Learning Outcomes and Indicators for Biology 103 Chapter 1 – The Science of Biology Learning Outcome 1.a. Knowledge of the properties shared by all living things

Indicators List some of the important properties common to living things

Explain what is meant by the term metabolism Explain what is meant by the term homeostasis

Learning Outcome 1.b. Knowledge of the cell theory and its historical development Indicators Describe the contributions of Robert Hooke, Leeuwenhoek,

Matthias Schleiden, Theodar Schwann Describe the cell theory Describe the contribution of Virchow

Learning Outcome 1.c Knowledge of the organizational hierarchy in the biological world

Indicators Define the term hierarchical Using your own body, outline the hierarchical levels all the

way from atoms to the human organism Distinguish between population, species, and community

Learning Outcome 1.d. Knowledge of scientific method Indicators Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning

Distinguish between a hypothesis and an experiment Outline the steps in the scientific method Distinguish between a theory and a law Explain or give an example as to how all of us (i.e., scientist

as well as non-scientist) might utilize the scientific method in day to day living

Learning Outcome 1.e. Knowledge of the theory of evolution

Indicators Provide an overview of the life of Charles Darwin and describe how his travels influenced his conclusions

Identify the geologist who influenced Darwin’s views of

the age of the earth, etc .

Identify the geographer and contemporary of Darwin who is also credited with the concept of evolution of species

How was Darwin’s theory controversial? Explain what is meant by natural selection Distinguish between natural selection and artificial selection Explain how the work of economist Thomas Malthus

influenced Darwin’s hypothesis for natural selection List some of the evidences for evolution that have been

enhanced or discovered after Darwin

Learning Outcome 1.f. Knowledge of core theme unifying biology as a science Indicators Explain what is meant by the expression “the molecular

basis of inheritance”; what molecule is described here; what is meant by the term genome

Name the three domains and the five kingdoms typically

used to categorize living organisms.

Chapter 2 - The Nature of Molecules Learning Outcome 2.a. Knowledge of atomic theory

Indicators Define matter Define atom Distinguish between the three subatomic particles in terms

of mass and electrical charge. Which of these particles are found in the atomic nucleus?

Explain how one would go about calculating the atomic

mass of an atom

Distinguish between an element and an isotope of an element

Distinguish between a cation and an anion Which subatomic particle determines the chemical behavior

of an atom?

How many electrons can each of the first four energy levels hold?

Define oxidation. Define reduction What is the octet rule? What is an inert element? Give an example.

Learning Outcome 2.b. Knowledge of chemical bonding Indicators What is a molecule

Describe ionic bonding and provide an example Describe covalent bonding and provide an example. Distinguish between single, double, and triple bonds. Describe hydrogen bonding. Which type of bonding is most stable? Distinguish between reactants and products in a chemical

reaction.

Learning Outcome 2.c. Knowledge of the chemistry of water and its unique properties

Indicators Describe the term electronegativity in terms of an atom Explain why water is considered to be a polar covalent

bond Describe and diagram hydrogen bonding between water

molecules Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion. Which

phenomenon is responsible for surface tension?

Describe capillary action. What is meant by specific heat of water? heat of

vaporization?

What happens to the molecular structure of water as it freezes? Why does ice float?

What is a solvent? Distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic. Given

an example of a hydrophobic compound. Learning Outcome 2.d. Ionic compounds

Indicators Show the formula for ionization of water Define pH. Describe the pH scale. What is the pH of water? Distinguish between acids and bases and provide an example of each. Define buffer. Give and example of a buffer system

Chapter 3 – The Chemical Building Blocks of Life Learning Outcome 3.a. Knowledge of carbon compounds

Indicators What kind of bonding is involved in the formation of carbon chains (i.e. carbon binding with carbon)? What is a hydrocarbon? What is a functional group? Give an example. What is a macromolecule? Give an example. What is a monomer? A polymer? Give an example. Describe/define the term dehydration synthesis (condensation) Describe/define the term hydrolysis.

Learning Outcome 3.b. Knowledge of proteins

Indicators List some of the functions of proteins Name the fundamental building block of a protein. Draw the general structure of an amino acid Name the five chemical groupings into which the naturally occurring amino acids are placed.

