learning outcomes - open university malaysia · 24 x topic 2 oral communication:some basic...

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X Oral Communication:Some Basic Principles

X INTRODUCTION

This topic outlines some basic principles of oral communication, focusing on the need for good listening and speaking skills (Figure 2.1). It also describes the roles of speakers and listeners in the communication process, and identifies possible sources of noise that interferes with this process.

Figure 2.1: Oral communication involves good listening and speaking skills

Source: karumudi.com

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Classify the basic principles of oral communication;

2. Explain why oral communication is important;

3. Describe the roles of speakers and listeners in the communicationprocess; and

4. Identify interferences in communication.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES W 21

PRINCIPLES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

The way you use oral communication skills can either help or hinder your ability to influence or bond with family and friends, and affect your performance at work. Many corporate organisations and professional positions require people who are able to speak well and convincingly. Teachers, professors, doctors, sales people, corporate management personnel, trainers and politicians make use of this skill extensively. Clearly, mastery of oral communication skills can play a vital role in helping you achieve success.

When writing on the essential principles of communication, Camp and Satterwhite (2002) explained that oral communication is a two-way process that requires both a speaker and a listener. It is most effective when the sender of a message has good speaking skills and the receiver has good listening skills.

Oral communication therefore involves two crucial skills ă listening and speaking.

2.1.1 Listening Skills

How would you rate your listening skills? Take this test to find out how good a listener you are.

2.1

ACTIVITY 2.1

What kind of a listener are you?

This activity helps you to learn more about your listening habits. Do you listen effectively? Respond to the following questions, rating yourself on a scale of 1 to 5, using the following key:

1 = always, 2 = often, 3 = sometimes, 4 = seldom, and 5 = never.

1. I listen actively, I show respect to the speaker, and prompt the speaker to develop his thoughts further.

2. I listen to the speakerÊs message and feelings; I try to feel what the speaker feels.


X TOPIC 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES 22

(Adapted from Devito, 2009)

How did you fare in the test above? Well, you might be surprised to learn that there is no single „best‰ way of listening. If the majority of your answers were „mostly‰, „often‰ and „sometimes‰, then you could probably consider yourself an effective listener. But if your answers were mainly „always‰ and „never‰, then perhaps you need to review and improve on your listening skills. Of course, how you listen is influenced by a host of factors, including what is happening in the actual listening situation itself. The methods described in Activity 2.1 above apply to many situations but not ALL possible scenarios.

Does this explanation make you feel even more confused? DonÊt worry ă just read on and you will soon learn more about listening, including the various ways this takes place, in different situations, under different conditions. Clearly, you cannot listen with undivided attention to everything that people around you are saying, all the time. Neither can you focus on every sound uttered near you, day and night. If you try to do that, you will probably end up as a victim of burn-out. A good way to start improving on your listening skills is to identify the listening behaviour appropriate for different situations. Later, you can work on actually improving your listening skills.

3. I always look for the underlying message by listening for subtle verbal or non-verbal cues.

4. I listen mostly to the surface meaning of what a speaker says; I donÊt concentrate so much on the hidden meanings.

5. I listen without getting actively involved; I mostly listen silently and take in the speakerÊs message.

6. I listen objectively; I keep focused on the logical meaning rather than on the emotional meaning of what the speaker says.

7. I listen critically and evaluate the speaker as well as his message.

8. I listen to the speaker without being judgmental.



(a) Mindful Attention Listening is the skill that is the least taught formally. Unless you have a

hearing disability, everybody assumes that just because you have ears, you can listen. This is a wrong assumption as listening and hearing are different sets of skills.

Hearing, which is merely the physical ability to hear sounds, occurs unconsciously. Listening is to hear something mindfully. Effective listening requires you to listen intently and pay close attention to the speaker. If you do not pay full attention or miss part of the message, you cannot replay what has been said unless you have recorded the message or lecture.

According to Devito (2009), effective listening comprises five components as shown in Figure 2.2 below:

Figure 2.2: A model of listening

Source: Devito, J. A. (2009). Human communication: The basic course. Boston, USA: Pearson Education.

(i) Receiving Hearing begins and ends when one receives a sound stimuli.

Listening is different. Listening does not begin and end just with hearing a sound as it involves deriving meaning from the sound. When you listen, you concentrate on the verbal as well as non-verbal message. This involves reading gestures, body movements and facial expressions.

(ii) Understanding This is the stage where you learn to decipher the meaning of the

message as well as pick up cues from the emotional tone of the speaker.



