learn to use the phi coefficient measure and test in r
TRANSCRIPT
Learn to Use the Phi Coefficient
Measure and Test in R With Data
From the Welsh Health Survey
(Teaching Dataset) (2009)
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This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods Datasets.
Learn to Use the Phi Coefficient
Measure and Test in R With Data
From the Welsh Health Survey
(Teaching Dataset) (2009)
Student Guide
Introduction
This example dataset introduces the Phi Coefficient, which allows researchers to
measure and test the strength of association between two categorical variables,
each of which has only two groups. This example describes the Phi Coefficient,
discusses the assumptions underlying its validity, and shows how to compute and
interpret it. We illustrate the Phi Coefficient measure and test using a subset of
data from the 2009 Welsh Health Survey. Specifically, we measure and test the
strength of association between sex and whether the respondent has visited the
dentist in the last twelve months. The Phi Coefficient can be used in its own
right as a means to assess the strength of association between two categorical
variables, each with only two groups. However, typically, the Phi Coefficient is
used in conjunction with the Pearson’s Chi-Squared test of association in tabular
analysis. Pearson’s Chi-Squared test tells us whether there is an association
between two categorical variables, but it does not tell us how important, or how
strong, this association is. The Phi Coefficient provides a measure of the strength
of association, which can also be used to test the statistical significance (with
which that association can be distinguished from zero, or no-association).
This page provides links to this sample dataset and a guide to producing the Phi
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Coefficient test using statistical software.
What Is a Phi Coefficient?
The Phi Coefficient is a method for determining the strength of association
between two categorical variables (e.g., sex, ethnicity, occupation), each of which
is or is measured as binary, that is, they only have two groups (male/female or
employed/unemployed). Also known as Pearson’s Phi Coefficient, the measure is
designed for variables at the binary categorical level only. When used as a formal
statistical test, one must, as always, first define the null hypothesis (H0) to be
tested. In this case, the standard null hypothesis is that there is no association
between the two variables. Even if the variables are not associated in truth, some
non-zero association would be expected simply due to sampling error, i.e., random
chance in sampling. The Phi Coefficient test conducted here is designed to help
us determine whether the difference from zero-association that occurs in the
sample is large enough to declare the association statistically significantly non-
zero. “Large enough” is typically defined as a test statistic with a level of statistical
significance, or p-value, of less than .05, meaning that sample associations this
large or larger would occur “just by random chance” in only 5% of samples this
size. We would “reject the null hypothesis (H0) of no association between the two
variables” at the .05 level.
Calculating a Phi Coefficient
The Phi Coefficient is derived from Pearson’s Chi-Square statistic of tabular
association. The modifications restrict the resulting statistic to a range of −1.0 to
1.0, analogously to (although not the same as) Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient.
If the variables are not associated, then the Phi Coefficient value should be
0; perfect positive (negative) association yields a Phi Coefficient of 1 (−1). To
illustrate, let’s imagine that we have surveyed 100 participants, whom we have
categorised by whether they have children and asked them to identify whether
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Page 3 of 12 Learn to Use the Phi Coefficient Measure and Test in R With Data From the
Welsh Health Survey (Teaching Dataset) (2009)
they have a pet or not. Table 1 shows the hypothetical results below.
Table 1: Cross-Tabulation of Pet Ownership and Having a Child.
Whether respondent has a pet
Whether respondent has a child
Yes No Total
Yes (n = 30) 20 (66.6%) 10 (33.3%) 30
No (n = 70) 10 (14%) 60 (86%) 70
Total 30 70
The cross-tabulation suggests a possible positive association as there appears to
be greater pet ownership amongst those who have children, 66.6% of people with
a pet also had children compared with 33.3% of people without children. However,
we do not know whether this is statistically significant. Table 1 is also known as a
2 × 2 contingency table; two binary variables are considered positively associated
if most of the data fall along the diagonal cells, thus a and d are larger than b and
c. Conversely, if the data fall in the off-diagonal, then two variables are negatively
associated. Table 2 below illustrates this, with each observed count labelled.
Table 2: Cross-Tabulation of Pet Ownership and Having a Child.
