial gasobtained by the conversion of organicwaste into fertilizer and gas used to drivea generator

biosphere (n) a limited space made upof air earth and water and in which life ispossible

biosphere reserve (n) a zone supportingterrestrial ecosystems recognizedinternationally by UNESCO as a favouredsite for research and the promotion ofbalanced interaction between man andnature

Boschiman (n) hunter-gatherers living inthe semi-arid regions of the Cape SouthAfrica

ccactus (n) cacti (pl) family of plantsfound in the Americas with green fleshystems in the form of columns containingwater reserves Their leaves are reducedto thorns to help conserve water

capacity charge (n) a theoretical valuerepresenting the load limits (animalpopulation density agricultural densityhellip)that an ecosystem can support withoutbecoming degraded taking into accountthe resources available in the localenvironment

CILSS Permanent Interstates Committeefor Drought Control in the Sahel (Comiteacutepermanent inter-eacutetats de lutte contre laseacutecheresse dans le Sahel) Created inresponse to the Great Drought of 1968-1993 its mission is to invest in researchand food security and to combat theeffects of drought and desertification TheCILSS brings together nine countries inWest Africa Burkina Faso Cape-VerdeChad Gambia Guinea-Bissau MaliMauritania Niger and Senegal

cholera (n) a bacteria responsible for acontagious disease acquired by ingestingfood or water contaminated by the vibiocholerae bacteria

clearing(s) (n) the act of removing treesor vegetation from a natural ecosystemsuch as a forest or woodland to render itfit for cultivation

compost (n) natural fertilizer made fromorganic animal or plant waste used asfertlizer for crops

Conference of the Parties (n) It is the highest decision-making body as established by the Convention It brings together the representatives ofall the governments having ratified theConvention (UNCCD) and administers itsapplication

contour lines (n) imaginary lines thatfollow the same altitude or height abovesea level They can define the edges ofterraces in terrace farming

ddeforestation (n) the process wherebypeople destroy forest ecosystems byactivities such as bush and forest firesthat clear areas for cultivation and theover-exploitation of wood for energyneeds

dromedary (n) a plant-eating mammalpossessing a hump on its back adaptedto drought conditions They belong to thefamily of Camelidae (alpacas camelsllamas etc)

dry sub-humid (adj) characterized byheavy seasonal rainfall and rainfallvariations of less than 25 from one yearto the next

dysentery (n) an intestinal infectioncaused by germs or amoebae (micro-organisms of ever-changing shape)

93

eecosystem (n) consists of a group ofliving organisms interacting with theirphysical and chemical environment inwhich they evolve

erosion (n) a phenomenon resultingfrom the action of the wind (wind erosion)or from water (hydraulic erosion) thatbrings about the removal of top soil andthe degradation of rocks

euphorbia (n) herbaceous plant of thetropics often tree-like they ressemblecacti of Latin America

evapo-transpiration (n) the return ofwater into the atmosphere as vapour byevaporation from soil or water bodiesand emissions of plant transpiration

evolution (n) the cumulative change inthe characteristics of a population oforganisms over succeding generationsresulting in the adaptation of populationsto variations in environmental factors

ffallow (n) the practice of voluntarilyinterrupting farming activities on the landfor a period of two years or more so as toallow the natural vegetation cover torestore the soil when it has beenexhausted by a succession of cropproduction or overgrazing

FAO Food and Agricultural Organizationof the United Nations contributes toimproving agricultural productivity foodsecurity and the living standards of ruralpopulations

fennec (n) a small African desert fox withlarge ears

foggara (n) an underground gallery thattaps underground water reserves (oraquifers) from which it drains watertowards the fields to be irrigated

gGDP (gross domestic product)an indicator of income levels The sum of products and servicesproduced by a country during a period ofone year and calculated before thededuction of economic expenditure

