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EDUCATIONSECTOR REPORTS

Leading the LocaL:Teachers Union Presidents Speak on Change, Challenges

By Susan Moore Johnson, Morgaen L. Donaldson, Mindy Sick Munger, John P. Papay, and Emily Kalejs Qazilbash

June 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements .............................................. ii

Introduction .......................................................... 1

Leading Two Generations ...................................... 6

Reforming Teacher Compensation ........................ 8

Addressing Teacher Quality ................................ 12

Reconceiving the Labor-Management

Relationship ........................................................ 17

Conclusion .......................................................... 20

Appendices ......................................................... 24

Endnotes ............................................................. 37

ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS

TheJoyceFoundationprovidedfundingforthisreport.Thefindingsandconclusionsarethoseoftheauthorsalone,anddonotnecessarilyrepresenttheopinionsofthefoundation.

Theauthorsgreatlyappreciatetheparticipationofthelocalunionpresidentsinthisstudy.Theyweregenerouswiththeirtimeandthoughts.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

SUSAN MOORE JOHNSON,PforzheimerProfessorofTeachingandLearningattheHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation,isdirectoroftheProjectontheNextGenerationofTeachers.Co-authorsofthisreport,alladvanceddoctoralstudentsatHarvard,areresearchassistantswiththeProject.

ABOUT EDUCATION SECTOR

EducationSectorisanindependenteducationthinktankbasedinWashington,D.C.Itisanonprofitandnonpartisanorganizationdevotedtodevelopinginnovativesolutionstothenation’smostpressingeducationalproblems.TheorganizationseekstobeadependablesourceofsoundthinkingoneducationpolicyandanhonestbrokerofevidenceinkeyeducationdebatesinWashingtonandnationally.

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Unlikemanyothercountries,theU.S.hasnonationalteachersunionnegotiatingasinglecontractforthecountry’sentireteachingforce.Instead45statespermitorrequirecollectivebargainingand,withinthosestates,localteacherrepresentativesnegotiatecontractsonebyonewiththeirlocalschoolboards.Theseagreementsdefinelocalpoliciesandpracticesrangingfromclasssizeandthelengthoftheschooldaytotextbookselectionandteacherevaluation.

Yetweknowverylittleabouttheseinfluentiallocalunionpresidentswhorepresentteachersintheselocalcontractnegotiations.Almostnoresearchhasbeendoneabouttheirbackgrounds,theirbeliefs,ortheirpriorities.Understandingthemisespeciallyimportantatthistimewhenpubliceducationfacesunprecedentedchallenges—theperformancedemandsofthefederalNoChildLeftBehindActandstateaccountabilitysystems,stiffcompetitionfromcharterschools(whicharerarelyunionized)andprivateschoolsenrollingstudentswithpubliclyfundedvouchers,andgrowingturnoverintheteachingforce.1

Criticscontendthatteachersunionsareantiquated,obstructionistorganizationsthatpromotetheinterestsoftheirmembersattheexpenseofstudentsandstandinthewayofreformsneededtoattractnewteachers,competesuccessfullywithcharterschools,andmeetstateandfederalaccountabilitydemands.Unionsupporterscounterthatteachersunionsdefendandstrengthenpubliceducationthroughimprovedwagesandworkingconditions,innovativeprograms,andconstructivelabor-managementrelationships.However,weseldomheartheviewsoflocalunionleadersabouttherolethattheirorganizationsdoandshouldplayinpubliceducationandschoolreform.

Tolearnaboutthesekeypubliceducators,theirprioritiesasunionleaders,andtheirviewsonteacherunionism,theteachingprofession,andeducationreformtoday,weconductedintensiveinterviewswiththepresidentsof30localunionsinsixstates:California,Colorado,Florida,Maryland,Massachusetts,andOhio.Wesoughttounderstandthethoughtsandapproachesofthenewestgenerationoflocalunionleaders,ratherthanthoseofleaderswhoseviewswereforgedthreeorfourdecadesagowhenbargainingbeganandindustrialstyleunionismprevailed.Asaresult,weincludedinourstudyonlypresidentselectedtotheirpostsinthelasteightyears.Nearlyall,however,werelong-timeunionmembers,closertotheendoftheircareerthantothebeginning.(Seesidebar,p.4.)

An Expanded AgendaWefoundthatthesepresidentswerenotfocusedexclusivelyonadvancingthetraditionalunionagendaofbettersalaries,benefits,workingconditions,andfairevaluationprocessesfortheirmembers.Althoughtheysaiditwasabsolutelyessentialtopursuethosegoals,veryfewstoppedthere.“Today[yourvision]hastobemorethanjustworkingconditions,benefits,andsalary.Youhavegottohavemorethanthat,”MariettaEnglish,presidentoftheBaltimoreTeachersUnion,toldus.Mostsaidthatconventionalunionprioritieswerenecessary,butnotsufficient,giventheincreasingexpectationsofnewteachersforprofessionalsupport,thedemandsofschoolreform,andgrowingcompetitionfromcharterschoolsandothernontraditionalformsofpubliceducation.CincinnatiFederationofTeachersPresidentSueTaylorsaidshehasbeendirectwithhermembersaboutthechallengesposedbycharterschools:“WhatIsayconstantlyinourmembershipmeetingsisthatwe,

teachers unions are among the most powerful organizations in american education today. at the state and national level, the national education association (nea) and american Federation of teachers (aFt), the two largest, have long exerted tremendous influence over education policy. But it is the leaders of the thousands of local NEA and AFT affiliates who hold the greatest sway over the educational lives of public school teachers and students.