Whether respondent has a pet
Whether respondent has a child
Yes No Total
Yes (n = 30) 20 (66.6%)
a
10 (33.3%)
b
30
e
No (n = 70) 10 (14%)
c
60 (86%)
d
70
f
Total 30
g
70
h
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If we look at Table 2, we can see that a and d appear larger than b and c. However,
we need to calculate the Phi Coefficient, using Equation 1.
Equation 1 presents the formula for the Phi Coefficient (using the data in counts)
(1)
φ =ad − bc√efgh
Equation 2 presents the formula populated with data from the example
(2)
φ =20x60 − 10x10√30x70x30x70
φ =1200 − 100√4410000
φ =11002100
φ = 0.52
We have calculated the Phi Coefficient to be 0.52. We can interpret this figure
using the same scale as that for Pearson’s Correlation coefficient.
Table 3 presents the Phi Coefficient Scale.
Table 3: The Phi Coefficient Scale.
Phi Coefficient Interpretation
−1.0 to −0.7 Strong negative association between the variables
−0.69 to −0.4 Medium negative association between the variables
−0.39 to −0.2 Weak negative association between the variables
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−0.199 to 0.01 No or negligible association between the variables
0.00 No association between the two variables
0.01 to 0.19 No or negligible association between the variables
0.2 to 0.39 Weak positive association between the variables
0.4 to 0.69 Medium positive association between the variables
0.70 to 1.0 Strong positive association between the variables
In our example, the Phi Coefficient value is 0.52, which we can interpret as
a medium (positive) association between our variables. We can reject the H0;
in other words, there is a statistically significant association between the two
variables. Moreover, by reviewing the contingency table (Table 1), we can add that
the association between having a child and owning a pet is a positive association.
Assumptions Behind the Method
All statistical tests rely on some underlying assumptions, and they all are affected
by the type of data that you have. The Phi Coefficient test can be run on its own
to test the association between two variables. However, typically it is used as a
post-test following a cross-tabulation and a Pearson’s Chi-Squared test, where it
adds depth to the analysis by identifying the strength of association between two
variables.
Assumptions of the Phi Coefficient test
• Both variables must have two categorical, independent groups.
• There must be independence of observations, so there is no relationship
between the groups or between the observations in each group.
• All expected counts should be greater than 1 and no more than 20% of
expected counts. No expected counts should be less than 5.
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The first and second assumptions are not typically testable from the sample data
and are related to the research design. The second assumption is only likely
to be violated if the data were sampled by pairs rather than individuals (e.g.,
couples rather than individual persons). It is important to understand how your
data were collected and categorized; this will help you avoid violating the first
two assumptions. The third assumption can be tested easily in most statistical
software programs.
Illustrative Example: Association Between Sex and Whether
Respondent Visited the Dentist in the Last Twelve Months
This example presents a Phi Coefficient analysis using two variables from the
2009 Welsh Health Survey. Specifically, we test whether there is an association
between sex and whether the respondent visited the dentist in the last twelve
months.
Thus, this example addresses the following research question:
Does visiting the dentist in the last twelve months vary by an individual’s
sex?
Stated in the form of a null hypothesis:
H0 = There will be no association between sex and whether the
respondent has visited the dentist in the last twelve months.
It should be noted that this hypothesis is two-tailed.
The Data
This example uses a subset of data from the 2009 Welsh Health Survey. This
extract includes 16,018 respondents, which is a large sample. It should be noted
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that the original dataset is larger still, but it has been “cleaned” to include only
those who have responded to both our variables. The two variables we examine
are:
• Respondent’s sex (sex).
• Whether respondent has visited the dentist in the last twelve months
(denbi).
The first variable, Respondent’s sex (sex), is coded 1, if male, and 2, if female.
Whether the respondent has visited the dentist in the last twelve months (denbi) is
coded; 0, if “no” and 1, if “yes.” We treat both variables as categorical, in line with
common practice in social science research. In addition, both variables are binary.
First, we should test our data to ensure that no expected counts are less than 5.
Table 4: Contingency Table for Sex and Whether the Respondent Visited
the Dentist in the Last Twelve Months.