GIS a computer operated GeographicInformation System producing mapspictures and virtual images that helpbetter define a situation or problem

groundwater reserve (n) layer ofunderground water these so-calledaquifers can be found at varying depthsaccording to its source Groundwaterreserves play an important role in thedrylands where they constitute majorwater sources

hhabitat (n) a place where living plantsanimals and humans are found

halophyte (n) a plant adapted to salt-rich soils

harmattan (n) a dry dusty wind from thedesert in West Africa

humus (n) a brown coloured layer at thesoil surface made up of decomposedvegetation rich in organic matter andnutritive elements that enrich the soil

iIGAD the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment which aims to supportregional efforts to combat the effects ofdrought and desertification The membersof State are Djibouti Eritrea EthiopiaKenya Uganda Somalia and Sudan

impluvium (n) in Roman dwellings itwas the basin placed below the openspace in the roof to receive rainwater

intensive agriculture (n) a method ofcrop production based on crop farmingand cattle rearing that attempts tomaximize production in areas of reducedsize Intensive agriculture often leads toovergrazing monoculture and the end offallow periods practices which in turnexhaust the land

irrigation (n) a technique used to collectand distribute water in the drylands byvarious methods

jjerboa (n) a desert rodent with long hindlegs and a long tail that helps it balancefor jumping

lland degradation (n) a process leadingto a loss of soil fertility that can be linkedto a drop in the concentration of organicmatter in the soil an accumulation ofminerals andor a change in the soilstructure by desiccation or erosion

lichen (n) a plant composed of a fungusand an algae It is often used as anindicator of pollution-free environments

94

mmallee (n) any tree belonging to thegenus Eucalyptus Also mallee scrub anarea where mallee forms the predominantvegetation

Mesopotamia (n) a once fertile region of Central Asia situated between theTigris and Euphrates valleys Oftenmarshy Mesopotamia was irrigated sinceantiquity The fertility of the regionestablished the foundations of futurecivilisations Their contributions includethe wheel glass the alphabet calendarsbronze iron poetry farming andirrigation

metabolism (n) the sum total of thephysiological and biochemical processesin an organism

micro-organism (n) a plant or animalthat is invisible to the naked eye and canonly be seen through a microscope

migration (n) seasonal displacement ofan animal from one region to another inorder to reproduce search for food orseek a better climate or living conditionsHuman populations are also said tomigrate for economic or political reasons

millet (n) a grass cultivated as a cerealor foraging plant

monoculture (n) the growing of only onetype of crop or a large area over which itis grown

moufflon (n) a big-horned wild sheep

mulch (n) a loose material such asstrawy dung laid on the soil aroundplants to protect roots retain moistureand to control weeds It often has anutritional function for the plants as well

nNeolithic (n and adj) a prehistoricperiod corresponding to the Stone Agebetween 5000BC and 2500BC and thebeginning of agriculture and cattlerearing

NGO (n) a non-profit non-governmentalorganization whose work is carried outindependently from governments

nitrates (n pl) minerals salts of nitricacid they are nutritive mineral elementsfor plants In zones of intensiveagriculture the use of nitrate basedfertilizer can frequently lead to pollutionof surface and underground water tables

noria (n) a long chain of buckets orreceptacles on a wheel used for raisingwater form a stream into irrigationchannels

nutrient (n) a basic nutritional substancevital to plants or animals that can beabsorbed by the organism without theneed for digestion

ooasis (n) a small fertile isolated regionemerging from a watering hole in thedesert

organic matter (n) substance originatingfrom living organisms

ostrich (n) the largest bird in the worldfound it is found in the desert savannahof Africa It is flightless but is remarkablefor its speed in running and can bedomesticated

ppesticide (n) a dangerous chemicalproduct intended to eliminate pestsusually animals (insects) that damagecrop harvests and are thereforeconsidered a nuisance Pesticides are amajor contributor to pollution

pastoralism (n) a method of farmingbased on cattle rearing it depicts anomadic rural lifestyle

piezometer (n) an instrument usd tomeasure the water level in groundwaterreserves

poliomyelitis (n) an infectious andcontagious viral disease that can lead toparalysis

polyculture (n) the simultaneousproduction of several different crops andtypes of livestock in one region

rrain-fed agriculture (n) a method of cropproduction relying on natural rainfallwithout artificial irrigation systems

reforestation (n) tree replanting activityparticularly in an area previously forestedor woody

run-off (n) to cause to flow out usuallyrelates to surface water flow from rainfall

sSADC Southern African DevelopmentCommunity This organization aims toachieve development and economicgrowth and enhance the standard andquality of life of the peoples of SouthernAfrica The member States are AngolaBotswana Democratic Republic of CongoLesotho Malawi Mauritius MozambiqueNamibia South Africa SeychellesSwaziland Tanzania The Zambia andZimbabwe

Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS) Its primary objective is to promote thedevelopment and the optimisation of dataintended for desertification control Its members are Algeria Burkina FasoCape Verde Chad Djibouti Egypt EritreaEthiopia Gambia Guinea Bissau KenyaLibya Mali Mauritania Morocco NigerUganda Somalia Sudan Senegal andTunisia

Sahel (adjn) the group of countrieslocated south of the Sahara desertgenerally between the desert and theSavannah regions

salinity (n) mineral salt concentrations inthe soil or water A high salinity results inthe loss of fertility and pollutesunderground reserves 95

satellite (n) a man-made devicelaunched into space and revolving aroundthe planet It can receive and sendinformation take photographs measuretemperature magnetism etc

scirroco (n) a hot dry dusty windblowing from North Africa to the NorthMeditteranean coast

semi-arid (adj) characterized by rainfallnot exceeding 500 mmyear (winter rains)or 800 mmyear (summer rains) givingrise to a semi-arid climate

senecio (n) any plant from the genusSenecio distributed throughout mostparts of the world

shelterbelt (n) fence of planted treesand shrubs that create a barrier againstoutside influences (fire sand windanimal invasions etc) (See the case studyfrom China)

sorghum (n) a drought-resistant plantcultivated for human food consumptionand found in Africa and Asia

sub-humid (adj) characterized by rainfallwhose total equals at least half theevaporation rate but less than the totalloss by evaporation resulting in a sub-humid climate

sustainable development (n) themanagement of natural resources thatsatisfies the needs of present generationswithout compromising resources forfuture generations

ttroglodytic (n) a cave dwelling eitherformed naturally or artificially carved outfrom the rock The cave dweller is knownas a troglodyte

Tuareg (n) a nomadic people of theSahara in Africa

transhumance (n) periodic migration ofcattle following changes in the seasonsfrom summer to winter or from winter tosummer pastures They are often led bynomadic populations

typhoid (n) an infectious disease oftenoccuring in epidemic proportionscharacterized by high fever loss ofconcentration and serious digestivedisorders

uUMA Union maghreacutebine Arabe MemberStates are Algeria Libyan ArabJamahiriya Morocco Mauritania andTunisia

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme Implements projects forsocial and economic progress and thealleviation of poverty The organizationannually measures the indices (GDP HDI)on the development of every country inthe world

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme Encourages the applicationof environmentally friendly activitiesaround the world

UNESCO United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural OrganizationCertain UNESCO scientific programmescontribute to combat desertificationnotably the Man and the BiosphereProgramme (MAB) the InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and theInternational Geological CorrelationProgramme (IGCP)

vvegetation cover (n) the total sum ofplants (generally low-lying plants)covering the ground

vertebrate (n) an animal possessing aspinal chord including fishesamphibians reptiles birds and mammals

wwater tribunal or assembly (n) set up bythe local community it reunites the localpopulation to make collective decisionson the distribution of water according tothe specific needs of the community Awater lsquoagentrsquo is appointed who calculatesand measures the quantity of waterrequired daily by the locals for washingand drinking etc

WMO World Meteorological Organizationa United Nations agency Encouragesscientific research climate changeanalysis and promotes the worldexchange of meteorological data

zzebu (n) a type of humped domestic oxoriginating in India it is found in Chinathe east coast of Africa and Madagascar

96

gt

List of countries or economic regional organizationssignatories to the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (as of December 2000)

(Classification by date of ratification accession or acceptance)