Study Participants

California

AlexAnguiano SweetwaterEducationAssociation SweetwaterUnionHighSchoolDistrict

A.J.Duffy UnitedTeachersLosAngeles LosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrict

JimGroth ChulaVistaEducators ChulaVistaElementarySchoolDistrict

BruceSeaman GrossmontEducationAssociation GrossmontUnionHighSchoolDistrict

SarahRoss AssociatedPomonaTeachers PomonaUnifiedSchoolDistrict

Colorado

MarkChavez BoulderValleyEducationAssociation BoulderValleySchoolDistrict

TomLynch WestminsterEducationAssociation Adams50SchoolDistrict

LoriMaag GreeleyEducationAssociation Greeley-EvansWeldCountyDistrict6

KimUrsetta DenverClassroomTeachersAssociation DenverPublicSchools

IrmaValerio ColoradoSpringsEducationAssociation ColoradoSpringsSchoolDistrict11

Florida

KarenB.Aronowitz UnitedTeachersofDade Miami-DadeCountyPublicSchools

JaniceD.Brown GladesCountyClassroomTeachersAssociation GladesCountySchoolDistrict

TheoHarris PalmBeachCountyClassroomTeachersAssociation PalmBeachCountySchoolDistrict

VonD.Jeffers CollierCountyEducationAssociation CollierCountyPublicSchools

PatrickA.Santeramo BrowardTeachersUnion BrowardCountyPublicSchools

Maryland

GaryBrennan FrederickCountyTeachersAssociation FrederickCountyPublicSchools

BonnieCullison MontgomeryCountyEducationAssociation MontgomeryCountyPublicSchools

AnnDeLacy HowardCountyEducationAssociation HowardCountyPublicSchools

MariettaEnglish TheBaltimoreTeachersUnion BaltimoreCityPublicSchoolSystem

CarolKilby PrinceGeorge’sCountyEducators’Association PrinceGeorge’sCountyPublicSchools

Massachusetts

CherylA.DelSignore EducationalAssociationofWorcester WorcesterPublicSchools

SherrillNeilsen NeedhamEducationAssociation NeedhamPublicSchools

TimothySheehan Amherst-PelhamEducationAssociation Amherst-PelhamPublicSchools

RichardStutman BostonTeachersUnion BostonPublicSchools

PaulToner CambridgeTeachersAssociation CambridgePublicSchools

Ohio

SusanBrooks MountHealthyTeachers’Association MountHealthyCitySchoolDistrict

MelissaCropper GeorgetownFederationofTeachers GeorgetownExemptedVillageSchoolDistrict

RhondaJohnson ColumbusEducationAssociation ColumbusPublicSchools

SueTaylor CincinnatiFederationofTeachers CincinnatiPublicSchools

WillieA.Terrell,Jr. DaytonEducationAssociation DaytonCitySchoolDistrict


firstandforemost,havegottofindawaytoraisestudentachievement.…Andifwedon’tfigureouthowtomakeimprovementsinstudentachievement,we’renotgoingtohaveaschooldistrict,muchlessauniontoadvocateforanyone.”

Manypresidentshavesoughttopromoteteachers’activeroleinchangebothwithinandbeyondschooldistricts.Prioritiesvariedfrompersontopersonandlocaletolocale,butthesepresidents’expandedagendaoftenhasincludedinductionprogramstosupportnewteachers,professionaldevelopment,alternativeapproachestopay,andactiveengagementinschoolreform.Manyoftheunionleadersreportedthat,inordertoachievethisexpandedagenda,theyhaveworkedcloselywithschooladministratorstodevelopnewmechanismsforcollaborativelabor-managementrelations.

Leading Two Generations of Teachers

Thepresidentsreportedthattheiragendahasexpandedinpartduetopressurefromtheirmembers.Thelocalpresidentsdescribedtheireffortstoleadtwogroupsofteachers—veteransandnovices—whohaddifferentandoftencompetingneeds,interests,andbeliefsabouttheappropriateroleofteachersunions.Veterans,manyofwhomhelpedtofoundteachersunionsinthelate1960sand1970s,rarelyquestionedtheimportanceofunions.Ingeneral,theywantedtopreservetraditionalapproachestopayandprotectionsandmaintainautonomyintheirclassrooms.Thepresidentssaid,however,thatnewerteachershadnomemoryofthehardshipsteachersenduredpriortounionization.Mostnewteacherstookthecontractforgrantedandsomeevenquestionedtheneedforalabororganizationinschools.Unliketheirveterancounterparts,manyofthesenovicesexpectedtheirunionstogivethemstrongsupportinthefirst,oftendifficultyearsofteaching,provideongoingtraining,pursueinnovationsinpay,orcreateopportunitiesforteacherstotakeondifferentrolesinschool.RhondaJohnsonoftheColumbus(Ohio)EducationAssociationobserved,“We’rerunningacoupleofparallelorganizations.”

