learning journeys (ges study) literature survey · 20.0 collaborative frameworks in the education...

Learning from Success: The Learning Journey of the GES- Literature Survey By Christopher Hardy

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Learning from Success: The Learning Journey of the Greater Economic Success Group

Literature Survey

Christopher Hardy


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Tables and Diagrams Figure 1: Kolb (1984) Experimental Learning Model Figure 2: Jarvis’s (1994) model Figure 3: Learning Network Figure 4: Learning Networks Figure 5: Model when forming CoP Figure 6: KUD Policy within Brisbane Figure 7: KCP’s within Brisbane Figure 8: Backward/Forward connections Figure 9: Financial Estimation for SME’s


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Acknowledgments The following deserve acknowledgment for their assistance within this literature survey, Nick Hooper, YHELLN Work Strand Manager for Research, CPD and Evaluation. Jayne Barker, YHELLN Ray Barker, The University of Hull Paul Cross, The University of Hull


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CONTENTS

Tables and Diagrams Acknowledgments 1.0 The Learning Organisation 2.0 Knowledge Management 3.0 Pedagogic Approach 4.0 Andragogy 5.0 Formal and Informal Learning 6.0 Social Learning 7.0 Current Practices of Validation and Recognition of Formal and Informal Learning 8.0 Tacit Knowledge 9.0 Learning Contexts 10.0 Learning Circles 11.0 Situational Leadership 12.0 Boundary Objects 13.0 High Performance Work Systems 14.0 Total Quality Management (TQM) 15.0 Learning Networks 16.0 Business Clusters 17.0 Community of Practice (CoP) 18.0 Coaching and Mentoring 19.0 Educational Technology 20.0 Collaborative Frameworks in the Education Provision 21.0 Cases of Human Resource Development (HRD) 22.0 Coaching within HRD 23.0 Subject Matter Experts (SME’s) 24.0 Problem-Based Leaning (PBL) 25.0 Knowledge-Based Urban Development (KBUD) 26.0 Regional Economic Development 27.0 Regional University- Industry Research Collaboration 28.0 Conclusion and Recommendations References


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Introduction The Greater Economic Success [GES] group is a local business-focused knowledge exchange group that sets out to strengthen the business, community and economy of North Lincolnshire. Its functions are “sharing and learning to improver business performance to enable companies to share best practice and create a culture of continuous learning”. The GES is a partnership between four key elements including local private businesses, the economic development team from the local authority, a local post-compulsory education and training provider and a university. Within the United Kingdom [UK] this is an unusual alliance, which has recently been described as an example of outstanding practice in college/industrial links [Ofsted 2007] as well as an example of good practice as a result of the levels of retention and ‘returnability’ of local firms to the college. A research project has been commissioned by YHELLN to learn from the “learning journey” of the members of the Greater Economic Success (GES) group. This will investigate how the GES group members have become learning organisations at Higher Education level and the benefits that accrue to the individual companies concerned, the GES group, and the wider economic environment of North Lincolnshire. The aim of this survey is to place the YHELLN project in the context of academic literature. The piece will identify concepts and models that are relevant to the description, understanding and explanation of the Greater Economic Success Group. 1.0 The Learning Organisation Mullins (2005) outlines the following characteristics of a learning organisation,

- Benefit from failure as much as success, through learning curves. - Frequently scrutinising operations. - Employees and line managers work closest to business operations, therefore

have more knowledge than their superiors. - Provides a constant distribution of knowledge, in order to make sure each

specific aspect has its specialised knowledge. - Utilise time and resources on acquiring knowledge outside their specific

business field. The GES ‘involves around 20 companies’. These organisations look to provide work-based learning for employees. Based on Mullins (2005), each company is, or is in the process of, becoming a learning organisation. 2.0 Knowledge Management Mullins (2005) defines knowledge management as: “The promotion and formalisation of learning within the workplace with the aim of aligning training with the needs of the business.” (Mullins 2005:1057). A company that contains explicit and tacit knowledge will potentially make innovative and successful advancements. The text


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makes the bold statement that this form of management is extremely important within the business world, as companies that can provide knowledge and work based learning are going to have a distinct competitive advantage. Mullins (2005) gives the impression that knowledge management is important because it:

- Develops efficiency. - Increases output. - Improves income.

Other sources, such as Kerr (2003), believe that knowledge management is vital because it helps the following business issues:

- Strain on innovation. - Inter-company activities. - Networking and geographic synchronization. - Advancement in highly knowledge specific operations and outputs. - Highly competitive markets. - The high-tech era. - Issues with knowledge loss, for example staff resignations.

If a company adopts the ideas of knowledge management it will have little concern about these. Mullins (2005) also shows that a good tool in utilising knowledge management is being able to share skills and experiences with other companies. This point links well with the fundamentals of Learning Networks (Section 15) and Business Clusters (Section 16), supporting the need to work closely with other companies. Those theories will aid understanding of the knowledge management already apparent within the GES. From here, Mullins (2005) goes on to show that Warwick University have categorised four different types of knowledge management practices.

- Valuing knowledge: identifying knowledge within an intellectual capacity and understanding its value.

- Exploiting intellectual property: using a good research and development facility, an organisation can uncover new and alternative ways to utilise their current knowledge capacities.

- Capturing project-based learning: Making sure knowledge that is acquired throughout one project can be transferred for use in the future.

- Managing knowledge workers: outline the need to the worker and identify techniques to allow for creativity and positive results.

Knowledge management has its weaknesses. The following points need to be considered to avoid any potential flaws within the theory:

- Include all employees within the process. - Technology supports the theory, it does not dictate it. - Have a specific business goal. - Research must be done as knowledge is continuously changing and updating.


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- Do not overload the employees and company with too much unnecessary information.

The topic of knowledge management is important because this is the overall form of management that companies can use in terms of learning and training. The subsequent sections are the tools and theories that can also be utilised as part of, or an alternative to knowledge management. 3.0 Pedagogic Approach Pedagogy, a general theory of learning, is shown by Lankshear et al (1996) as enclosed within a set space, for example the classroom, book and the curriculum. This field arose when Edwards (2005) gave the argument that some people may not feel as if the learning process develops into areas of home, workplace and community. The text therefore gives the impression that another approach may need to be taken within lifelong learning. Edwards (2005) gives the idea that many like Tuomi-Grohn et al (2003), see the pedagogic approach to have the potential of mobilization. Edwards (2005) outlines the idea that the nature of transferability and transferable skills are to be used in different contexts and settings. Edwards (2005) goes on to argue that due to the limitations of the pedagogic approach being ‘confided to an enclosed space’, contexts must be framed to fully understand the theory. Edwards (2005) shows that there is constant debate in a number of fields on the definition of contexts which include:

- Informal and community-based learning - Learning from home. - Workplace learning. - Experiential and vicarious learning. - Vertical and horizontal discourse. - Tacit knowledge.

Edwards (2005) concludes by suggesting that due to the diversity within lifelong learning, there will never be a set concept on learning context. 4.0 Andragogy Andragogy is said to be based on the idea that adults require a different learning process from children. Therefore, andragogy argues that more mature learners need special tutors, techniques and philosophies in order to learn. Knowles (1984) is highlighted to be the main source on the idea of Andragogy. He gives the following characteristics about adult learners:

- “Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.

- Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource of learning.

- Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.

- Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application,


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and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject centeredness to one of problem centeredness.

- Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal.” (Knowles 1984:12)

According to Smith (1996;1999), many in the field have discredited the work of Knowles (1984), as his theory could be seen as learning or teaching. Also the text shows that many believe that children and adults experience similar learning processes. On the other hand, Palmer (1995) gives a good account of the andragogical approach to learning. The case study outlines the views and impacts of andragogy in staff development programs. The text shows that adoption of these ideas can be very effective. O’Neill (1992) also suggests that through the correct techniques, the ideas of andragogy can be beneficial. Bodnar (2000) is another source that shows the ideas of andragogy could be a key role in development programs. In conclusion, it seems that theorists argue that ideas of andragogy are poor, whereas case study evidence shows that they can be relevant in practice. Wilson (2005) gives an interesting case in which the learning outcomes were not influenced by andragogy, but the satisfaction with the teacher and course in lifelong learning were. Williams (2005) shows that the developing ideas of andragogy help maximise adult learning. It is clear that perhaps there needs to be more research and evidence into andragogy, as the theorists seem to be against the original ideas of Knowles (1984). 5.0 Formal and Informal Learning Jennings (2007) discusses the technique of experimental learning outlined by Kolb (1984). The highly respected model utilises four points: concrete experience, observation and reflection, forming abstract concepts and testing in new situations. Kolb (1984) gives the impression that the model can begin at any of the four points, however, the model starts with an individual carrying out a particular action and observing its consequence. The sequence is developed by the individual understanding the action, in order to anticipate the outcome of the particular act. The third step in this model is the ability to understand an association between action and outcome. Kolb (1984) shows that the final stage of experimental learning is for the individual in question to test out the acquired skill in a new circumstance. Smith (2001a) shows that this model is very effective in developing cognitive learning by experiencing a particular skill.