(iii) Remembering Listening also involves remembering interpreted sounds or messages

and saving them for use later on. However, you may not be able to remember exactly what you hear. Your mind deciphers and reinterprets messages and sometimes, you just cannot recall 100% of the message.

(iv) Evaluating Evaluating a message means that you make some judgement about it.

This process is often done unconsciously by the listener. In some cases, you might want to identify the speakerÊs intention or motive. This judgement might be critical or analytical and cause you to wonder whether what you hear is based on facts or emotion. You may need to decide whether the speaker has a personal agenda, or is biased and prejudiced.

(v) Responding Responses are feedback based on what you have heard. You respond

in two ways. First, you respond while the speaker is talking and, second, you respond after the speaker has stopped speaking. In responding you allow the speaker to know what you think or feel about what he has said.

(b) Listening There are two types of listening ă passive and active. The difference

between them is the level of involvement of the listener.

In passive listening, you listen passively, at a low level of concentration and absorb the minimum number of words. Very often, you remember, or understand, very little of what has been said. You may respond to the speakerÊs voice by smiling or nodding but do not pay full attention to him/her.

This kind of listening happens when you are on holiday or relaxing. You may be lazing on the beach, listening vaguely to music or voices in the background. You only begin to listen attentively when you hear something that interests you, for instance, the call to go for lunch.

Active listening involves a higher level of concentration. You listen actively at school, university or work, when you need to obtain information.



You can improve your active listening skills through various techniques:

(i) Paraphrasing the speakerÊs message and ideas, using simpler words without changing the meaning.

(ii) Identifying your weaknesses, e.g. are you hearing-impaired, mentally unprepared, or easily distracted?

(iii) Preparing yourself mentally and physically to listen, using various listening strategies, e.g. the Memory Helper (see Figure 2.3).

(iv) Setting priorities, e.g. what are the important things you want to listen to?

The Memory Helper

This method helps you remember the speakerÊs message better.

Use the strategies represented by the letters „IS A FACT‰:

x Identify the speakerÊs ideas and connection between ideas.

x Summarise the main ideas.

x Assess whether the ideas are true or correct.

x Formulate questions.

x Associate speakerÊs ideas with other known concepts.

x Consider ways in which the ideas might be used.

x Take notes to help you recall the information.

(Camp and Satterwhite, 2002)

Figure 2.3: The memory Helper You will learn more about listening skills and ways to become better listeners in later topics.



2.1.2 Speaking Skills

This is the skill that you will use most in oral communication. Wood (2009) lists three principles that explain oral communication and how they affect us. The fourth, concerning speech quality, is obtained from Camp & Satterwhite (2002). (a) Interpretation of Symbols Create Meaning Symbols, like words, which are used in communication do not have

meanings on their own. Their meanings are derived from people. This means that you have to look into people to uncover the meaning. Every word has a dictionary meaning but when used by a person in an expression, you have to look into the person and the context in which the word is used to get the actual meaning. For example, „go out‰ is literally a command or directive. You say these words when you want someone to physically move from the inside of a building to the outside. However, if a man says to a woman, „LetÊs go out.‰ he is not necessarily asking her to go outside. He might actually be asking her to go on a date.

Also the meanings attached to words change from time to time. Words which used to have a positive or neutral connotation may now have a negative connotation, and vice-versa. The word „gay‰ used to mean „merry‰. Nowadays, the same word may be used to refer to people who are homosexuals.

(b) There Are Rules in Communication Verbal communication has its own set of unspoken but widely understood

rules. „Communication rules are shared understandings of what communication means and what kinds of communication are and are not appropriate in various situations‰ (Wood, 2009).

ACTIVITY 2.2

1. What is the difference between „hearing‰ and „listening‰?

2. What is the difference between „passive listening‰ and „activelistening‰?

3. Give examples of different situations in which you listen passivelyand actively.



These rules are not formalised or intentionally formed but are unconsciously developed as we interact with family, friends and people at work. There are two sets of rules that guide communication:

(i) Regulative Rules These unwritten rules tell you when, where, how and with whom

you can have a conversation. An example is turn-taking when talking with someone. You know that you should not interrupt the person speaking but you also need to look out for signals that will tell you when to enter into a conversation and when to end it.

Regulative rules also define when, where, and with whom you can communicate in a particular way. For example, traditionally, in Asian homes, the elders speak first while the youngsters listen without interruption or contradiction (Figure 2.4).

At work, junior officers are expected not to interrupt superior officers when they speak. However, superior officers can interrupt their junior officer any time. Employees are also expected to show respect and interest when their employers speak to them.