Manypresidentsexplainedthatthefutureoftheirlocaluniondependedonattractingnewmembersanddevelopingnewleaders.Theyexpandedtheirlocalagenda,inpart,tomeettheexpectationsofnewteachers.Theysaidtheyoftenhadtopersuadeveteran

teachersthattherewereimportantgainstobemadeinventuringbeyondthetraditionalunionagenda.Anddoingso,theysaid,wasnotwithoutrisk:misjudgingtheirmembers’readinesstoembracenontraditionalgoalsandactivitiescouldresultinfailedreformsandlostelections.

Reforming Teacher CompensationPresidentssaiditwasessentialtoimprovepayandbenefits,notonlytomeettheneedsandsupporttheinterestsoftheirmembers,butalsotoensurethattheirdistrictcouldattractandretainthebestpossiblenewteachers.Inaddition,manywereworkingwithlocalschoolsystemstopilotalternativestothetraditionalpracticeofpayingteachersonthebasisofseniorityandteachercredentials,includingstipendsforspecializedrolesorextratime,careerladders,payincentivesforteachersinhard-to-staffschoolsorsubjects,andrewardsforteacherscertifiedbytheNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards.

Althoughmanyofthesepayreformsaffectedsmallnumbersofschoolsorteachers,theywerenotableintheirdeparturefromtraditional,standardizedpayscalesusedinvirtuallyallofthenation’sschooldistricts.Mostpresidentsdoubtedthatindividualizedmeritpaycouldbeimplementedfairlyandeffectively,althoughmanysupportedschool-basedawards.ThemostambitiouscompensationreformwasinDenver,wherelaborandmanagementhadreplacedthestandardizedsalaryscalewithasystemthatincludedrewardsforavarietyofskillsandaccomplishments.

Addressing Teacher QualityAlthoughteachersunionsareoftenchargedwithstiflingeffortstoimproveteaching,thesepresidentsthoughtthatteacherqualitywasunionbusinessandthatsuchcriticismswereoverstated.Mostreportedthatseniorityplayedlittleroleinteachers’assignments,whichwasconfirmedbyouranalysisofthedistricts’collectivebargainingagreements.Inmostofthesedistricts,principalshadsubstantialdiscretiontochoosetheirteachers.

Thepresidentsacknowledgedthatsometimesunionsdefendineffectiveteachers,buttheyarguedthatthiswouldnotoccurasfrequentlyifprincipalsevaluated


teacherscorrectlyandawardedtenurecarefully.Mostreportedthattheydidnotdefendweakteachersunlessindividuals’dueprocessrightswereviolated.Notably,threedistrictshadadoptedPeerAssistanceandReview(PAR)programsinwhichexpertteachersassistedandevaluatedtheirpeers,makingrecommendationsaboutre-employment.Inrecentyears,manyoftheseunionshadworkedaloneorwithadministratorstodevelopprogramstosupportnewteachersandprovideongoingprofessionaldevelopment.

Reconceiving the Labor-Management Relationship

InthecurrentclimateofaccountabilityandcompetitioninAmericaneducation,laborandmanagementhavemanycommoninterests.Ifthepublicschoolsfail,bothsideslose.Industrial-stylebargaining,whichpitsonesideagainsttheother,isoflittleuseinsolvingdifficultproblemsordevelopingnewprograms.Withfewexceptions,thepresidentssaidthattheirdistrictshadexperimentedwithmorecollaborativeinterest-basedor“win-win”approachestocollectivebargaining.

Overtime,however,mosthadadoptedahybridapproach,combiningelementsofadversarialandinterest-basedbargaining.Somesaidthattheywereengagedincontinuousbargaining,whichallowedthemtoamendthecontractwhenneeded,ratherthanwaitingseveralyearsfortheopeningofformalnegotiations.Daytoday,mosttriedtoresolveproblemsinformallyorthroughstandingcommittees,ratherthanresortingtotheformalgrievanceprocess.

Therewaswideagreementthatsuchcollaborativeapproachesdependedonarespectfulandopenrelationshipbetweensuperintendentsandlocalunionpresidents.Althoughafewpresidentswerewaryofworkingcloselywithmanagement,mostsaidthatacollaborativerelationshipdidnotrequirethemtoabandonunionprinciplesandpriorities.Instead,theybelievedthatsuchinteractionwasprobablytheonlywaytomaintainandexpandtheunionagenda.

Thisreportdescribesanddiscussestheresponsesoftheselocalunionpresidentstothechallengesofleadingtwogenerationsofteachers,reformingcompensation,addressingteacherquality,andbuildingnewrelationshipsbetweenlaborandmanagement.

The Study

Thisstudywasconductedtounderstandmorethoroughlytheprioritiesandpracticesoftoday’slocalteachersunionpresidentsastheyseektoleadtheirorganizationsinacomplex,changingenvironment.Wechosesixstates—California,Colorado,Florida,Maryland,Massachusetts,andOhio—thatvaryinimportantways—geographicallocation,statelaborlaws,andpoliticalenvironment.Withineachstate,weidentifiedadiversesampleoffivedistricts,withdistrictsvaryinginsize,type(urban/suburban/rural),andtrendsofgrowthordeclineinstudentpopulations.Thesamplesweredesignedtoincludedistrictswhoseunionleaders’viewsandactivitiesspannedthefullrangefromthetraditional(focusingonhours,salary,andbenefits)tothereformist(promotingnewapproachestolabor-managementcollaborationorteachers’roles).2Inanefforttofocusoncurrentandemergingviews,onlypresidentswhohadbeenelectedduringthepasteightyearswereselected.ThelocalunionsincludedaffiliatesofboththeNationalEducationAssociationandtheAmericanFederationofTeachers.