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Figure 1: Kolb (1984) Experimental Learning Model

Source: Smith, 2001a Jennings (2007) indicates a case that heavily relied on Kolb’s model in order to develop the performance within an adult workplace. This study also utilised Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, which involves the understanding, forecasting and altering of human behaviour and Sheckley's (2005) (un-referenced) adult workplace learning theory. The case concluded that using the learning steps within Kolb’s (1984) work, this particular organisation improved performance and worker satisfaction over the experimental six-month period. The study concluded that introducing and developing formal and informal learning within the workplace through models such as Kolb’s (1984), will improve employee efficiency and performance. The study within Jennings (2007) shows that formal and informal learning through Kolb’s (1984) experimental learning model, Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and Sheckley’s (2005) (un-referenced) adult workplace learning theory, has improved company overall performance through collaborative learning in the workplace and an enhanced level of employer engagement. Developing this idea further, Smith (2001a) argues that a more substantial model overcomes the potential barriers within Kolb’s (1984). Smith (2001a) outlines a model by Peter Jarvis. Jarvis (1994, 1995), utilising the model by Kolb (1984), to use on a number of case studies that allowed him to explore a number of different routes. These routes are:

- Non-learning - Non-reflective learning - Reflective learning


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Figure 2: Jarvis’s (1994) model.

reproduced from Jarvis 1994 Source; Smith, 2001a Smith (2001a) indicates the following from the model by Jarvis (1994): “Non-learning: Presumption (boxes 1-4). This is where people interact through patterned behaviour. Saying hello etc. Non-consideration (1-4). Here the person does not respond to a potential learning situation. Rejection (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 9). Non-reflective: Pre-conscious (boxes 1-3 to 6 to either 4 or 9). This form occurs to every person as a result of having experiences in daily living that are not really thought about. Skimming across the surface. Practice (boxes 1-3 to 5 to 8 to 6 to either 4 or 9). Traditionally this has been restricted to things like training for a manual occupation or acquiring particular physical skills. It may also refer to the acquisition of language itself. Memorization (boxes 1-3 to 6 and possibly 8 to 6 and then either to 4 or 9) Reflective learning: Contemplation (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). Here the person considers it and makes an intellectual decision about it. Reflective practice (boxes 1-3 (to 5) to 7 to 5 to 6 to 9). This is close to what Schön (1983) describes as reflection on and in action.


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Experiential learning (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 5 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). The way in which pragmatic knowledge may be learned.” (Smith 2001: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm) Smith (2001a) gives the impression that although this model is in more depth than Kolb (1984), there are limited experimental examples to test its usefulness. On the other hand, the case study by Jennings (2007) gives a primary example of how effective the ideas of Kolb (1984) are. 6.0 Social Learning A very generic form of learning within the business world that is outlined by Mullins (2005) is that of social learning. The theory relates to an individual observing a role model performing a task and learning by imitating the action. Mullins (2005) outlines that the tool also contains aspects of ‘behaviourist theory’. The the following points taken from Miller and Dollard (1950) indicate the framework behind social learning. Drive Cue Response Reward This learning technique is a theory behind informal learning. There has been very little case study support to argue if the adoption of social learning will affect lifelong learning. 7.0 Current Practices of Validation and Recognition of Formal and Informal Learning A paper by Tuomaite et al (2008) focuses directly on issues around the employee learning process as a prerequisite of lifelong learning. The document indicates how important areas such as team working and the merging of inter-knowledge are in the learning process. It also makes the point that to fully gain success from a lifelong learning situation, the individual must increase direct experience to gain independence. Linking into the learning model of Kolb (1984), in which step four shows the importance of experience in the learning process, Tuomaite et al (2008) go on to indicate that an organisation containing low to moderately educated individuals has great learning opportunities as people from lower social groups with a limited number of qualifications have a high capacity to study. Thus the company gives the opportunity for people to achieve a higher standard of qualification. They go on to give the impression that adults are extremely motivated to learn by a formal and informal resource. They argue that a source that gives recognition for learning achievements will increase the number of participants. Tuomaite et al (2008) summarize a case study of the ‘current practices around the areas of validation and recognition within non-formal and informal learning’. The case study is taken from Italy, in which the Italians are using the following practices to improve the learning process.


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- Practice of Accompaniment. This practice involves the individual carrying out the learning process under close supervision of a mentor. The teacher communicates directly with the subject on a very regular basis, this allows the candidate to fully understand the learning process and the overall learning achievements. The mentor shows the individual exactly what to do in a particular task in order to develop confidence about the procedure.

- Practice of Validation. This practice involves direct interaction with an evaluator. A good example of an evaluator would be an interviewer or marker. The process would involve an evaluation of a certain procedure against a specific curriculum. The candidate would revisit the process in order to understand technical and personal competences combined with professional knowledge.

- Check up of Transversal Competences. Within this practice, the individual is placed in a ‘real work’ situation, for example a work experience setting. This allows the subject to demonstrate their skill within a new environment and using identification, teamwork, resolving problems and the ability to make decisions. The candidate will then be able to overcome problems in a workplace environment.

- Europass- Training. The final practice adopted in this case study is the idea that an individual can gain important experience in the learning process by training in another country.

Tuomaite et al (2008) shows that these practices currently in operation on a European level are important when outlining a learning framework. 8.0 Tacit Knowledge Within knowledge management theory, there are two types of knowledge: explicit and tacit. Explicit knowledge is the form of knowledge that is easily identified and communicated. Tacit knowledge as, “Knowledge and wisdom which is not easily communicated or quantified, but is gained through experience and communicated on an informal basis.” (Mullins 2005:1063). Many believe that within a learning organisation the identification and work on tacit knowledge can be a key to the succession of the company. Mullins (2005) shows that disregarding tactic knowledge is a big weakness within a company. Tacit knowledge is a form of knowledge that can only be utilised by being taught or achieved from individual experience. For example, a small child learning to walk, this skill is achieved through parental teaching and the child’s experience. Samet (1980) gives the impression that individuals are unaware and unable to be formally taught tacit knowledge; it is very much an experiential technique that brings forward these skills. Busch and Richards (2008) give the idea that gaining tacit knowledge is the defining element between success and failure. Lejeune (2005) gives the impression that tacit knowledge is primarily uncovered in an informal work group, known as a ‘community of practice’. The text seems to suggest that within the workplace, tacit knowledge will be utilised in these same workgroups, hence leading to success (Bush and Richards). Therefore the learning model may contain the technique of ‘communities of practice’, discussed later within this document.


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Moving on from Lejeune (2005) is the extensive source from Gertler (2003) that goes into great detail on the topic of tacit knowledge. The text ends with the idea that more research is needed on the topic to outline a successful framework in which tacit knowledge can be fully utilised. However, the document shows some useful points and ideas that interlink the areas of Business Clusters (Section 16.0) and ‘Tacit Knowledge’. Gertler (2003) shows that:

- Tacit knowledge is obtained through ‘hands-on’ experimental techniques. - There is a distinct relationship between tacit knowledge and more talented

workers, therefore argues that more talented employees are more likely to show signs of having tacit knowledge.

- Good social relations are crucial in the quest for tacit knowledge. (15.0 Learning Networks and 16.0 Business Clusters)

- Company-to-company interactions can play a big role in the development of tacit knowledge. (15.0 Learning Networks and 16.0 Business Clusters)

- A good technique to utilise tacit knowledge is the tool of ‘ 17.0 Community of Practice’, backing up Lejeune’s (2005) idea.

- Silicon Valley (discussed in 16.0 Business Clusters) is a perfect example of where tacit knowledge has thrived within the business environment. (15.0 Learning Networks and 16.0 Business Clusters)

- Tacit knowledge is difficult to spread within a large organisation, however knowledge enablers can help share information easily throughout a big company.