Figure 2.4: Elders speak first

Source: firstpeople.us

(ii) Constitutive Rules These rules „define what communication means by showing us the meaning behind certain kinds of symbols used in communication.‰ For example, head bowing in Asia is a symbol of respect (Figure 2.5), kissing and hugging denotes love and affection while yawning and shouting during a conversation denotes rudeness.

Another example of a constitutive rule is to clap after a speaker has given a talk even though we may have found the talk absolutely boring.



Figure 2.5: Head bowing

Source: dkimages.com

(c) Punctuation Affects Meaning Punctuation in communication affects meaning. The full stop, for instance,

marks the end of one sentence or idea and the beginning of another. Similarly, punctuation can signal the beginning or the end of a particular interaction.

For example, when a professor enters the lecture hall, his entry marks the beginning of the lecture. When he switches off the overhead projector, takes off his reading glasses and says „ThatÊs all for today‰, it signals the end of the lecture. Tension is created when people disagree on punctuation.

(d) Voice Attributes To be an effective speaker, you need to pay attention to the following voice

attributes as they affect the quality of your speech.

(i) Volume Your voice must be heard clearly for effective oral communication.

You need to have good breath control in order to speak with sufficient volume. If you speak too softly, the audience will not be able to hear and understand what you are saying.

(ii) Pitch You should speak with a pleasing pitch that is neither too high nor too

low. Your voice will be shrill if it is pitched too high, and deep if it is pitched too low. Speakers need to learn to vary the pitch of their voices when they speak so as to get the right intonation.



(iii) Intonation Intonation is the rhythm, or the rise and fall of your voice when you

speak. For example, the intonation rises at the end of the utterance when you ask a question. The intonation remains level at the end of the utterance when you make a statement. Subtle nuances in meaning can arise when you vary the pitch.

(iv) Tone The tone of your voice reflects your emotions and attitude. A cheerful

and pleasant tone is usually appreciated by your listeners (Figure 2.6). Telephone operators and frontline people who man phones need to develop a polite, cheerful and pleasant tone. The tone that you use must also be suitable for the words and the message that you intend to convey.

Figure 2.6: Let your listener hear you smile

Source: popartmachine.com

(v) Tempo Tempo refers to the speed at which you speak. Do not speak too fast

or too slowly. If you speak too fast, your listeners will not be able to catch what you are saying. However, if you speak too slowly, your listeners may get bored and their attention may wander. Worse still, you may end up making them sleepy. A recommended speaking rate is 125 words per minute.

(vi) Enunciation This refers to the clarity or distinctiveness with which you articulate

each part of a word. Clear enunciation of words will help your listener to better understand your message.



Many speakers do not enunciate the end sounds of words, for example, dropping the /g/ sound in „walking‰ to sound like „walkin‰. When they speak fast, they run the sounds of a group of words together and drop some sounds, e.g., „Whadijado?‰ for „What did you do?‰

(vii) Pronunciation Pronunciation refers to the reproduction of the sound of individual

letters or group of letters that make up a word. It also includes speaking with the correct stress and emphasis.

Read the following statements and decide which rules are constitutive and which are regulative. Write „C‰ (constitutive) and „R‰ (regulative) in the box next to the particular statement.

1. Nodding your head means you agree with what your colleague is saying.

2. Clasping your parentsÊ hands when you greet them shows respect.

3. You interrupt your friends only when they stop speaking.

4. Being punctual and doing your work well shows that you are a good worker.

5. You only talk to your mother about personal issues.

6. You never talk about family disagreements at a social gathering.

7. Hugging your friends shows affection.

8. You keep quiet and listen when your father is talking.

ACTIVITY 2.3



WHY WE NEED GOOD ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Possessing good oral speaking skills will make you a more effective communicator as you will be able to influence and persuade people. This is beneficial for you at a personal level as well as socially and professionally.

2.2.1 Building Friendships

Socially, good oral communication skills enable you to effectively share information, thoughts, feelings, needs and intentions. You can create close relationships and bond with family, friends and people at work (see Figure 2.7). A good listener is almost always appreciated. If you are a good listener, you also tend to win friends as most people regard someone who listens to their problems, fears, joys, and successes as a true friend.

Figure 2.7: Oral communication skills help to foster friendships

Source: singaporearmystories.blogspot

2.2.2 Knowledge Acquisition

The learning process often requires you to have an inquiring mind. Good oral communication skills will help you acquire knowledge more effectively, especially when you are able to ask questions, express opinions and ideas, and summarise information.