Explain why would a protein be considered a polymer. Diagram a peptide bond. What is a polypeptide? Distinguish between primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of a protein. Explain how proteins fold into their functional shapes. Which structural level ultimately determines the final three-dimensional shape of the protein? Describe denaturation.

Learning Outcome 3.c. Knowledge of nucleic acids Indicators What structural unit serves as the monomer for DNA and

RNA? List the three components of this unit. What terms best describes the chemical linkages between the sugar molecules making up the “backbone” of the nucleic acid? Identify the major structural difference between purines and pyrimidines. List the purines found in DNA and RNA. List the pyrimidines. What term is used to describe the helical, staircase structure of the DNA molecule? Explain complementary base pairing in DNA. Describe the differences in molecular structure of DNA and RNA.

Learning Outcome 3.d. Knowledge of lipids

Indicators Identify the important role of phospholipids in cells. Identify the three subunits of the phospholipid molecule. Draw a phospholipid molecule and label the hydophobic tail and the hydrophilic head portion of the molecule. What are the components of a triglyceride or fat molecule?

What term best describes the interaction of fats with water? Distinguished between saturated and unsaturated fats. What is meant by polyunsaturated? Identify some other lipid molecules that might be involved in metabolism of organisms.

Learning Outcome 3.e. Knowledge of carbohydrates

Indicators Identify the three atoms found in carbohydrates and indicate the molecular ratio of these atoms. What type of bonding is central to the molecular structure of these compounds? Define monosaccharide and give some examples of this group of carbohydrates. Give the empirical formula for glucose. Define disaccharide. Give some examples of disaccharides. Give some examples of polysaccharides. Name two storage forms of polysaccharides. Which is most likely to be found in animals?

Name two structural polysaccharides. Where might each be found? How does cellulose differ from starch and glycogen in terms of the glucose molecules making up these polysaccharides?

Chapter 4 – Cell Structure Learning Outcome 4.a. Knowledge of factors contributing to cell size

Indicators Explain the relationship between volume and surface area of the cell.

Explain why this ratio favors smaller cell size.

Learning Outcome 4.b. Knowledge of microscopy Indicators Define resolution

What is meant by the expression “compound microscope”? How do electron microscopes differ from compound microscopes in terms of illumination of the specimen and resolution? Distinguish between scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy.

Learning Outcome 4.c. Knowledge of prokaryotic cells Indicators Draw and label the components of a typical prokaryotic cell

List some of the ways in which prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells Name the unique compound that makes up the bacterial cell wall Name a common staining procedure which detects structural/chemical differences in the cell wall of bacteria and separates them into two major groups Identify the structure used for locomotion in most motile prokaryotes

List some of the unique features of the domain Archaea

Learning Outcome 4.d. Knowledge of eukaryotic cells Indictors List some ways in which eukaryotic cells differ from

prokaryotic cells List some differences seen in the structure of plant and animal cells Describe the structure of the nucleus and describe its role in the cell; describe the role of the nucleolus Explain how DNA is packaged in a cell Describe the role of the ribosome List the structures that comprise the endomembrane system Distinguish between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum Describe the structure and the role of the Golgi apparatus in

the cell Describe the structure and function of lysosomes Define microbodies; Explain the role of these structures in cells Describe the role of the vacuole in plant cells; define the term tonoplast Describe the structure of the mitochondrion and explain its role in the eukaryotic cell Describe the structure of the chloroplast and explain its role in the eukaryotic cell Explain what is meant by the term cytoskeleton Compare the three types of fibers which constitute the cytoskeleton

Explain the role of centrosomes in the eukaryotic cell

Chapter 5 – Membrane Structure and Function Learning Outcome 5.a. Knowledge of research leading to the current theory of

membrane structure Indicators Describe Danielli and Davson’s “sandwich” model

Describe Robertson’s “unit” membrane model Describe Nicholson and Singer’s fluid mosaic model

Learning Outcome 5.b. Knowledge of the structure of the plasma membrane

Indicators Explain the role of phospholipids in the membrane Explain the role of cholesterol in cell membranes. Explain how cells can modify the fluidity of the membrane in order to compensate for temperature fluctuations List some of the functions of proteins and protein complexes in the cell membrane. Distinguish between integral and peripheral membrane proteins; to which of these groups would transmembrane

proteins belong?