- Managerial organisation can encourage and aid tacit knowledge. Gertler (2003) shows that tacit knowledge requires complimenting with explicit knowledge: a balance must occur for maximum output. These studies suggest that communities of practice are important tools within the quest for knowledge. Consequently, they can play a role in the model for collaborative learning and employer engagement. 9.0 Learning Contexts Okumoto (2008) shows that over the last twenty years the process of lifelong learning has been adapted to cater for various programmes in a diverse number of contexts. Hall (2005) shows that lifelong learners are attracted to progressing education courses and are willing to converse with peers, attend seminars, talk to classmates and communicate over the Internet. However, Hall (2005) gives the idea that they are unlikely to attend professional meetings or follow academic activities. The analysed group indicated that consultation with peers and the use of Internet resources are valued ways in which they carry out the learning experience. The idea of differing learning contexts is outlined in the work of Chaiklin and Lave (1996), they give the impression that all social exercises are put into set contexts and revolve around learning, however how those activities are conceptualised is debatable. Edwards (2005) shows that within lifelong learning a lot of attention is being placed on the areas of learning outlined by the set institutions. For example Edwards’s (2005) paper argues that places such as the home, workplace and general community can be specified as learning sites. The texts suggests that to meet these new contexts,


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organisations should provide or improve their information and communication provision, including their current Internet services. The Internet Wei and Chen (2006) show that in the current technologically ruled era, many people facilitate the use of computers for a wide variety of tasks. They give the impression that the Internet is a key tool in everyday life. A potential boundary for participation and full interaction in lifelong learning relates to travel issues, for example the time and distance it takes individuals to travel to set institutions. Wei and Chen (2006) suggest that this boundary can be overcome by heavily involving the Internet in lifelong learning. The document shows that lifelong learning requires the chance to discuss and share knowledge, as these are key in the learning process. Lifelong learning providers have online provisions that allow people to discuss issues using ‘web text-based forums’, potentially to meet these demands. Wei and Chen (2006) imply that the previous point is not enough to enhance the learning process. They “propose an e-book interface that enables learners easily to annotate or enter queries in a text in which questions arise, where a query context is transferred to a discussion forum. The subsequent anchors of questions are linked to a discussion forum for actuating sustained participation. A mentor finder recommends a collaborative peer based on learner knowledge level to answer the questions. Learners can also use mobile phones to access this ubiquitous discussion forum using voice/text anytime and anywhere.” (Wei and Chen: 2006:917-935) The studies investigational results show that this case was a success. This is due to a boost in discussion and positive feedback from users, saying they benefited from support and learned a lot through the e-book facility. The previous case study shows a clear succession in lifelong learning through a developed Internet facility. The new provision helps the learning process and overcame the barriers initially outlined by Wei and Chen (2006). Introducing and enhancing an Internet learning facility, such as an e-book, can help develop the collaborative learning process and enhance employer engagement through communication and interaction over the Internet. 10.0 Learning Circles The concept of a learning circle was identified by Collay et al (1998) as a small group of peers that discuss and share knowledge on a common goal. Vygotsky (1978) suggests that a learning circle is an important tool in the learning process as social interaction is a commanding power in the building of knowledge. From here, Scriven (1984) shows that quality circles involve employees or a candidate having an input on issues that effect their work. For example, the working individual can potentially have a serious input into the working conditions and the methods in which they work. Scriven (1984) gives the impression that ‘quality circles’ develop a sense of responsibility and increase the amount of commitment shown by the employee.


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Research into the topic of learning circles is outlined a journal article by Erklenz-Watts, Westbay,and Lynd-Balta in which learning circles are seen as small groups of people sharing knowledge on a common goal. Erklenz- Watts et al (2006) document a case of teachers and students that start a learning circle in order to develop the learning process. The text shows that the group shared knowledge in order to develop collaborative learning and inter faculty engagement, starting the learning circle as an alternative to the more conventional, ‘boring’ lecture setting. Erklenz- Watts et al (2006) gives the impression that learning circles increase the learning process, an individuals motivation to learn and reduces the common isolation that comes with learning alone. As a result a number of other institutions utilised this form of learning tool. Learning circles allow knowledge to be shared to aid the learning process and also allow engagement between employers and employees. Lynd-Balta (2006) also outlines a case in which a group of science tutors apply the educational tool of a learning circle. The text shows that learning circles are crucial to the development of knowledge and plays a key role in increasing the learning experience, through knowledge distribution with peers. 11.0 Situational Leadership Situational leadership, according to Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and based on Reddin’s (1968) 3-Dimensional Management Style Theory, is a technique of leadership that aims to develop a managers relationship direction and job orientation directly with success. Reddin (1968) goes on to show that this style directly influences a leadership approach with a specific state of affairs. Hersy and Blanchard (1969) developed a model known as the ‘life cycle theory’ and state that; “degrees of task orientation and relationship orientation are to be examined in conjunction with the maturity of a follower or group of followers in order to account for leader effectiveness.” (Hersey and Blanchard 1969, 29). Fhbc Students (2007) show the model contains different scenarios and levels:

- Employee Maturity increases; efficient leader performance will engage less task orientation and less leader direction.

- Low relationship course and high task orientation is a perfect situation for the early period of a subjects journey under leadership.

- When employee maturity increases and the need for leader support becomes greater, the requirement for task orientation declines.

- As the model reaches the highest level, employee maturity, task and relationship direction become redundant to employee effectiveness.

The model is based on two concepts, leadership styles and development levels. Hersey and Blanchard (1969) suggest that:

- A leadership style is founded on the amount of ‘direction and support’ they show/give the individual. The model’s leadership styles are,

o S1: Directing/Telling Leaders classify the positions and jobs of the individual and oversee on a close up, regular basis. The style is very one-way, in which the leader gives the majority of communication.


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o S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders still identify positions and jobs, however they also look for ideas and proposals from the ‘pupil’. The leader has the majority of ‘the say’, although the communication is much more two-way.

o S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders gives the individual the role and responsibility of carrying out everyday jobs. The leader aids and is part of the decisions, although control is now with the learner.

o S4: Delegating Leaders are still part of the decision making and carrying out processes, but control is with the individual. They decide when and the involvement level of the leader.

Leaders are not required to have all or be bound to just one of these outlined styles. The idea is that a good leader must be flexible to cater for the needs of the organisation within the learning process. Hersey and Blanchard (1969) follow on to show that,:

- The chosen leadership style related to the development level of the subject. o D1: Low Competence, High Commitment - They normally lack

certain skills necessary for the task. Nevertheless, they have the ability to learn and willingness to take direction.

o D2: Some Competence, Low Commitment - Have some related ability, however cannot perform the task without assistance. The action is possibly new to them.

o D3: High Competence, Variable Commitment - They are able to perform the job, but potentially lack the self-belief to go unaided, or the ability to do it efficiently and effectively.

o D4: High Competence, High Commitment – The individual is experienced at the work, comfortable and motivated with their own ability. They could even be more suited to the task than the leader.

According to Hersey et al (2008) the development levels in this model are now ‘performance readiness levels’ that can be categorised as:

o R1: Unable and Insecure or Unwilling - Learner is incapable and unconfident or they don’t posses the dedication and drive to carry out and achieve tasks/goals.

o R2: Unable but Confident or Willing - Individual is incapable to complete jobs but with guidance has the belief with direction or they do not posses the ability but is confident to have a go.

o R3: Able but Insecure or Unwilling – The ‘pupil’ has the skills and ability to perform, however does not use it.

o R4: Able and Confident and Willing – They possess the ability to compete the given task and also have the motivation and confidence to carry out the job.

Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969) model is used to make sure the leader and the learner are of equal number to perform a task, for example a S1 leader will work with a D1 learner or a S4 teacher will tutor a D4 subject. This is in order to make sure a company performs to its best ability and most importantly; the learners development will rise, ensuring that individuals are learning more and working to a high ability.