BetweenMarchandSeptember2006,researchersvisitedandinterviewedeachpresidentfortwohoursaboutawiderangeoftopics,includingtheroleofthelocalunion,theirprioritiesandpositionsonkeyissues,individualstrategiesforleadership,andthecharacteroflocallaborrelations.Interviewing30presidentsin30districtsratherthanconductinginterviewswithmanyactorsinafewdistrictscreatedbothopportunitiesandlimitations.Bytalkingwithanarrayofpresidentsinavarietyofsettings,theresearcherswereabletogainabroadperspectiveontheviewsoflocalunionleaderstoday.

Buttheycouldnotverifyorelaboratethestorypresentedbyanysinglepresident.Asaresult,theinterviewsweresupplementedwithsystematicanalysisofthelocalcontractsandnewspaperaccounts,whichprovidedfurtherevidenceoflocalpolicyandpractice.Ultimately,though,thisisareportonthepresidentsandtheirviews.Becausethissampleisrelativelysmallandnotrandomlychosen,thefindings,thoughinstructive,cannotbegeneralized.

Itis,however,thefirstmajorstudyoflocalunionpresidentsandthereforeprovidesafoundationforfurtherresearchaboutthiscriticallyimportant,butlargelyunstudied,areaofeducationpolicy.Amoredetaileddescriptionofthisstudy’smethodologyisincludedintheAppendices.

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Althoughtheunionpresidentswerenewlyelected,veryfewcamefromtheranksofearly-careerteachers.Norweretheredistinctdifferencesbetween“old-school”and“new-school”leaders.Asagroup,thesepresidentswereseasonedteachers,muchclosertoretirementthantoentry.Theyhadtaughtbetweensevenand37years,withanaverage25yearsofexperience.Theyrangedinagefrom29toover60,withmostbeingintheirmid-50s.Thegroupwasnearlybalancedbygender(14menand16women)andincluded22whites,fiveAfricanAmericans,andthreeHispanics.

Inadditiontobeingexperiencedteachers,virtuallyallthepresidentswerelong-timeunionmembers.Some,likeCarolKilby,presidentinPrinceGeorge’sCounty,Md.,hadgrownupinunionfamiliesandalwaysassumedtheywouldjointheunion.Otherpresidents,includingLosAngeles’A.J.Duffy,hadbeenactiveformanyyearsinpoliticsorcommunityorganizing,andunionleadershipbecamealogicalextensionofthatinvolvement.Afewpresidentshadbeenneutraloranti-unionwhentheyenteredteaching,butgraduallychangedtheirviewsinresponsetoexperiencestheyfoundtroubling.Forexample,LoriMaag,presidentinGreeley,Colo.,saidthatshehadseennoreasontojointheunionduringherfirst10yearsintheclassroom,butchangedhermindwhenshesawadministratorsberatingteacherspublicly.Gradually,herinvolvementgrew.

Thepresidentsdevelopedasunionleadersoveranumberofyears.Mostwereloyalinsiderswhobeganasbuildingrepresentativesandworkedtheirwayupthroughtheranks.Manysaidtheyranforpresidentbecausetheywerenextinlineforthejob,havingservedinakeyrolesuchasbargainingchairorvicepresident.Grossmont,Calif.’sPresidentBruceSeamanexplained,“Youdon’tgettobepresidentoftheunionunlessyouarepartofthat‘ingroup’and[have]thesamegoalsandvaluesandideasandagreement.”

However,somerespondentshaddefeatedalong-timepresidentormountedasuccessfulchallengetothe

heirapparent.Theyexplainedthattheyranbecausetheydislikedordistrustedtheiropponent,opposedtheirunion’scurrentstance,orsoughttorescuetheunionfromitsinsidecircleofleaders.Pomona,Calif.’sPresidentSarahRoss,whodecidedonherowntorun,likenedherunion’scurrentexecutivecommitteetopoliticianswhostayinofficetoolong:“Theyjustkindofkeepfeedingthemselvesand…losetouchwithreality.”Miami-DadePresidentKarenAronowitz,aunionbuildingsteward,decidedtorunafterherpredecessorandhisallieswereindictedfortaxevasionandmailfraud.TheoHarris,presidentinPalmBeachCounty,Fla.,alsosaidthathewasanoutsider:“Iwasknowninthedistrict,butnotasaunionperson.…Iwasn’tgroomedtomovein[those]circles.”Initially,hehadnotplannedtorun,but“whenIsawwhowasgoingtobepresident,Ifeltthattherewouldbenochange.”Afewpresidents,allfromsmallerdistricts,agreedtotakethejobwhennooneelsewantedit.

Thecircumstancesoftheirelectionoftenshapedthesepresidents’prioritiesastheyenteredoffice.Forexample,Cambridge,Mass.,PresidentPaulTonersaidthecurrentpresident“wasn’tlisteningtothepeople.Hewasdamagingthecredibilityoftheunion,notonlywith[the]administration,butwithourownmembers.Moreandmorepeopleweresaying,‘Whyarewepartofthisunion?Theydon’tseemtolistentous.Theytakepositionsthatareforeigntous.’”Asaresult,Tonerenteredofficeintendingtoclearupseveralhundredunresolvedgrievancesandcollaboratemorecloselywithmanagement.