Sex
Whether the respondent has visited the dentist in the last twelve
months
Male Female Total
No
Count 2,329 2,058 4,387
Expected
Count 2,039.2 2,347.8 4,387.0
Yes
Count 4,684 6,016 10,700
Expected
Count 4973.8 5,726.2 10,700.0
Total
Count 7,013 8,074 15,087
Expected
Count 7,013.0 8,074.0 15,087.0
We can see from Table 4 that no cells have an expected count less than 5, and
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all the expected counts are greater than 1. In addition, both our variables are
categorical with only two groups each, therefore the Phi Coefficient is appropriate
for these data. Usually the Phi Coefficient is run as a post-test to tell us something
about the strength of an association that a Pearson’s Chi-squared test has
identified as significant.
Analysing the Data
Before conducting the Phi Coefficient test, we should first examine each variable
in isolation. We start by presenting a frequency distribution of sex in Table 5. Table
5 shows the distribution of sex; there are slightly more females (53.7%) than males
(46.3%) in the sample.
Table 5: Frequency Distribution of Sex.
Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent
Valid
Male 7,412 46.3 46.3 46.3
Female 8,606 53.7 53.7 100.0
Total 16,018 100.0 100.0
Table 6 shows the frequency distribution of denbi. Just under a third of
respondents (29.1%) did not visit a dentist in the last twelve months, while 70.9%
did. It should be noted that 931 respondents did not answer the question.
Table 6: Frequency Distribution of denbi.
Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent
Valid
No 4,387 27.4 29.1 29.1
Yes 10,700 66.8 70.9 100.0
Total 15,087 94.2 100.0
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Missing No answer/refused 931 5.8
Total 16,018 100.0
Tables 5 and 6 show the distribution of each of these variables by themselves, but
they cannot tell us whether they are in a relationship.
Calculating the Phi Coefficient and Conducting the Phi Coefficient
Test
Tables 7 and 8 present the results of the Phi Coefficient analysis. Table 7 presents
the Chi-square test result, which statistic also underlies the Phi Coefficient. We
can see that our results are significant at the p ≤ .000, the variables are associated
with each other.
Table 7: Results of the Phi Coefficient Analysis: The Chi-Squared Result.
Value df Asymptotic significance
Pearson chi-square 108.477 1 .000
N of valid cases 15,087
Table 8: Results of the Phi Coefficient Analysis: Phi Coefficient Measure
and Test.
Value Approximate significance
Nominal by nominal Phi 0.085 .000
N of valid cases 15,087
Table 8 presents the Phi Coefficient value, which is 0.085, and this suggests that
there is perhaps negligible positive association between the variables. However,
the p ≈ .000 suggests a highly statistically significant association. Given the very
low Phi Coefficient result, we need to treat the p value with caution as they are
very sensitive to sample size; in large samples (like our example), they often
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deem small differences as significant. Therefore, given that the Phi Coefficient
accommodates sample size, we should use it as the basis to accept our null
hypothesis; there will be no association between sex and whether the respondent
visited the dentist in the last twelve months.
Presenting Results
A Phi Coefficient test can be reported as follows:
“We used a subset of data from the 2009 Welsh Health Survey dataset to measure
and test the association between sex and whether respondent visited the dentist
in the last twelve months. We tested the following null hypothesis:
H0 = There is no association between sex and whether the respondent
has visited the dentist in the last twelve months.
The data included 16,018 adult respondents. There was no substantively
significant association between sex and whether the respondent visited the dentist
in the last twelve months, φ = 0.085, however p = .000, which suggests no
association between the variables. This leads us to accept the null hypothesis of
no association between sex and whether respondent visited the dentist in the last
twelve months.”
Review
The Phi Coefficient is a statistical measure used to evaluate the strength of
association between two dichotomous variables.
You should know:
• What types of variables are suited for a Phi Coefficient test.
• The basic assumptions underlying this statistical test.
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• How to compute and interpret a Phi Coefficient test.
• How to report the results of a Phi Coefficient test.
Your Turn
You can download this sample dataset along with a guide showing how to produce
a Phi Coefficient test using statistical software. The sample dataset also includes
another variable called teethbi, which relates to how many teeth the respondent
has. See whether you can reproduce the results presented here for the sex
variable, and then try producing your own Phi Coefficient analysis substituting
teethbi for sex in the analysis.
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