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The model of Hersey and Blanchard is a good way to improve the learning process as each level of learning ability is catered for by a set level of teaching. Baird (1996) shows that Hersey and Blanchard’s model is highly based on the idea responsibility. The document argues that historical leaders, Caesar, Machiavelli, and Bonaparte have showed fundamentals and characteristics of the model on a very large scale. The piece concludes that their highly successful leadership reigns were down to the same procedures and values of Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model. This case is a direct argument that adopting this model can lead to success in management and therefore an improved learning environment. On the other hand, documents such as Nicholls (1987) and Vetter (1985) argue that the model does have flaws and is not reliable in every business setting. However, evidence outlined by Cairns et al (1998), that shows the ideas of situational leadership are good and theoretically it works. The text shows that within their test company they produced many mismatches. They go on to outline that situational leadership is appealing but recommend that further research is carried out before adopting it as a model. This technique requires further investigation and testing to determine its reliability. 12.0 Boundary Objects The topic of boundary objects was highlighted within the work of Edwards (2005). He shows that the idea of boundary objects were highlighted within the actor-network theory, Star (1989), since then have been developed by Wenger in ‘conceptualisation of communities’. Edwards (2005) gives the impression that a boundary object can be theories, ideas or tools: they have diverse functions in different circumstances. Star (1989) shows that boundary objects promotes synchronization and acts as a mediator in order to achieve the set aim or objective. Miller (2005) gives the impression that a boundary object can be anything, for example, a hypothesis or tangible piece such as a report or a model. Edwards (2005) goes on to show that boundary objects allow people to learn in different situations and places. The document then shows that boundary objects support the learning process. The adoption of boundary may help develop a model of good practice in collaborative learning by bridging the gap between the learning domains. From the initial ideas of boundary objects, shown in the previous paragraph, the literature outlined an interesting case by Kirby (2006). The text firstly shows numerous assets could become boundary objects, however they need to be planned and utilised to administer the tension between parties with differing interests but a common overall goal. The reading goes on to show that The University of California used a new campus as a boundary object in order to accommodate their wide number of stakeholders and to achieve their strategic goal of ‘agenda for change’. The case gives direct evidence that the use of a boundary object can be productively used for change and success in higher education. This case is direct evidence that boundary objects work and although this case had a different aim, the ideas of a boundary object can be used as good practice.


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Miller (2005) shows that a boundary object can be anything at all. He defines a boundary object as, “ an artefact that sits in the interface between two or more groups, and is a piece of shared knowledge and understanding.” (Miller 2005:13). Miller (2005) gives the impression that every type of organisation has the need to share knowledge across its business and therefore requires boundary objects. Miller (2005) outlines set rules for a boundary object.

- It must be co-invented, all groups involved must have a say on what the object is and how it works.

- Should be outlined and worked on in a neutral setting, for example if different departments are involved in the object then an area non-specific to any of them should be utilised when developing the boundary object.

- Have a moderate to long lifespan. - The object must be feasible and achieve something for all those involved.

Miller (2005) goes on to outline three case studies that utilise boundary objects, varying from a technology roadmap to an industry value chain. Each case finishes in success. The text shows that the fundamentals of a boundary object are appropriate for any kind of organisation no matter what the field. 13.0 High Performance Work Systems The area of high performance work systems have been linked to enhanced business performance. Drummond and Stone (2007) and Gephart and Van Buren (1996) show high performance work systems (HPWS) involve select arrangements of work ‘structures, practices, and processes’. The literature shows that they can also be adopted to improve employee’s ability, knowledge, enthusiasm and flexibility. Drummond and Stone (2007) show HPWS cover the following:

- Practices that involve a high involvement degree from employees. For example, work teams, quality circles and the distribution of company data.

- HRM exercises. - Payment and dedication practices, the text shows these may be things such as

flexible working plans or commission based activities. Gephart and Van Buren (1996) give the impression that in a HPWS, a manager must take on new roles such as a coach and split responsibility with the employees. The text shows that a HPWS can reward employees reaching a particular goal, also an organisation can bring in others to help work within the HPWS. Drummond and Stone (2007) argue that a HPWS contain different parts that work synergistically towards the outcome that an individual would be unable to achieve. They go on to argue that very few sources actually described the ‘process’ of HPWS. However, Gephart and Van Buren (1996) show:

- Self-run, cross-functional teams can be an essential element of a HPWS. - Each part of the organisation must be in alignment for a HPWS to work. This

includes alignment in: o Strategy o Goal o Internal


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- Alignment is created and maintained through a number of factors, for example flexibility and continual feedback on the initiated process.

- A HPWS is required to have fundamentals such as: o Strategy, vision, mission and goals. o Philosophy and principles. o Organization practices. o Management structure. o Work exercises and procedures. o Human Resource elements. o Technological systems.

The document indicates that it is crucial to follow the consequent steps when implementing a HPWS:

- Design and develop the case requiring a HPWS. - Outline a vision, mission and strategy. - Build up a communications and participation plan. - Create or develop the company. - Prepare and plan for operation. - Apply the HPWS. - Observe and assess the development. - Replenish the organisation

Gephart and Van Buren (1996) shows that these steps are vital, however their sequence is not important as they may need to be looked over throughout the process. The source then outlines that for an organisation to know if/when they are ready for a HPWS, they must analyse their abilities, culture and willingness to change. Gephart and Van Buren (1996) argue that this can be done surveying the company or by utilising focus groups. A good example of a HPWS is within the company ‘Xerox’. Their HPWS was a ‘Leadership Through Quality Programme’. Gephart and Van Buren (1996) give the idea that communication is vital with a HPWS. They go on to give the impression that in order for a HPWS to work, there must be good contact between managers and their employees. Also the managers must be seen as leaders, the text shows that for managers to be successful they must:

- Construct a platform for transformation. - Keep in frequent contact. - Uphold ownership of interactions. - Gain positive and negative feedback. - Outline and promote team working. - Adopt a manner of consistency with terminations and promotions.

The document goes on to give a crucial point. If a company considers adopting a HPWS, the organisation must be completely sure that it is the right move as large alteration is dangerous and the adoption of a HPWS is a difficult process. Therefore preparation is vital, along with constant monitoring and evaluation of the HPWS results. Gephart and Van Buren (1996) give the impression that developing a number of critical measures is key, combined with constant feedback from everyone at every


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stage of the process. They indicate that audits and self-assessment techniques can also be important when looking into the results of a HPWS. A HPWS relates to the learning process and improved collaborative learning and at the same time advances employer engagement through the constant interaction and feedback managers/leaders are required to give. To back up the ideas of a HPWS, Hau- Sau Chow (2005) also shows that a large number of companies have benefited from the adoption of an HPWS, combined with the case in Den Hartog and Verburg (2004), in which a select number of companies show a good level of improvement with a HPWS. 14.0 Total Quality Management (TQM) Within the previously mentioned study by Gephart and Van Buren (1996), the notion of ‘Total Quality Management’ was mentioned on several occasions. Mullins (2005) gives the impression that the term TQM is directly linked to customer satisfaction. The term is based on continuous development and the input and participation of people. The text shows that TQM aims to provide the best quality service through interaction of ‘customer and supplier’. Another big aspect of TQM is constant interactions within the organisation. Mullins (2005) outlines the following elements of TQM:

- Participation of people: the theory adopts the notion that everyone within the business gets their say. This leads to increased and improved engagement between employer and employee.

- Teamwork: the text indicates that this theory involves a high level of teamwork; this will again lead to an improvement in employee relations.

- Customer basis: within TQM, every aspect of the business is based on the need of the user.

These are the three aspects that are directly linked to this project, although Mullins (2005) shows TQM also:

- Has a hierarchal but democratic basis. - Involves and increased importance of ration data collection and evaluation. - Requires the able to think creatively.

The text goes on to discuss the idea that many believe that TQM is unfeasible, due to the difficulty of managing quality. However Mullins (2005) also shows that TQM has spread quickly and has many success stories. Morris et al (1995) outlines a case in which a hospital made dramatically positive changes to its operations using the TQM tool of a ‘quality-improvement group’. This allowed all members of staff to have power and also involved input from patients. The case gives the impression that TQM was a revelation and so made significant changes to the organisation. Also Scharitzer and Korunka (2000) indicate that TQM has a positive affect on both employees and customers of a specific business.


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15.0 Learning Networks A management learning theory that has been flagged in many journal articles is the idea of learning networks. Poell et al (2000) shows that they allow workers, bosses, training professionals, and other learners to understand and expand different ways of arranging employee learning in the work place. The text argues that work based learning is crucial, as the working environment changes at a rapid speed. The text goes on to take a scientific look into the ideology of networks. Poell et al (2000) begins by outlining the importance of learning within the work place, they show:

- Learning is important within current- day organisations. - Outlining and sharing knowledge is a key step for innovation within an

organisation. - The need for lifelong learning is due to the idea of ‘empowerment’ becoming

ever more present with employees taking on a lot more responsibilities. - The ideas of a previously mentioned topic, andragogy are present within the

theory of networking. The source argues that training is given ‘on the job’ through supervision and peer discussions. This therefore makes the workplace learning focused. The text gives the impression that work based learning has its critics, however it is now an important element of many organisations. The main section of the document that relates to this project is the outline of ‘The Learning Network Theory’ (LNT) and it’s use as a framework for organisations. The following diagram outlines the main characteristics of the LNT. Figure 3:

Source: Poell 2000 Van der Krogt 1995, 1998 The three main components of this model are, according to Poell (2000):

- Learning actors – Anyone with the need/ability to learn, for example employees and students or the directors of learning, for example managers.