Bycontrast,theinsiderswhoseascendancetothepresidencywaspredictableoftensaidtheywantedtoprovidecontinuityinachievingawell-establishedagenda,whetheritwasatraditionalone(asinDayton,Ohio)oramorereform-orientedagenda(asinColumbus,Ohio,orMontgomeryCounty,Md.).However,evenindividualswhoassumedthepresidencyinanorderlyandobvioussuccessionofofficersbroughttheirownprioritiestotherole.

The Presidents


Leading Two Generations

Byitsveryname,theunionsignalssolidarity.Whatevertheirdifferences,membersareassumedtoshareacommonsetofconcerns,priorities,andexpectations.Fourdecadesago,whenlocalteachersunionsfirstorganizedtobargaincollectively,teachersofallagesandexperiencelevelsalliedinpursuitofhighersalaries,fairassignments,andprotectionfromadministrativeabuse.3Today,thoseveteranteacherswhofirstformedtheunionareretiring,andmostdistrictsareexperiencingrapidturnoverasacohortofnewteachersishiredtoreplacethem.4Localpresidentsinthisstudyreportedthat,asaresultofthesefar-reachingchangesintheteachingforce,theyareservingtheneedsoftheirveteranteacherswhilesimultaneouslyseekingtoengagenewerteachersasmembersandfutureleadersoftheunion.

Unionpresidentsregularlyreportedthatthesetwocohortsofteachers—theveteransandnovices—holddifferentviewsaboutunions,havedifferentneedsasteachers,andpresenttheirunionwithdifferentexpectations.5Thus,theunionpresidentsweinterviewedfoundthemselvesstrugglingtoleadanorganizationfarlessunifiedthanitoncewas.Althoughafewfocusedontheinterestsofonegroupoveranother,mostreportedtryingtosatisfybothatthesametime.Columbus,Ohio’sJohnson,saidthatsherantwoparallelorganizations.Onewascomprisedof“baby-boomers,”whojoinedtheunionduringitsearlyeffortstoorganizeandbargain.Thesecondincludedearly-careerteacherswhohadenteredtheclassroominthepast8–10yearsand“expectustobeservice-oriented[and]expecttheircallstobereturnedrightaway.”

Experienced Teachers Recall Early Struggles

Thepresidentsreportedthattheirveteranmemberseasilyrecalltheunion’searlystrugglesinthe1960sand1970stowinbargainingrightsandbasicprofessionalprotections.Sincethen,manyoftheseteachershaveremainedintheclassroomandsteadily(thoughoftenbysmallincrements)movedupthesalaryscale.Today,fewworryaboutjobsecuritybecausetheyhavelonghadtenureunderstatelaw.However,theydoexpecttheirlocaluniontomaketheirsalaryapriority,especiallysinceitwilldeterminetheirretirementbenefits.Inaddition,severalpresidentssaidthatexperiencedteachersresent

currentdemandsforinstructionalconformityinsomedistricts,whichlimittheirfreedomtoteachwhattheywantandsometimesintroduceextensiveadministrativeresponsibilities.Asagroup,however,theseveteranteachersdonotquestiontheneedforateachersunion.

New Teachers Have Different ExpectationsBycontrast,presidentswidelyreportedthatnewteachersarenot,asFrederickCounty,Md.’sGaryBrennansaid,“intothewholeunionmentalityassomeoftheoldermembersare.” “Unionsarenotevenontheirradarscreen,”observedSherrillNeilsenofNeedham,Mass.SusanBrooks,presidentofMountHealthy,Ohio,oneofthesmallestdistrictsinthestudy,wasdismayedthathernewmembersdidnotknowaboutthestrikethatsecuredtheircontract:“Theyjustdon’tgetwhatagiftthatmastercontractis.”

Thepresidentsofferedvariousexplanationsfortheirnewmembers’lackofinterestintheunionorconcernabouttraditionalunionpriorities.Some,likeChulaVista,Calif.’sJimGroth,saidhethoughtitwasbecausenewerteacherswereturnedoffbytheconfrontational,disrespectfullabor-managementrelationshipstheyhadobserved.GrothsaidthatinChulaVista,anactivegroupofnewerteachershadannouncedthattheywantedto“getalongwiththedistrict”andhadworkedtoreframetheissuesinapreviousunionelectiontofocusonmoreprofessionalmatters.DenverPresidentKimUrsettaobservedthat“newteachersaremoreinterestedintheprofessionalassociationrole.”Shesaidthattheythink,“‘whatareyougoingtodotohelpmegrowasaprofessional?…Howcanyoumeetmyneeds?’”BothMontgomeryCounty,Md.’sBonnieCullisonandLosAngeles’Duffyremarkedthatnewerteacherswereconcernedabouttheperceptionthattheunionprotectedpoorteachers.

Presidentsalsosaidthatnewteachersremainedunconvincedthatthey,themselves,neededtheunion’sprotection.CollierCounty,Fla.’sVonJefferssaidnewteacherstherebelievedthat“theunionisonlytheretoprotectbadteachers.‘Well,Idon’tneedtheunion.I’mthebestteacherever.’”Presidentsacknowledgedthattheunioncouldoffernoprotectiontonovicesinthegrowingnumberofstateswhereprobationaryteachers(thoselackingtenureunderstatelaw)hadnojobsecurityand


couldbedismissedsummarilywithoutexplanation.Thus,thepresidentscouldnotexpectnewteachers’loyaltyinexchangeforlegalprotection.