1 Mexico 030495

2 Cape Verde 080595

3 The Netherlands 270695

4 Egypt 070795

5 Senegal 260795

6 Ecuador 060995

7 Lesotho 120995

8 Finland 200995

9 Togo 041095

10 Tunisia 111095

11 Guinea-Bissau 271095

12 Mali 311095

13 Uzbekistan 311095

14 Afghanistan 011195

15 Peru 091195

16 Sudan 241195

17 Canada 011295

18 Sweden 121295

19 Denmark 221295

20 Switzerland 190196

21 Niger 190196

22 Mauritius 230196

23 Bangladesh 260196

24 Burkina Faso 260196

25 Spain 300196

26 Micronesia 250396

27 Israel 260396

28 Portugal 010496

29 Panama 040496

30 Lebanon 160596

31 Algeria 220596

32 Gambia 110696

33 Malawi 130696

34 Germany 100796

35 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

220796

36 Oman 230796

37 Bolivia 010896

38 Mauritania 070896

39 Eritrea 140896

40 Benin 290896

41 Norway 300896

42 Mongolia 030996

43 Central African Republic

050996

44 Gabon 060996

45 Botswana 110996

46 Turkmenistan 180996

47 Zambia 190996

48 Lao Peoplersquos Democratic

Republic 200996

49 Haiti 250996

50 Chad 270996

51 Swaziland 071096

52 Nepal 151096

53 United Kingdom

of Great Britian and

Northern Ireland 181096

54 Jordan 211096

55 Morocco 121196

56 India 171296

57 Ghana 271296

58 Myanmar 020197

59 Argentine 060197

60 Burundi 060197

61 Yemen 040197

62 Paraguay 150197

63 Luxembourg 040297

64 Chine 180297

65 Pakistan 240297

66 Cocircte drsquoIvoire 040397

67 Cuba 130397

68 Mozambique 130397

69 Iran (Islamic Republic of )

290497

70 Greece 050597

71 Barbados 140597

72 Namibia 160597

73 Grenada 280597

74 Cameroon 290597

75 Austria 020697

76 Iceland 030697

77 Antigua and Barbados

060697

78 Syrian Arab

Republic 100697

79 Djibouti 120697

80 France 120697

81 United Republic

of Tanzania 190697

82 Guinea 230697

83 Italy 230697

84 Kenya 240697

85 Brazil 250697

86 Honduras 250697

87 Madagascar 250697

88 Malaysia 250697

89 Saudi Arabia

250697

90 Uganda 250697

91 Dominican Republic

260697

92 Equitorial Guinea

260697

Liste des pays ou organisations eacuteconomiques reacutegionales drsquointeacutegration ayant ratifieacute la Convention des Nations Unies sur la lutte contre la deacutesertification (situation deacutecembre 2000)98

Acknowledgements

This kit has been developed as a joint

initiative between UNESCO and the UNCCD

Secretariat We are very grateful to the

Governments of Italy and Switzeland for

providing the necessary funds for the

preparation of this kit A large number of

people and organizations have also

contributed to its development notably

the UNEP the FAO and the Sahel

InstituteCILSS

We would especially like to thank the

following people for their contribution and

continued enthusiasm Moussa Bathily Ba

Sonia Filippazzi Jesus de la Fuente

Christine Herme Halilou Ibrahima Sophie

Lanier Ray Lee Diane Lehman Adoum

Ngaba Waye Mohamed Skouri Maria

Stolk Marguerite Vicente

Insi

de fr

ont

and

back

cov

ers

copy Y

ann

Art

hus-

Ber

tran

d E

arth

from

Abo

ve

UN

ESC

O

This document is part of the Environmental Education Kit on Desertificationpublished by UNESCO and the UNCCDThe kit is available in three languages (English French and Spanish) and comprises five documentsA Teachers Guide Learning to Combat DesertificationA Series of Case Studies Combating Desertification Bears FruitA Cartoon The School Where the Magic Tree GrowsA Cartoon There is No Rug Big Enough to Sweep the Desert UnderA Poster Desertification in the World

UNESCO ndash MABDivision of Ecological Sciences1 rue Miollis75352 Paris 07 SP FranceFax (+) 33 1 45 68 58 04httpwwwunescoorgmab

desertification

Learningto combat