- Learning processes – This point is the interaction phase, in which the actors network together with each other on three matters, expansion of learning polices, the progress of learning programmes and the implementation of those programmes.


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- Learning structures – This phase is the concluding stage. It is performed when the learning network has been carried out of a long period. As outlined in the previous model, in this stage the organisation can identify the content and organisational structures and also the learning climate.

Poell (2000) goes on to differentiate four theoretical types of learning structures outlined in the subsequent table. Figure 4:

Source: Poell:2000 Adapted from Van der Krogt: 1995, 1998

The article by Poell (2000) concludes that learning networks are good tools in the quest to maximise work-based learning. To carry on that point Rielly (1984) gives the impression that peer based learning network is a crucial tool in educating older people. Levin and Knustad (2003) also outline the ideas of a leaning network; they give the impression that strategic and economic benefits are also apparent within this learning theory. The abstract to this document concluded with the notion that Levin and Knustad (2003) show that for a leaning network to be effective, they have to be directly involved within a business activity. The text then outlines a small case study within Italy, in which the area of Romagna networked its small businesses to develop the economy. The text mainly focuses on the creation of the Nordvest Forum.


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McGoven (2006) shows that learning networks are vital in order for companies to grow. 16.0 Business Clusters A large section on the idea of business clusters is from Porter (2000) when outlining the idea of economic geography. The reading shows that business clusters can boost output; derive innovation, aid new businesses and business success. There are two main types of clusters, ‘techno’ and ‘historic know-how-based’. The first type is technologically based, understanding of ‘knowledge economy’ is vital and involves a research element within higher education source, for example a university. The second is a very ‘industry specific’ style. The cluster uses it’s built up knowledge in their particular area to reach the desired aims. Cooke (2001) gives the impression that a business cluster is a group of competing organisations that share a common goal. Due to the more knowledge-based economy they interact in order to ‘help’ each other achieve success. Cooke (2001) indicates that the adoption of the business cluster theory will help strengthen business development. Cooke (2001) gives the impression that a business cluster can occur due to the geographical location of the companies involved, as the companies involved within this study are in close proximity. The primary case to support the idea of business clusters is the ‘Silicon Valley’ case. The study shows how a number of computer associated organisations surfaced within the region of California called Silicon Valley. Many companies began to start-up within the region, which led to a quantity of ‘venture capital’ organisations moving to or opening branches within Silicon Valley. Therefore companies with similar operations and aims all operated in the one area, a cluster. This cluster helped the companies to thrive, which increased their productivity and overall success. It also gave major opportunities within the labour market, as many specifically skilled workers knew there was employment in Silicon Valley, giving another angle to the overall benefits of adopting the idea of a ‘business cluster’. Wikipeida (2008), although a criticised academic source outlines this case, also list others such as, Hollywood for the film industry and Farnborough, in England, which contains a cluster of air and space companies. Another study in the business environment that outlines business clusters is by Moore (2003). In which the case describes a number of clusters within New Zealand. The document is a positive account of adopting business clusters by giving the impression that theory improves efficiency dramatically. It also identifies the two main requirements for a successful cluster is having a clear vision and good communication. This will help the organisations involved grow and produce a better business environment. Moore (2003) does however, outline the importance of not forgetting that each company is individual, and so although interaction is important, do not loose sight of the individual business aims.


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17.0 Community of Practice (CoP) This term has already been used when outlining the idea of tacit knowledge. McAndrew et al (2004) suggest that a community of practice is a work group made up of individuals that share common knowledge and similar educational goals. Lave and Wenger (1991) give the impression that a CoP is a useful tool within knowledge management, as it is a vital method of fostering new knowledge and also, as previously mentioned in this review, assists in the sharing of tacit knowledge. Wenger (2008) shows that a CoP is a group of people that share a common interest/goal that interact on a regular basis in order to increase their learning in the specific subject. The reading outlines that the following three points are crucial for a CoP:

- Domain, the CoP is not just a general grouping of people, it has a specific identity related to the cause.

- Community, to be in a CoP the individuals must meet on a regular basis and interact directly with each other, for example, a group of students studying business are not a CoP, to become a CoP they must directly study together outside the ‘set’ lecture setting.

- Practice, within a CoP the interaction is not just conversation on a general issue; it is a developed interaction over a time period. For example if a group of employees interact regularly over a lunch break to share knowledge and discussions of work topics, this would meet the idea of the practice within a CoP, according to Wenger (2008).

Wenger (2008) shows that the combination of these three criteria make up a CoP. He goes on to suggest that a CoP can also be known as a learning network, which has been outlined previously within this study. The reading indicates that CoP’s can meet on a ‘face-to-face’ basis or can exist in an electronic form with use of the Internet. Wenger et al (2002) indicate the following tools are related with a community of practise, within an electronic context.

- A homepage in order to outline the aims of the community. - A discussion room. - A space to place work. - A high-quality knowledge ‘search engine’. - A place in which each member is described. - A section devoted to performing shared work and inter-actions. - A good variety of management utilities.

Ardichvili (2008) also outlines that online CoP’s are important tools when promoting learning within the place of work. Wenger et al (2008) summarize that CoP’s are being utilised in a number of different sectors. Within a business setting, a CoP is a perfect tool to establish and maintain knowledge. Wenger shows that it is very uncommon not to find some form of CoP structure within a modern day business. Theory suggests that they can be developed or increased in order to work on a new collaborative learning model. The work of Wenger (2008) gives the overall impression that a CoP will:


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- Improve the learning experience. - Develop the relationship between learning and performance. - Is a good tool in the quest to establish tacit knowledge. - Overcome any organisational or geographical problems that could arise within

a companies learning process. Novicevic et al (2007) goes into more detail on CoP by discussing Follett’s original idea on the topic. The document shows that power relationships are a big area within a CoP. This is through the designation of power and the distribution of resources. The text outlines the following model when forming a CoP. Figure 5:

Source: Novicevic et al :2007:371 The previous is seen as a pluralistic model of CoP’s. The document argues that this model is used to try and gain a social unity between the mentioned groups in order to gain an idea of organisation and fully benefit from the tool of CoP. The document goes into great detail on the physiological ideas behind CoP’s . 18.0 Coaching and Mentoring When looking into the topic of ‘The Learning Organisation’ and ‘Knowledge Management’ within the text of Mullins (2005), the subjects of coaching and mentoring were noted. Mullins (2005) gives the impression that both coaching and mentoring have similar fundamentals, however each is important at different times within the business world. The text shows that coaching has the following characteristics:


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- Utilizes deductive methods. - The coach does not necessarily have to be a specialist in the field. - Both learner and the company benefit, however the person is the primary

benefactor. - Undertaken and recorded in minutes. - Can be formal or informal, however is mostly informal. - Respect exists for the coach for the individual. - Understanding between both coach and ‘pupil’ assists this technique.

The work of Mullins (2005) then goes on to show the following about mentoring:

- Utilizes both inductive and deductive methods. - The mentor must be a specialist in the field. - Both learner and the company benefit, however the company is the primary

benefactor. - Undertaken and recorded over a period of months. - The mentor is required to be readily available for the individual. - Can be formal or informal, however is mostly formal. - The ‘learner’ must have respect for the mentor’s knowledge. - Understanding between both coach and ‘pupil’ is vital within this technique.

Mullins (2005) shows that many in industry believe that coaching is essential if an organisation is to gain an advantage in their specific industry. Mullins (2005) gives the impression that this technique is used between the manager of an organisation and an outside coach. Although, further reading seems to indicate that it can also be adopted between employer and employees. Mullins (2005) outlines the work of Starr (2003), who indicates that if a coach uses these following principles the method will be a success. A coach must:

- Fully commit to supporting the person. - Use truth, honesty and belief as the foundations for the relationship. - Indicate that the individual take sole responsibility for the output. - If the person does not achieve their potential, make sure they know and need

to improve. - Gain constant feedback and opinions. - Believe that the person can achieve what has been set. - Never loose sight of equality within the relationship.