Somesaidthatnewerteacherswerenotinterestedintheunionbecausetheywereyoungand,unliketheirveterancolleagues,didnotexpecttohavealongcareerinteaching.Forexample,Miami-Dade’sAronowitzobserved,“Whenyou’reinyour20s,whoeverthinksyou’rereallygoingtoretire?Andthenifyou’renotstayingintheprofession,nevermind.It’sjustnotanissue.”

Otherpresidentsmentionedthat,becausetheearlyyearsofteachingaresochallengingfornewteachers,“theirfirstpriorityiskeepingtheirheadabovewater”(TomLynch,Westminster,Colo.);theyare“strugglingtogetagrip”(Aronowitz,Miami-Dade);andtheyare“justtryingtosurvive”(Brennan,FrederickCounty,Md.).

Finally,somepresidentssaidthatnewteachersoftenobjectedtothestateornationalaffiliate’spoliticalactivityonbehalfofpro-unioncandidatesorinsupportofissues(suchasabortionorguncontrol)thatarenotdirectlytiedtoeducation.LosAngeles’Duffyobservedthat30percentto35percentofCalifornia’snewteacherswereRepublicansratherthanDemocrats,thetraditionalpartyofunions.WhenDuffyvisitedschools,heencountered“adiscerniblenumberofmostnewteacherswhosay‘I’mtiredoftheunionsupportingcandidatesthatIdon’tsupport.’”HowardCounty,Md.,PresidentAnnDeLacysaidthatnewteacherstherewereinclinedtobe“apolitical.”However,inGreeley,Colo.,Maagreportedthat,eventhoughhernewteacherswouldnotattendmeetingsorassumeresponsibilityforongoingactivities,shecouldcountonthemto“dotheantics”onthepicketline.

Manypresidentssuggestedthatteachersofthisnewgenerationbelievethat,asdues-payingmembers,theyareentitledtotheunion’sattention,yetfeelnoobligationtosupportitsactivities.Columbus,Ohio’sJohnsonnotedthatnewteachersthereexpectedtheunionto“takecareoftheirneedsrightaway.…Andifyoudon’tthen,‘OK,[ColumbusEducationAssociation],whyamIpayingmymoney?’”

Otherpresidentssaidthatnewteachersexpectedtheiruniontoshiftitstraditionalprioritiesfromfavoringthemoreexperiencedteacherstofavoringthem.For

example,MaagsaidnewteachersinGreeley,Colo.,wantmoreofthedistrict’spayraisescommittedtotheinitialstepsofthesalaryscale.InthemuchlargerdistrictofBrowardCounty,Fla.,PatrickSanteramosaidthatnewteacherswanted“money,money,money,money”andhadaskedtheuniontoreachouttopropertyownersanddeveloperssothattheycouldaffordtoliveinthedistrict.InLosAngeles, wheresalariesforbeginningteacherswererelativelyhigh, Duffysaidnewteachersweremorelikelytoaskforprofessionaldevelopmentandgoodadministrativesupportthanweretheveteranteachers.

Balancing the Needs of Two Cohorts

Inmostcases,localunionpresidentssoughttoaddresstheneedsofnewmemberswithoutcurtailingtheireffortsonbehalfoftheveterans.However,resourceswerelimitedandthoseinterviewedhadbeguntorecognizethattheycouldnotallowtheinterestsofveteranteacherstotrumpthoseofnewteachers.Thiswasapparentinseveralpresidents’commentsabouttheirunion’sdecisiontoprovideprofessionaldevelopment.Forexample,IrmaValerioinColoradoSprings,Colo.,said,“Ithinktheolderguardaresickandtiredofprofessionaldevelopment.ButIthinkthat,forournewandupcomingteachers,that’swhereweneedtodevelopsomerelationshipsandkeyintothethingsthattheythinkareimportant.Otherwise,ourmembershipisnotgoingtolast.…[T]hesearethethingsthatarekeyforoursurvival.”

Attracting New Members and Developing New Leaders

Localunionleaderssaidtheyhadtoengageinanaggressiveannualmembershipdrivetorecruitnewteachersiftheyweretoensuretheunion’slong-termviabilityandcontinuedpoliticalinfluence.Insomedistricts,whatoncewasalow-keywelcomebreakfastfornewteachersinSeptemberhadbecomeanelaborateseriesofsocialevents.Althoughallthepresidentssaidtheyactivelyengagedinsuchrecruitment,thedrivewasespeciallyimportantinstatessuchasFloridaorColoradothatprohibitlocalunionsfromchargingnon-unionteachersanagencyfeeforbargainingservices.6Inallsettings,outreachandcommunicationhadbecomehighprioritiesforpresidents.AllteachersinNeedham,Mass.,hadtopayeitherunionduesoranagencyfee


thatapproachedthecostsofmembership.Nonetheless,Neilsensaidthatoverthepastthreeyearsherunion’sfocushad“changedalotbecauseofthehugeinfluxinnewteachers.…Ourfirstpriorityismembership.Beforenegotiations,beforegrievances,beforeanythingelse,ourfirstpriorityisalwaysmembership.”