2.2



Providing such feedback will enable your lecturers, teachers, or instructors to gauge how well you understand what has been taught. Good listening skills will also help you comprehend course content better.

2.2.3 Developing Workplace Competencies

Business and professional people depend a lot on oral communication skills when they engage in different activities. Educationists deliver lectures and hold tutorials, discussions, forums and seminars. Business people use oral communication skills a great deal when they interact with customers and suppliers, make reports or give explanations, participate in meetings, and hold informal discussions with employers and employees.

Speaking is an important skill when interviewing or training new employees, participating in social-business discussions and giving public presentations or speeches. Listening is important for both employers and employees. As an employer, you need to listen to the suggestions, complaints and feelings of your employees. Conversely, an employee needs to listen to the instructions, demands and advice given by his superiors at work.

ROLES OF SPEAKER AND LISTENER

Both the speaker and the listener are responsible for ensuring that effective communication takes place. Remember that the speaker is the sender of the message while the listener is the receiver. Let us look at the some of responsibilities of both the speaker and the listener in the communication process (Camp & Satterwhite, 2002).

2.3.1 Evaluate the Situation

Effective communication can only take place when the speaker is clear about his own views and interpretation of ideas and experiences. Communication with yourself must take place before you can communicate effectively with others. The speaker needs to evaluate the communication situation and try to do the following:

2.3



(a) Avoid Miscommunication The ideal situation is when the intended message, actual message, and

interpreted message are the same. This is what Carl Rogers meant when he defined „communication‰ way back in 1952. The speaker needs to choose his words precisely and the receiver should listen with full attention so that the message is understood correctly. There should be no room for miscommunication.

(b) Give and Receive Feedback Misinterpretation and breakdown in communication can be avoided if the

sender gets feedback. In a dialogue, the speaker can observe signals given out by the listener (e.g. body language, gestures, and facial expression) to see whether his message has been interpreted correctly.

Another technique is to ask questions. The speaker can ask the receiver questions to determine whether his message is getting across accurately. As communication is a continuous two-way process involving sender and receiver, the receiver can, in turn, ask questions to clarify what is unclear.

(c) Maintain Goodwill Effective communication is more easily achieved if the listener accepts

and receives the speakerÊs message with an open mind. An effective communicator needs to be good at public relations so as to maintain goodwill between sender and receiver. Do not offend or anger people with what you say or you will make enemies. This will affect how your message is received and interpreted.

2.3.2 Understand Needs

As an effective communicator, you will try to fulfil your own needs as well as the needs of the receiver of your message. Abraham Maslow categorised human needs into five levels. Figure 2.8 shows MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs:



Figure 2.8: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs

(a) Physical Needs These are basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. These basic needs

must be satisfied before receivers can think of other things.

(b) Security Needs These include the desire for a safe and secure environment that is free from

physical harm and emotional or mental abuse.

(c) Social Needs Everyone wants to have a sense of belonging and be part of a group. These

needs are satisfied by being part of a family, social circle or workforce.

(d) Esteem Needs These needs are actualised through feelings of self-worth, self-respect,

prestige, power and recognition. (e) Self-actualisation Needs These are higher level needs which are met through a sense of achievement

and helping other people realise their goals.



2.3.3 Use Interpersonal Skills

Good interpersonal skills are useful when dealing with people as they help to build goodwill. The late American president, Ronald Reagan, was known as „the great communicator‰ as he had an easy way of speaking and could handle people very well. He also had great personal charisma. Of course, it helped that he used to be a good-looking Hollywood actor.

Try to use the following techniques to help you develop good interpersonal skills:

(a) Make You-statements This technique involves saying things in such a way that you put the

interests of your receiver first. Keep things nice and friendly. The receiver of your message will warm up to you as he feels that you have his interests at heart. An example of a You-statement message is „To help customers get value for their money, we have lowered the price by five percent.‰

Do not use the I-statement as it makes you sound like you are putting your own interests ahead of everybody elseÊs interests. An example of this is „In order to sell off our stock quickly, we have lowered the price by five percent.‰

(b) Have A Positive Attitude Demonstrate a positive attitude by developing good relationships with

your superiors, subordinates, co-workers, customers, and clients when you are at work. Do the same when dealing with family and friends. A cheerful, optimistic, and enthusiastic outlook will win you points (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9: Positive attitude

Source: pensionriskmatters.com



(c) Be A Good Listener Show that you are a good listener by listening intently, taking notes, paraphrasing and asking questions.

(d) Keep Things Confidential A good communicator knows the importance of keeping information confidential and releasing it to only authorised people at the appropriate time.