Learning Outcome 5.c. Knowledge of passive membrane transport Indicators Distinguish between active and passive transport

Explain what is meant by concentration gradient. Define the term diffusion Explain the expression “selectively permeable”

Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins Distinguish between gated and passive ion channels Describe the process of facilitated diffusion and explain why it is considered passive In terms of solutions, distinguish between solvent and solute Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion Distinguish between the terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic Define osmotic pressure

Learning Outcome 5.d. Knowledge of active transport mechanisms Indicators Define active transport

Distinguish between symport and anitport systems Describe the sodium-potassium pump Explain what is meant by coupled transport

Learning Outcome 5.e. Knowledge of bulk transport by exocytosis and

endocytosis Indicators Describe the process of endocytosis and distinguish

between pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis Describe the process of exocytosis

Chapter 6 – Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes Learning Outcome 6.a. Knowledge of energy flow in living systems

Indicators Define thermodynamics Distinguish between potential energy and kinetic energy What is the ultimate source of energy for living systems? Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition; between producers and consumers Distinguish between oxidation and reduction

Learning Outcome 6.b. Knowledge of thermodynamics and free energy

Indicators State the laws of thermodynamics and explain how they govern changes in energy form Define free energy. Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic reactions; which of these might also be described as spontaneous Define activation energy. Define catalyst; Explain the role of catalysts in terms of activation energy

Learning Outcome 6.c. Knowledge of ATP and its role in cellular energy transformations

Indicators Describe the structure of the ATP molecule (what are the major chemical groups making up the molecule?) Explain how ATP provides energy for cellular reactions Explain what is meant by the ATP cycle.

Learning Outcome 6.d. Knowledge of enzymes and their role in the cell

Indicators Explain how enzymes work in cellular reactions List at least six characteristics of enzymes Describe the active site on the enzyme and explain its role in terms of the substrate List some of the factors influencing enzyme function Distinguish between competitive and non-competitive

enzyme inhibition Explain what is meant by allosteric enzymes

Learning Outcome 6.e. Knowledge of enzyme involvement in metabolism

Indicators Define metabolism Distinguish between anabolisma and metabolism Explain what is meant by a biochemical pathway Explain feedback inhibition in terms of its regulatory function in metabolic pathways

Chapter 7 - Photosynthesis Learning Outcome 7.a. Knowledge of photosynthesis in higher plants

Indicators Identify the primary photosynthetic organ in higher plants In what part of the leaf do we find photosynthetic cells? Describe the structure of the eukaryotic chloroplast Write the general formula for the process of photosynthesis Distinguish between light-dependent and light- independent reactions and describe where each occurs in the chloroplast

Learning Outcome 7.b. Knowledge of the light-dependent reaction Indicators Define photon

Describe the relationship between energy per photon and wavelength of light Identify the wavelengths of light that are important in photosynthesis Describe a photosystem. Identify the two photosystems found in chloroplasts. Distinguish between cyclic and non-cyclic electron flow/photophosphorylation. What is provided to the cell by non-cyclic photophosphorylation? Explain how Photosystem II is able to provide a continuous source of electrons for chlorophyll Describe the experiments that showed the source of the

oxygen gas given off as a by-product of photosynthesis. Which photosystem generates this gas? Describe the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP generation List the products of the light-dependent reaction and describe the significance of these products to the light-independent reactions

Learning Outcome 7.c. Knowledge of carbon fixation reactions

Indicators Describe the Calvin cycle (C3) reactions. Name the important intermediate in the Calvin cycle that can be used to synthesize glucose and other sugars Identify the carboxylating enzyme in C3 plants Identify the carboxylating enzyme in CAM and C4 plants Explain why the enzymes functioning in CAM and C4 plants provide for more efficient photosynthesis (i.e., higher photosynthetic rates) Describe the adaptations of C4 and CAM plants in terms of their photosynthetic mechanisms and the environments n which they live Distinguish between the spatial separation seen in C4 plants and the temporal separation seen in CAM plants

Chapter 8 – Cellular Respiration Learning Outcome 8.a. Knowledge of types of nutrition

Indicators Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs Distinguish between chemautotrophs and photoautotrophs How would you classify primary producers in terms of nutrition? Consumers?