Whitmore (1996) outlines the following common coaching model of GROW:

- “Goals – What does the coach want to achieve? How do they want to feel afterwards?

- Reality – What is the scenario? What is the context? What are the problems? How have they been handled?

- Options – What are the possible actions? Which are the most attractive? What has worked in the past?

- Wrap-up – What actions are needed? What does success look like? What if things get in the way?” (Mullins:2005:419)


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When looking into mentoring, Mullins (2005) gives the impression that it includes four functions:

- “ Counsellor - Networker - Facilitator - Coach” (Mullins:2005:419)

As a manager being mentored, the success of this technique can lead to improved managerial success, communication and learning. However, adopting this technique within the employer to employee relationship will surely also gain these benefits as well. Guest (2006) shows that the technique of mentoring is understood to be vital within lifelong learning and is essential when developing CDP. The document goes on to give the impression that in the field many have argued that managers should now be coaches, as the idea of coaching and mentoring are indispensable for any modern day learning organisation. The text ends by claiming that lifelong learning has a big potential to expand and that coaching and mentoring will be a part of that development. The idea of coaching is further expanded later in this review in term of ’Cases of Human Resource Development’ (Section 21). 19.0 Educational Technology Kennewell (2008) discusses the idea of education technology at length. The document argues that ‘state of the art’ issues heavily influence the current learning environment. This involves the developing world of ICT. Monahan (2008) gives examples of specific tools that are at the forefront of this influence on education provision. ‘Web 2.0 application, mobile learning and grid technologies’ are all examples that are currently influencing the learning environment. The text shows that the Internet is a vital tool of learning within our current technologically based era. Monahan (2008) gives the impression that this does not only help the learning process but also allows the educator to develop social relations with their pupils or staff. Mann (2005) backs this up by also outlining that ICT is playing a major role within education. The text makes the important point that if an education provider or firm were to take up this theory; it is crucial that the leaders fully train the learners on the new ICT provisions. To finish, Cooke and Greenwood (2008) give the impression that ICT within the workplace is crucial in today’s technologically driven world. 20.0 Collaborative Frameworks in the Education Provision Rutherford and Jackson (2008) outline the following two frameworks for the analysis of education provision:

- The resource dependency perspective – The idea is based on the assumption that institutions should share resources. The article shows that these resources can take many forms, for example financial.

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- The institutional legitimacy perspective – This framework is heavily based on the idea of ‘professionalism’. The reading gives the impression that it attempts to set up validity in education. The source shows that it is important for a, in this case school, to attract and keep hold of pupils and teachers, constantly improve and achieve its goals in education.

Rutherford and Jackson (2008) give the overall idea that within an educational context achievement and improvement is gained through collaboration. 21.0 Cases of Human Resource Development (HRD) Heathfeild (2008) defines HRD as, “the framework for helping employees develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. Human Resource Development includes such opportunities as employee training, employee career development, performance management and development, coaching, succession planning, key employee identification, tuition assistance, and organization development.” (Heathfeild:2008) The report gives the impression that HRD is used to get the best out of the employees so the company can achieve their goals. Tools of this management theory include many of the previously outlined methods such as formal and informal learning situations. Sambrook (2008) shows that current issues being discussed within HRD are areas such as Chalofsky’s three pillars that outline the links between people, learning and organisations, HRD stretch and problem based learning. The document outlines the importance of coaching within HRD. This backs up the previous points within this review that outlines the importance of coaching as an idea within the collaborative learning model. The editorial by Sambrook (2008) gives the overall idea that any learning organisation must consider the ideas of HRD as it is directly linked to the learning process. From here the text of Sambrook (2008) outlines the first case of Yamnill et al (2008). This is a study of human development (HD) in HRD within the country of Thailand. The case is a look at the success of a Buddhist temple that utilises the HRD theory in order to maintain the popularity of the Buddhist faith. The text outlines that temple has very similar characteristics to a business by having the need to reach financial goals, maintain a workforce and successfully run an organisation. The temple provides work-based learning for monks (employees, if you will) to develop their knowledge and religious ‘rank’. Yamnill et al (2008) begins by showing the HRD is a key technique for:

- Progression of leadership. - Career development. - Integrating diversity. - Improving economic problems. - Offering literacy training. - Assistance on a number of different development schemes.


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The text goes on to show that HR and the adoption of their HRD framework will improve:

- Efficiency. - Effectiveness. - A competitive environment. - Work contentment. - Productivity. - Knowledge. - General well-being and happiness of workers.

The HRD framework adopted by the temple within Yamnill et al (2008) uses four implementation processes within its three stages:

- “Analysis – target groups and training periods. - Design - two main teaching programmes. - Implementation – - 1) Lecturer (programme manager) - 2) Demonstration, the monks (lecturer) acts as a role model for the learners. - 3) Learning process, the activities are based on a number of learning principles

in which the monks act as leaders not commanders; this is shown to help the learners develop their ‘thinking skills’.

- 4) Learning process is emphasised, this leads to increased popularity and inevitably increased participation.” (Yamnill:2008:223-235)

The reading then indicates that the HRD adopted by the temple is successful due to:

- Its clear vision. - Utilises the tools of teamwork and co-operation. - Uses the method of inter firm/facility collaboration. - The process outlines the learning needs and bases it teaching on those

requirements. - Adopts a good leadership ethic. - Overall understands the tools and benefits of HRD.

The case has outlined a good framework for the adoption of HRD and also explained why it has worked for them. Sambrook (2008) refers to a study by Walton and Guarisco (2008) that documents an international collaborative venture between a learning institution in the UK facilitating within Russia. The study is on an international scale, establishing a learning environment between two different organisations. The case outlines the following points:

- It is important not to focus solely on the outcome, but the course of combined learning necessary to accomplish it.

- Learning is the formation of knowledge within a joint ‘activity’. - Trust is a key component within a venture such as this project. - Flexibility is also vital, due to the ever-changing business and learning

environments.


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- Each company within the project must be fully aware and understand each other’s organisations and activities.

- To achieve the best outcome, it is important that managers and leaders ‘keep the momentum going’ within the operations.

The text also identifies the following theories: Knowledge transfer – “the cross-cultural, cross-border, and cross organisational processes whereby information, ideas and practices move between two different business systems.” (Walton and Guarisco:2008:253-269) Knowledge diffusion – “unidirectional flow of knowledge from source to reciprocate.” (Walton and Guarisco:2008:253-269) Walton and Guarisco (2008) gives a good account of how two learning organisation co-operated successfully using previous case studies of teaching to form a good learning environment for students requiring an international resource of learning. 22.0 Coaching within HRD Previously within this literature review, the topic of ‘coaching and mentoring’ was discussed as a possible tool within the collaborative learning model. It was concluded based on the literature that coaching and mentoring can play a vital role. Following on, Sambrook (2008) refers toHamlin et al (2008) that discusses coaching within the context of HRD. On the whole the document is a debate over whether or not there is, or should be a coaching profession. Hamlin’s (2008) case is attempting to conceptualise coaching from an HRD perspective. It begins by showing that coaching is a very big, extremely important area within HRD and that any company that relates its operations to HRD must utilise it in order to progress the learning of its employees. The document indicates that coaching, more specifically executive coaching, is becoming the biggest growing operation in the professional business industry. Although with this expansion, Hamlin (2008) argues that there are too many characterizations of coaching and whereas it is supposed to be administered by HRD individuals, all different types of business roles are adopting it. As the document progresses it gives a large number of different source’s definitions on coaching, then outlines them all to document the following four variations of the term ‘coach’. “Coaching – is designed to improve existing skills, competences and performance, and to enhance their personal effectiveness or personal development or personal growth. Executive Coaching – is a process that primarily (but not exclusively) takes place within a one-to-one helping and facilitative relationship between a coach and an executive (or a manager) that enables the executive (or a manager) to achieve personal-, job- or organisational-related goals with an intention to improve organisational performance.