Inadditiontorecruitingnewmembers,manypresidentsreportedmakingaconcertedefforttoensurethatteacherswhojoinedbecameengagedandactive.Whenaskedtosummarizetheiraccomplishments,morethanone-thirdofthepresidentslistedtheirsuccessinexpandingmembershipandparticipationbynewteachers.Thepresidentssoughttoincreasetheproportionofrecentrecruitsattendingunionmeetings,servingasbuildingrepresentatives,orparticipatingonvariouscommittees.AronowitzinMiami-Dadesaidshewelcomed“alldegreesofactivity.”Boston’sRichardStutmanexplainedthathewanted“peopleinleadershipwhoarerepresentativeofeverystrataofmembership.”Grossmont,Calif.’sSeamansaidthatoneofhismajorgoalsbeforeretirementwastobring“newblood”intopositionsofunionleadership.Similarly,inAmherst-Pelham,Mass.,TimothySheehansaidhe“hadpurposelyputtogetheramixedbargainingteamthathadpeoplewho’ddoneitforyearsandpeoplewho’dneverdoneitbefore.”Hesaidhedidthisbecausehewastryingto“buildnewleadershipandbuildafutureandlongevityfortheorganization.”Severalpresidentswhomadesimilarchangesreportedthattheirdecisionssometimesgeneratedresistancefromoldermemberswhowereaskedtogiveuppositionsofauthority.

Throughouttheinterviews,theseunionpresidentsdescribedthechallengestheyfacedinleadinganorganizationcomprisedoftwodistinctgroupsofteachers,theveteransandthenovices,whohaddifferentandsometimescompetingneedsandinterests.Inresponse,thepresidentstriedtosetanagendathattookintoaccounttheprioritiesofexperiencedteachers(e.g.,retirementbenefits,protectionofduty-freetime)whilealsoaddressingtheneedsandexpectationsofnewteachers(e.g.,quickresponsestoindividuals’questions,professionaldevelopment).Manyleaderspointedtotheinterestsofnewteachersastheyexplainedtheirrationaleformovingbeyondtraditionaluniongoalsandembracinganexpandedunionagenda,whichincludedinstructionalimprovement,activeinvolvementinschoolreform,andevenperformance-basedpay.

Reforming Teacher CompensationEarlyunionorganizerswerecommittedtowinninghigherwagesforteachers,andthelocalpresidentsweinterviewedconfirmedtheircommitmenttoraisingteachersalaries.However,fewpresidentsviewedhighersalariessolelyasawaytoimprovetheirmembers’welfare.Rather,manyarguedthatbettercompensationwouldhelpschoolsattractandretainhigh-qualityteachers.Somecontendedthattheymustsecurecompetitivewagesforallmembersbeforeconsideringmoresubstantialpayreform.Nevertheless,mostpresidentshadbegunconsidering,andinmanycasesimplementing,reformsthatamendedthestandardizedsalaryscale.

Ineducation,discussionsaboutsalarytypicallycenteronthesinglesalaryscale,whereateacher’syearsofexperience(steps)andeducationalattainment(lanes)combinetodeterminepay.7Sinceitwasintroducedin1921toeliminatesalarydifferencesbetweenelementary(mostlyfemale)andsecondary(mostlymale)teachers,thesinglesalaryscalehasbecomefirmlyentrenchedineducation.Thiscompensationstructure,whichprecededcollectivebargaining,hasspreadwellbeyondunionizedsettings.Virtuallyallschooldistricts,whetherunionizedornot,usethispayscale,asdomanyprivateschools.Thisubiquitoussalaryscale,whichhastheadvantageofbeingobjectiveandeasytoimplement,hasreinforcedresistancetopayreforms.8

Nonetheless,aswithotherelementsoftheunionagenda,thelocalpresidentsexplainedtheirapproachtopaywithinthecontextofareframedandexpandedagenda.Presidentsoftensaidthattheydidnotfundamentallyopposeperformance-basedoralternativepayplans.Infact,manyoftheirdistrictswereexperimentingwithmodificationstothestandardizedsalaryscale.Theseincludedextrapayforspecializedroleswithintheschool,performance-basedpaytiedtoteacherevaluationorstudentachievement,andmarketincentivesdesignedtoattractteacherstohard-to-staffschoolsandsubjectareas.Somedistrictshadintroducedrelativelymodestchangesthatappliedtoallteachers;otherswereexperimentingwithfarmoresubstantialreformsinasmallnumberoflow-performingschools.OnlyDenverhadactuallyreplaceditsstandardizedsalaryscalewithanalternativecompensationsystem.Otherpresidentsremainedunconvincedthatacomprehensiveandeffectivealternativetothestandardizedsalaryscalewasavailable,althoughsomeexpressedinterestinthatpossibility.

� EDUCATION SECTOR REPORTS: Leading the Local www.educationsector.org

The Importance of Compensation in the Union Agenda

Teachercompensationremainsaveryprominentunionissue,bothforthepublicandfortheteachers.Allbuttwoofthepresidentsweinterviewedincludedsalary,benefits,orbothontheirshortlistofpriorities,notingthatboththeirnoviceandveteranmemberssawthese“bread-and-butter”issuesashavinghighpriority.Whenlocalnegotiationsreachedimpasse,salaryandbenefitswerealmostalwaystheunresolvedissues.Reachingagreementwasparticularlydifficultinplaceswithverylimitedresources.InMountHealthy,Ohio,Brooksstressedtheneedtopayteachersmore:“Inthisdistrict,salaryisreallyimportantbecausewe’vefallensofarbehindeverybody.”However,shealsoacknowledgedherdistrict’sfinancialproblems,saying,“Theydon’twantustohavemoremoneybecausetheydon’thaveittogivetous.Andthey’rereallyworriedaboutthedistrictgoingunderfinancially.”