Learning Outcome 8.b. Knowledge of the general features of respiration

Indicators Write the general formula for cell respiration. Name the two important hydrogen acceptors in biological oxidation reactions. Distinguish between anaerobic respiration, aerobic

respiration, and fermentation. ATP can be produced in cells by two mechanism, substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Distinguish between these two processes.

Learning Outcome 8.c. Knowledge of glycolysis

Indicators Define the term glycolysis? Where does this process take place in the cell? What sugar represents the typical starting point for glycolysis? Explain why the first part of the glycolytic pathway is regarded as an endergonic process. How many molecules of ATP are used in the endergonic phase (energy investment phase) of glycolysis? How many are produced in the reactions proceeding from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to pyruvic acid? What then is the net ATP yield? What important hydrogen acceptor is involved in glycolysis? What two processes make the recycling of NADH possible in cells? What molecule represents the end product of glycolysis?

Learning Outcome 8.d. Knowledge of pyruvate oxidation to acetyl-CoA (preparatory/transition reaction)

Indicators In what organelle does pyruvate oxidation take place? What two by-products of this reaction indicate that this reaction is an “oxidative decarboxylation”? This reaction began with a three-carbon molecule. How many carbons remain following the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate?

Learning Outcome 8.e. Knowledge of the Krebs cycle

Indicators Diagram the structure of the mitochondrion.

Where, within the mitochondrion does the Krebs cycle take place? Where does the term “Krebs” come from? Explain why the Krebs cycle is also referred to as the citric acid cycle. What molecule binds with acetyl-CoA to initiate the Krebs Cycle? How many decarboxylation steps are there in the Krebs cycle? How many oxidation reactions are seen? How many times must the Krebs cycle “turn” to completely oxidize glucose to CO2, water, and energy? How many molecules of ATP, CO2, NADH and FADH2 are produced per turn of the Krebs cycle?

Learning Outcome 8.e. Knowledge of electron transport and chemiosmosis

Indicators Where, within the mitochondrion does electron transport and chemiosmosis occur? How many ATP molecules are produced for/by every molecule of NADH unloading electrons at the electron transport chain? How many from FADH2? Explain the difference in ATP generation between these two electron acceptor molecules. Explain how the proton gradient forms across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Learning Outcome 8.f. Knowledge of energy yield from aerobic respiration Indicators What is the theoretical yield, in terms of ATP molecules,

from the complete oxidation of a molecule of glucose? Construct an energy summary for aerobic respiration which shows ATP generated from substrate-level phosphorylation, as well as ATP generation from NADH and FADH2 (include the specific phases of respiration where NADH and FADH2 are generated)

Learning Outcome 8.g. Knowledge of regulation of aerobic respiration

Explain the phosphofructokinase control system

Learning Outcome 8.h. Knowledge of fermentation Indicators What is the reducing agent for fermentation (i.e., what

contributes electrons/hydrogens for the reduction of pyruvate)? List two common end products of the fermentation pathways? List the by-products of fermentation in yeasts. Name two industries that are dependent on fermentation by yeasts. Compare fermentation and aerobic respiration in terms of ATP yield. Explain the phenomenon of oxygen debt.

Learning Outcome 8.i. Knowledge of the metabolic pool

Indicators Distinguish between anabolism and catabolism Name the three major groups of organic compounds that humans use as energy sources. List the components that are generated when a fat is broken down. What is meant by deamination?

Chapter 9 – The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction Learning Outcome 9.a. Knowledge of the cell cycle

Indicators List the phases of the cell cycle and describe briefly the occurrences in each phase Identify the cell cycle checkpoints Define the term apoptosis. Why is apoptosis important in our bodies?