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- is a helping and facilitative process that enables individuals, groups/teams and organisations to acquire new skills. Business Coaching – is a collaborative process that helps businesses, owner/managers and employees achieve their personal and business related goals to ensure long-term success. Life Coaching – is a helping and facilitative process – usually within a one-to-one relationship between a coach and a coachee which brings about an enhancement in the quality of life and personal growth of the coachee, and possibly a life-changing experience.” (Hamlin et al: 2008:295) Humlin et al (2008) also outline a number of different definitions on HRD and the document unfortunately goes on to give a rather in-depth, ambiguous and un-related argument on the ideas of coaching as a profession. Each type of coaching has similar fundamentals that achieve the same goal of increasing and improving the learning process. 23.0 Subject Matter Experts (SME’s) Sambrook (2008) by Chun-Lin and Jacbos (2008) outline the topic of subject matter experts. Williams (2001) gives the impression that a SME is a person who is an expert in a particular area. The reading shows that SME’s are brought in by a company to train or teach in their specified topic. The document argues that within the business industry there is a potential need of SME’s due to the fast developing environment. However, to a certain extent whoever is teaching within this project will be a SME. Potentially not meeting the set fundamentals of a SME, by being brought in from an outside source, but will still be a highly trained ‘expert’ in their particular field. With this in mind, Lee (2008) outlines a document that gives the idea on how a company gets the most out of their SME or in this case the teacher. The text shows that the organisation must convey their vision and aims, so the SME is aware of what exactly is required of them. Throughout the teaching period the company must form a good relationship with the teacher, in order to gain full feedback from them on issues related to the course. The document identifies that this feedback must come at regular intervals, so frequent meetings are essential. Finally, Lee (2008) shows that it is very important for the organisation to fully support the teacher/SME in order to improve the learning process. As previously mentioned, Williams (2001) argues that there has not been enough research into SME’s for companies to be confident of employing them. However, Grosse (2008) shows that one of the worlds biggest companies, Microsoft has operations utilising SME’s. On the other hand, Chun-Lin and Jacbos (2008) give the impression that there is no relation within their case study between working with SME’s and improved output. 24.0 Problem-Based Leaning (PBL) Referring again to the text of Sambrook (2008) on the topic of HRD, another article is featured that gives some interesting insights into another leaning theory by Yeo


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(2008). It is a study into how the theory of problem-based learning can be an arbitrating factor within the establishment of learning networks and learning outcomes within a workplace setting. The document begins by showing that within todays developing learning environment, two crucial factors are problem solving and questioning, which are the fundamentals of PBL. It is also suggested that within a workplace, employees tend to take their own routes into solving problems. Yeo (2008) gives the idea that based on sound research, within a project such as this, 80% of workers utilise and benefit from a more informal learning environment. The text shows that methods such as coaching and mentoring, self-directed learning and learning networks can be key components of PBL’s . Yeo (2008) also shows that PBL can benefit from peer interaction and sharing. Yeo (2008) gives the impression that PBL is founded on the proposal that problem solving and enquiry accomplish learning. The text shows that within this method it is down to how the organisation conducts itself. The idea is that the company is required to create a suitable learning ‘space’ for knowledge collaboration. They then must direct the employees to outline and share their knowledge and understanding within the set learning context. To do this, Yeo (2008) suggests that the social relationship between employer and employee must take a more democratic perspective, becoming less of a ‘commander and subject’ relationship to more of a coaching standpoint. Yeo (2008) outlines different theatrical definitions of the term PBL, which all relate to the idea of collaborative learning, before giving the following definition of its own idea of PBL.

- “ PBL is an interactive learning process that is motivated by a real-life problem, bringing people together to conceptualise, investigate, reflect and share emerging issues. The ultimate aim is to provide practical solutions with a wider influence on the workplace.” (Yeo:2008:319)

- “In short, PBL is both a structured yet interactive process that promotes spontaneity and creativity within a context that connects mind (cognition) to action (activity). (Yeo:2008:320)

- “PBL plays a critical role in refining the scope and direction to which learning occurs based on a specific purpose, as reinforced in activity theory.” (Yeo:2008:320)

The texts shows that the following aspects are all important tools within PBL due to the collaborative nature of the theory and its relation to COP’s.

- Social relations. - Feedback - Constant questioning. - Knowledge distribution and sharing.

Yeo (2008) then identifies that PBL also develops employees understanding of problems and allows them to become more confident within their own work. The idea given is that they can advance through more complex learning ‘hoops’.


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The document progresses to outline the case of McMaster University in Canada. This, Yeo (2008) claims, is the first big example of when PBL was successfully utilised in order to fully improve the learning process. The case is an example of medical students that benefited more from working on clinical situations rather than textbook studies. The students were split into smaller work groups and worked closely with patients in a hospital setting. Yeo (2008) shows that this allowed for deeper and improved learning. From here, the reading goes on to show that context is absolutely vital: an organisation that adopts the ideas of PBL must make sure it is in the correct context. Yeo (2008) shows that if a company uses PBL out of context or does not fully understand the theory, it will not lead to a good outcome, for example promoting adult learning. Yeo (2008) also shows that PBL is important within the workplace because of its ability for personal development and learning within a workplace setting. The document also shows that a good online and electronic system goes hand-in-hand with PBL. The penultimate section of the text by Yeo (2008) shows that within a HRD context, PBL improves the following aspects:

- Employees socialisation - through communication, employees have the ability to solve problems together, this gives a new aspect to the learning environment.

- On-the-job training. - Cross-cultural learning – allows a learning environment to exist between

people of strong differing cultural views or beliefs.

The article by Yeo (2008) concludes by explaining that as PBL has only been widely adopted within recent times, literature and case study evidence is limited, therefore more research is need to support it benefits. Vander Kooi (2006) shows that a case study of policing learners compared the differences to PBL and textbook learning. The case shows that the learners utilising PBL had much higher scores than those learning from books. The case concludes that PBL is a better technique to improve the learning process. Yeo (2008) gives the impression that more research is required. 25.0 Knowledge-Based Urban Development (KBUD) Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) outlined a case relating to Brisbane, Australia. The document is on a technique of knowledge-based urban development (KBUD) strategies being adopted within the Brisbane area. It is argued that KBUD supports regional economic development within the new knowledge based business era. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) begin by showing that Brisbane is currently developing knowledge community precincts (KCP), similar to learning networks, which are documented to attract more reputable companies, knowledge based workers and increased investment, with the overall goal of improving the local economy. The reading shows that organisations based on industry or mass production are now becoming more knowledge based, therefore demanding KCP’s in order to aid the competitive environment and improve the economy. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu


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(2008) show that it is very difficult to hold on to investment and better workforce within these highly competitive times, unless a tool such as a KCP is in place. The document shows that partnerships develop due to the demand for knowledge within the business world. Although, the text gives the idea that a KCP is different from the previously outlined learning networks or business clusters, this is due to Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu’s (2008) belief that they are heavily based on organisational co-ordination. The case study progresses to outline that within the KBUD idea, if a company is going to succeed in the competitive environment they must have:

- A good/reliable knowledge infrastructure. - Be Technologically up-to-date, this is linking again to the idea that the

companies within this project must maintain/improve the Internet and electronic networking within their organisations.

- A good understanding of the national or even global ‘knowledge-based economy’.

Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) develop these ideas into outlining the importance of urban sustainability. This concept is the collective term for developing the sustainability for the economic, social and ecological aspects of a region; this provides the foundation for KBUD. The theory is directly related to the procedure of knowledge production and is highlighted as a leading innovative ‘strategic development’ plan. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) understand KBUD to be the understanding and administration of: – “Value Dynamics. – Capital systems. – Urban governance. – Development and planning.” (Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu:2008:198) KBUD is documented to be a process that uses human capital to secure and improve the economy. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) show that it has three rationales:

- “It codifies technical, market, financial and human knowledge. - Outlines the plan to increase the skills and knowledge of workers. - Builds a strong spatial relationship among urban development clusters.”

(Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu: 2008:198) The section of the documents ends with the idea that KBUD utilises the previously identified tool of KCP’s in order to lead to greater economic success. The study goes on to identify exactly how important local government is within the idea of KBUD. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) give the impression that to gain and measure greater economic success the area in which the organisation(s) operate must have adopted a good ‘local economic development strategy’. The case of Brisbane shows that they adopt ‘Smart State Strategy’, this brand that produces strategies, focuses on moving away from the traditional production idea into the new knowledge based area of economy. This transformation takes a very KBUD perspective and the case shows that the new ‘Smart City Strategy’ is directly related


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to the provision of lifelong learning, with the aim of assisting Brisbane becoming a ‘knowledge city’. This idea is a potential future direction of the Yorkshire and Humber, becoming a knowledge region. The following is the framework for KBUD policy within Brisbane. Figure 6: Source: Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu, 2008:199 The article progresses to outline areas of business environments which compliment ideas of a KBUD policy. The first is the idea of being/forming a creative environment. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) suggest that a creative environment plays a big part in attracting possible investors and employees to an organisation, and that this will help the progression of the economy within that area. The article shows that utilising the tools KCP’s and KBUD’s will lead to the formation of a creative environment. Administrative environments are also outlined as an area that relates to ideas within the theory of KBUD’s. The case shows that within Brisbane an administrative environment occurs through human and social techniques in the form of partnerships. For example the universities in the region train and develop the skills of individuals wanting to learn. Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) suggest that this environment combined with the economy and standard of living can potentially attract more business to the region, hence leading to greater economic success. The article goes on to outline that within the idea of a KBUD it is essential that the idea of ‘knowledge-based entrepreneurial spirit’ is portrayed in a constructive manner. Within this section, potential barriers within the theory of KBUD are outlined. Surrounding the case of Brisbane it is identified that due to lack of governmental support the area does not receive as much funding as Sydney, this potentially leads to small/medium-sized businesses not receiving full support, as the local economy is potentially restricted. Although, the document does show that Sydney has fully benefited from the KBUD theory, Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu


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(2008) illustrate that the area is a thriving region through ‘knowledge-based employment growth’. The discussions above refers to the role of KCP’s within the KBUD theory. The following diagram outlines examples of those utilised within the Brisbane area. Figure 7:

Source: Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu, 2008:204 Smart State Council, 2007:26 The aim of the Brisbane area is to focus on progressing the economy by utilising the KCP’s within the city and surrounding areas. The plan within this case is that once the previously outlined KCP’s are in place, the area will be able to attract future investors leading to greater economic success. Although, Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) gives the impression that the area is facing possible barriers to the completion of this plan. The factors potentially stopping the strategy are:

- Housing affordability. - The area has a poor administrative environment. - Environmental problems. - There is a distinct lack of foreign interest and funding in the area.

Adopting the ideas of Yigitcanlar and Yelibeyoglu (2008) in a region with long-term economic potential will lead to:

- A boost to the economy. - A solution to possible unemployment. - Increased social and environmental sustainability.


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26.0 Regional Economic Development Cox and Taylor (2006) document a project in the area of Lancaster. The case study is about how Lancaster University’s Management School can strongly aid the regional economy. Cox and Taylor (2006) give the impression that it is essential for university-business relationships to be strong as they play a key role in the growth of productivity. In recent times the government has identified this idea and began to fund activities to strengthen this ‘knowledge transfer’ connection, with the overall goal to strengthen regional and national economies. The article shows that universities are offering higher education and work based training in order to achieve greater economic success. Cox and Taylor (2006) suggest that very little research has been carried out to determine if university-business relations can actually aid the economy of an area. Although they argue that due to recent European cases, the success depends on the type of university and the features of the region. The main case study relates to a £9.5 million projected expansion of Lancaster University which was initiated to meet the increasing education and research needs, but also amplify the collaboration of university and SME’s. The case study has two aims:

- Estimate the impact on the regional economy. - Outline the results on the business society.

The following diagram taken from the source outlines the ‘backward and forward’ connections of university involvement within the project.


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Figure 8:

Source: Cox and Taylor, 2008:121 The study identifies the following backward connection effects of the Lancaster project:

- During the actual construction there will be a supply of construction jobs. - Increase the number of students attracted to the university. - Raise the number of lecturers and non-academic workers, that leads to: - Increased income through research, which will allow for more staff to spend

their wages on/in the local businesses. - The university as a whole will also require more local businesses to aid the

maintenance and technology of the expansion. The study outlines each advantage from a financial view, leading to the overall increase to regional economy on the backward linkages alone as around £2.2 million per year.


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Cox and Taylor (2006) then go on to outline the forward linkage effects; these are predominantly through ‘Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development’ schemes. The projects offered to the SME’s within the region are:

- “Enterprise Performance Project: working closely with owners-managers in order to assist the development of and enterprise culture within firms.

- Business Enterprise Development: assists companies in the mature phase of their lifecycle to diversify and regain momentum by providing advice on product development.

- Regional Marketing Network: improving access to marketing networks across the North-West region.

- Business Support Initiative: provides advice on marketing, business planning, business strategy and product positioning for SME’s.

- Information Communication Technology (Management Support Initiative): access to management learning through the delivery of short courses and mentoring to managers of SME’s; includes e-learning.” (Cox and Taylor, 2006:124-125)

The article shows that over 350 companies in the region adopt one of these schemes provided for business support, in which the SME’s gain further income. The following table outlines what Cox and Taylor (2006) estimate will be the financial force of these schemes. Figure 9:

Source: Cox and Taylor,2006:129 The article goes on to show that within the forward linkage effect there will be an additional £1.5 million a year boost for the regions economy. This totals around a


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£3.6 million increase to the regions economy within the Lancaster University Management Schools expansion. Cox and Taylor (2006) suggest that the annual amount is likely to increase each year; and that as the project develops there are a number of other potential economical benefits. The article also describes a number of tools that this case is planning to use; all have the potential to boost the local economy, for example SME assistance and support facilities. In conclusion, this case has documented a project that has a big potential to drive towards greater economic success. 27.0 Regional University- Industry Research Collaboration The final area covered within the literature survey is ‘university- industry research collaboration’ discussed within an Australian case study by Gunasekara (2006). The case attempts to document the importance of university- industry research collaboration, by considering three differing universities. The case study is a documentation of the experience within three provincial university- industry research collaboration schemes. The three universities were in different geo/demographical settings:

- “A peri-urban region that abuts a core metropolitan centre. - A provincial city region.

A rural region.” (Gunasekara, 2006:167) Gunasekara (2006) suggests that university interaction is an essential part of ‘knowledge based growth’. The text also shows that universities are seen as a crucial aspect of ‘regional engagement’, suggesting that from a European perspective, in recent times universities have been fully engaging in regional issues and problems. ‘Regional Development Agencies’ are the organisation that interacts and assists the university- industry collaboration process, through ‘knowledge- structure and communication’. Gunasekara (2006) goes on to show that over the last twenty years regional development has evolved from the university perspective. It is argued that, “a key asset and input in knowledge-based economies that rely on both codified and tacit knowledge impulses for innovation and competitive advantage.”. This is through research affiliation, learning plans and service to the community. (Gunasekara, 2006:168). The article argues that universities have always been seen as a vital feature for scientific knowledge in favour of business innovation. This is done by forming university- industry research collaborative ventures. Gunasekara (2006) shows that in the economic development sector the tool of ‘The Triple Helix’ outlined by Etzkowitz (2002) is a primary implement that gives the idea of how essential universities are in regional economies. This idea develops to show the reasoning behind why many regions are utilising universities in order to drive for greater economic success.


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The Australian study within Gunasekara (2006) shows that the government gives grants as incentives in order to institute the university- industry collaboration. From 2005 the government were hopeful to advance the competitive business environment through university- industry association. Between 2001 and 2003 the economies within the metropolitan areas were mostly affected by these grants. Up to this point, Gunasekara (2006) has given a good account of regional university- industry research collaboration. However, the results of the Australian case study do not support the points raised in the literature. This is due to the unsuccessful outcomes documents in the study. Each university had different outcomes, but all seemed to give uncertain and negative accounts of the collaborative effects on the regional economy. Gunasekara (2006) argues that the off-putting results are due to the following aspects:

- Poor local engagement. - Un-certain inter-community engagement. - There was a worrying uncertainly to the meaning of ‘region’. Within the study

there did not seem to be a similar collective meaning for the term. - The government structured the regional incentives poorly. - The previous problem lead to many attempting to tackle national dilemmas

when they should be focusing on the regional level. 28.0 Conclusion and Recommendations This literature survey has outlined a number of different theories and tools in the industry, that are relevant to the requirements of ‘Learning from success: the learning journey of the Greater Economic Success Group’ project. Throughout the literature there has been a recurring theme that the following topics and methods seem more relevant than others in terms of this project:

- Business Clusters - Situational Leadership - Coaching and Mentoring - An improved online and electronic system.

Some of the sections within this review have noted the need for increased research. However, the document has still uncovered some very important and potentially beneficial theories and tools within the business and learning environment. Other topics which might be covered by further research include:

- Peer groups - A more in-depth look in foundation degrees. - Digitization - Continuing professional development. - Strategic and management flexibility. - Teamwork - Motivation -


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