(e) Be Considerate Treat people well. Be polite, courteous, honest, and respect the opinions of others. Use tact and diplomacy especially when dealing with difficult people.

ACTIVITY 2.4

Change the following I-statements into You-statements. I-statement You-statement

1. For my convenience, I have decided to open the shop at 10am.

2. I feel hurt when you scold me.

3. In order to keep my business going, you have to work harder.

4. I feel humiliated when you insult me in public.

5. To cut down on my electricity bill, switch on the air-conditioner only when necessary.

6. As it fits my schedule, I am extending business hours.



INTERFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION

According to Devito (2009), there are several types of „noise‰ that might interfere with the communication process:

(a) Physical interference;

(b) Physiological interference;

(c) Psychological interference; and

(d) Semantic interference.

These interferences or noise may distract and prevent the receiver from paying full attention to the message. When this happens, the message may not be heard and interpreted fully or correctly. Similarly, interferences may cause the speaker to lose concentration and this can lead to incomplete or erroneous communication on the part of the sender. As a result, receivers will interpret the messages wrongly and not as intended by the speaker.

2.4.1 Physical Interference

This kind of interference is external and outside the control of both the speaker and the receiver. It affects the physical transmission of the message. Examples are noise disturbances like loud music (Figure 2.10), the sound of traffic from a busy road, static coming from a faulty loudspeaker system, or loud drilling from a nearby construction site.

Figure 2.10: Loud music

Source: elmbridge.gov.uk

2.4



2.4.2 Physiological Interference

These are barriers to communication due to physiological challenges on the part of the speaker or the receiver. The speaker or receiver may be hearing-impaired, have speech articulation problems, or suffer from short-term memory loss. Even if a speaker delivers his message clearly and loudly, a listener who has hearing problems will not be able to understand and receive the message fully. On the other hand, if a sender speaks with a lisp and cannot pronounce the /r / and /s/ sounds properly, the listener may not be able to understand what has been said.

2.4.3 Psychological Interference

This type of interference stems from the mental makeup of the receiver or sender, and includes biases, prejudices, narrow-mindedness, and extreme emotional behaviour. For example, if you are emotionally distracted or preoccupied, you may find it hard to understand a message. Feelings like anger or hatred may also interfere with how you interpret a message.

2.4.4 Semantic Interference

These barriers include language, dialectal and cultural differences. When these interferences are present, the speaker and listener operate on different meaning systems. What the speaker says can be interpreted differently, thus resulting in misunderstanding. A computer analyst may use the word „mouse‰ to refer to the device used to navigate a computer screen. However, a computer illiterate person may interpret the word „mouse‰ to be a rodent (see Figure 2.11 and 2.12).

Figure 2.11: Mouse (computer device) Source: fabbrotech.com

Figure 2.12: Mouse (rodent) Source: freeclipartpictures.com



x Oral communication is a two-way process that requires a speaker and a

listener. It is most effective when the sender has good speaking skills and the receiver has good listening skills.

x Hearing is different from listening in that hearing is the physical ability to hear sound and occurs unconsciously, while listening is to hear something with thoughtful and close attention.

x There are two types of listening ă passive listening and active listening.

x Active listening can be improved by paraphrasing the speakerÊs message, identifying your weaknesses, preparing yourself mentally and physically, and setting priorities.

x The principles of speaking include:

ă Interpretation of symbols creates meaning.

ă There are regulative and constitutive rules.

ă Punctuation affects meaning.

ă Voice attributes (e.g., volume, pitch, tone, tempo) affect speech quality.

Audio 2.1 Types of InterferenceListen to the audio conversations and identify the type of interference in communication involved in each case.

Dialogue 1: _____________________

Dialogue 2: _____________________

Dialogue 3: _____________________

Dialogue 4: _____________________

Dialogue 5: _____________________

ACTIVITY 2.5



x Possessing good oral communication skills is beneficial not only at a personal level but also socially and professionally.

x The roles and responsibilities of speakers and listeners include the speaker having to:

ă Evaluate the communication situation to avoid miscommunication; give and receive feedback; and maintain goodwill.

ă Fulfil his own needs as well as the needs of the receiver of the message.

ă Make use of interpersonal skills, e.g., make You-statements, have a positive attitude, be a good listener, keep things confidential, and be considerate.

x The barriers to effective communication include physical, physiological, psychological and semantic interferences.

Active listening

Constitutive rules

Hearing

Interference

Interpreting

Listening

Passive listening

Punctuation

Recalling

Regulative rules

Retaining

Voice attributes

You-statements


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