Learning Outcome 9.b. Knowledge of chromosome structure

Indicators Describe the structure of the eukaryotic chromosome

What is chromatin? Distinguish between haploid and diploid chromosome number. Define sister chromatids, centromere, kinetochore

Learning Outcome 9.c. Knowledge of the stages of mitosis

Indicators List the stages of mitosis and briefly characterize the changes that are associated with each stage. What is an aster? A centriole? The mitotic spindle? Contrast cytokinesis in animal cells to that of plant cells

Learning Outcome 9.d. Knowledge of the cell cycle and cancer

Indicators Define the terms: neoplasm, malignant, cancer, metastasis, angiogenesis Describe the characteristics of cancer cells that distinguish them from normal body cells Distinguish between proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in terms of control of the cell cycle Distinguish between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes Describe the role of telomerase in a cancer cell. Give an example of an oncogene; a tumor suppressor gene

Learning Outcome 9.e. Knowledge of prokaryotic cell division

Indicators Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotic organisms

Chapter 10 – Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Learning Outcome 10.a. Knowledge of the purpose of meiosis in sexual organisms

Indicators Describe the role of meiosis in terms of eukaryotic organisms Distinguish between haploid and diploid chromosome number Describe gametes in terms of their chromosome number Describe a zygote in terms of its chromosome number

Learning Outcome 10.b. Knowledge of homologous chromosomes

Indicators Describe homologous chromosomes Define the term alleles Explain how we identify homologous chromosomes when viewing a smear under the microscope?

Learning Outcome 10.c. Knowledge of the process of meiosis

Indicators List the phases of meiosis and describe the changes taking place in each phase. Which division is actually considered the reductional division? Describe the process of synapsis. In what phase does it occur? Compare/contrast meiosis and mitosis Which meiotic division more closely resembles the sequence of events occurring in mitosis?

Learning Outcome 10.d. Knowledge of meiosis and genetic variation Indicators Describe the process of crossing over and explain how this

contributes to genetic variation Describe independent assortment and explain how this contributes to genetic variation Explain how the process of fertilization contributes to genetic variation.

Learning Outcome 10.e. Knowledge of life cycles

Indicators Distinguish between gametophyte and sporophyte plants Define gametogenesis Describe the process of spermatogenesis in humans Describe the process of oogenesis in humans Explain how these processes in humans (spermatogenesis and oogenesis) differ in terms of the number of functional

gametes produced. What is the haploid number in humans? Explain why it is advantageous for the single, functional egg cell to retain a significant amount of cytoplasm

Chapter 11 – Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance Learning Outcome 11.a. Knowledge of the history of genetics

Indicators Describe the studies of Gregor Mendel List some of the traits that Mendel worked with in his experiments on garden peas Describe Mendel’s law of segregation

Learning Outcome 11.b. Knowledge of terminology associated with genetics Indicators Distinguish between dominant and recessive alleles

Distinguish between F1 and F2 generations Define the terms: locus, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype

Learning Outcome 11.c. Knowledge of solving genetics problems

Indicators Utilize the Punnett square to determine the probable outcome of a monohybrid cross Describe a test cross Interpret a pedigree chart Explain Mendel’s principle of independent assortment Utilize the Punnett square to determine the probably outcome of a dihybrid cross Use the multiplicative and additive laws of probability to determine the probable outcome of a dihybrid cross List some human genetic disorders and indicate whether they are inherited as dominant or recessive traits

Learning Outcome 11.d. Genetics beyond Mendel Indicators Describe incomplete dominance; given an example

Define multiple alleles

Give an example of multiple alleles in humans; explain why this example in humans also provides an example of codominance Use the Punnett square to solve problems relating to blood types in humans Explain polygenic inheritance and give an example of polygenic inheritance in humans Describe epistasis and give an example.

Chapter 12 – Chromosomal Patterns of Inheritance Learning Outcome 12.a. Knowledge of chromosomal inheritance

Indicators Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes Explain the expression “ X-linked allele” Give some examples of X-linked disorders in humans Explain why X-linked recessive traits are more likely to occur in males What is meant by genomic imprinting? Give some examples of syndromes associated with this phenomenon.

Learning Outcome 12.b. Knowledge of gene linkage

Indicators Explain what is meant by the expression “linked genes” or “linkage group” Explain the purpose of a linkage map How does crossing over contribute to construction of a gene map?

Learning Outcome 12.c. Knowledge of changes in chromosome number Indicators Define chromosomal mutation

Distinguish between polyploidy and aneuploidy Describe the usual cause for autosomy and monosomy in humans Describe Down syndrome and explain the cause of the disorder Identify the modes of genetic testing that can be used to

identify or diagnose parents at risk of producing children with genetic disorders Describe Turner syndrome; Klinefelter syndrome; Jacobs syndrome, Poly-X female

Learning Outcome 12.d. Knowledge of changes in chromosome structure

Indicators Describe deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions of chromosome segments List some human deletion syndromes List some human translocation syndromes

Chapter 13 – DNA Structure and Function Learning Outcome 13.a. Knowledge of the nature of the genetic material

Indicators Explain why early investigators thought that the genetic component of chromosomes had to be protein Describe Griffith’s experiment. What did it demonstrate? What did Avery, McLeod, and McCarty’s work elucidate? Describe their experimental method and explain how they arrived at their conclusion. Describe the experiments of Hershey and Chase. What did their results contribute to the argument as to the nature of the genetic material?

Learning Outcome 13.b. Knowledge of the structure of the DNA molecule

Indicators List the bases making up DNA and indicate whether these compounds are purines or pyrimidines What is a nucleotide? What are Chargaff’s rules? What was Rosalind Franklin’s contribution to the molecular structure of DNA? Explain what is meant by tautomeric forms of the bases making up DNA. What does this have to do with molecular structure?

Learning Outcome 13.c. Knowledge of the Watson-Crick model

Indicators Explain how the nucleotides are linked together in the

DNA molecule Explain complementary base pairing What type of bonding is responsible for holding the bases of complementary strands together? Explain what is meant by the term helical. In terms of the complementary strands, they are described as being antiparallel. Explain the meaning of antiparallel

Learning Outcome 13.d. Knowledge of DNA replication

Indicators Describe the work of Meselson and Stahl What is meant by semiconservative replication? What is meant by the term template or template strand? List and briefly describe the three steps/phases of replication. Describe the role of the following enzymes in terms of DNA replication: DNA polymerase, DNA helicase, DNA ligase What is the role of a primer in replication? A replisome? In terms of replication, explain the significance of the fact that the strands run in opposite direction and DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of an existing strand. What are Okazaki fragments? Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.

Learning Outcome 13.e. Knowledge of prokaryotic replication Indicators Describe the prokaryotic chromosome

What is meant by bi-directional replication?

Learning Outcome 13.f. Knowledge of replication errors

Indicators Define genetic mutation What is meant by proofreading?

List some environmental variables that can damage DNA. Describe the role of DNA repair enzymes.

Chapter 14 – Gene Activity: How Genes Work Learning Outcome 14.a. Knowledge of the role of genes

Indicators What is alkaptonuria and what is its relationship to altered enzyme activity? What did Garrod’s work suggest about the role of the gene? Describe the work of Beadle and Tatum. What is meant by the “one gene – one enzyme hypothesis” Describe the research of Pauling and Itano which led to the “one gene – one polypeptide hypothesis” Describe information flow in a cell.

Learning Outcome 14.b. Knowledge of protein synthesis

Indicators List the types of RNA and briefly describe their function Distinguish between transcription and translation What is meant by the expression “central dogma”? Describe the genetic code. Why is it described as “universal?” What is a codon? How many possible codons are there? What is meant by degeneracy of the code? Identify the stop codons. Identify the start codon. Describe the process of transcription. Where does it occur in a eukaryotic cell? What is the role of the promoter? What is the role of RNA polymerase? Eukaryotic primary mRNA (pre-RNA) is processed to form mature RNA prior to leaving the nucleus. Describe the modifications made to the molecule.

Where does translation take place in the eukaryotic cell? Describe the role of transfer RNA. What is meant by the anticodon? Explain what is meant by the wobble hypothesis proposed by Francis Crick. Describe the structure of the ribosome. In terms of translation, what is the role of the ribosome? What is a polyribosome? Name and briefly describe the three steps associated with translation. What is the function of the start and stop codons? Distinguish between protein-coding and noncoding genes.