Limitedlocalfundsandrapidlyrisinghealthcarecostsalsointensifiedbargainingabouthealthbenefits.InChulaVista,Calif.,Grothsaidhealthinsurancehadbecome“thenumberoneissueofdisagreement.”Facingstallednegotiationsoverthestructureofemployeehealthbenefits,CherylDelSignoreofWorcester,Mass.,reported,“[T]hebottomlinethisyearishealthinsurance.”Severalpresidentsreportedthatfundsinitiallyearmarkedforsalaryincreasesweremovedtoprovideadditionalbenefitsandlimitincreasesintheteachers’shareofhealthcarecosts.

Althoughthesepresidentspursuedbetterpayandbenefitstosatisfytheirmembers,theyalsosoughttoensurethefutureoftheirdistrict’sschoolsbyattractingandretaininghigh-qualityteachers.InMontgomeryCounty,Md.,Cullisonsaid,“Yousupportpubliceducationbymakingsureyouhavethebestteachers.Youdothatbymakingsurethatyouhavesalariesandworkingconditionsthatenticethemtocomeandmakethemstay.”Westminster,Colo.’sLynchagreed:“Ibelievethatthesinglebiggestindicatorofachievementistohaveabright,creative,caringteacherinfrontofthosekids.…Obviously,Idon’tthinkthatisdoneonthecheap.…Ithinkyoupayforquality.”Unionleaderscontendedthathighersalarieswerenecessaryinacompetitivelabormarket.TonerofCambridge,Mass.,explained,“[M]ygoalisalwaystobethenumberonesothatIcansaytoateacher,‘Don’tleave.Thisisthebestpayyouaregoing

toget.’”Thisefforttoincreasesalariesinordertostemattritionintensifiedincommunitieswithhighhousingcostsorotherattractivejobopportunities.Inmanyplaces,schooldistrictswerecompetingnotonlywitheachother,butalsowithanarrayofotheremployersoutsideeducation.

Moving Beyond the Single Salary Scale

Somepolicymakersarguethathigh-qualityteacherswillbeattractedbyacompensationsystemthatprovidesrewardsforteacherswhoadoptnewinstructionalrolesandresponsibilities,demonstrateexcellentteaching,producegainsinstudentachievement,andworkinhard-to-staffschoolsorcontentareas.Weaskedpresidentsfortheirviewsontheseplans,whichhaverecentlygainedinpopularity.Overall,theyofferedcautioussupportforsomeoftheseproposalsandreportedthattheywerebeginning,insmallways,toincorporatetheseincentives(someofwhichwerefundedbyfederal,state,orprivatesources)intocollectivebargainingagreements.

Additional Pay for Specialized Roles

Themostcommonandwidelysupportedapproachwaspayingadditionalstipendstoteacherswhoheldaspecializedrole,suchascurriculumspecialist,school-sitementor,literacyormathcoach,orleadteacher.Frequently,theseteacherswerepaidfortheadditionaltimetheyworked,ratherthanforthespecificskillsorexpertisetheirrolerequired.Althoughmostofthepresidentsendorsedtheprincipleof“extrapayforextrawork,”theywerereluctanttosupportproposalstoprovideextracompensationtoselectedteachersjudgedtobemoreexpertthanothers.Payingextrastipendsforadditionalworkdidnotthreatenthesinglesalaryscale.Nordiditchangeateacher’spositiononthepayscale,foriftheteacherlefttherole,thestipendended.

Severaldistrictshadintroducedrolesofferingsubstantialfinancialrewardsforbothextraworkanddemonstratedexpertise.InMontgomeryCounty,Md.,forexample,thelocalunionhadbegundevelopinga“careerlattice”withrelativelylargestipendsforstaffdevelopers($5,000foradditionalsummerwork)andconsultingteachers($10,000,includingsummertime).Cullisonsawsuchopportunitiesnotonlygeneratingpayraises,butalsoprovidingteacherswithdifferentiatedresponsibilitiesandcareergrowth.Shesaid,“WhereIaminclinedtogois,if


you’reanexperiencedscienceteacherwhoisteachinghalftimeanddecidestotakeontheresponsibilityofmentoringsomescienceteachers…you[would]get$5,000extrafordoingthat.…Thegoalisthattheverybestteachersstayinclassrooms.Andyoucan’tdothatunlessyougivethemprofessionallyrewardingopportunities.”

Thepresidents’accountssuggestedthatdistrictandunionleadersshareaninterestincreatingandsustainingthesedifferentiatedroles.Thedistrictsneededskilledteacherstoprovideleadership,coaching,andmentoring,whiletheunionswantedteacherstohaveattractivecareeropportunities,whichmighthelpretainhigh-qualityteachersandmakethestandardizedsalaryscalemoreattractive.Asaresult,mostofthepresidentssupportedsomeversionoftheseplans.

Performance-Based PayIncontrast,mostpresidentsexpressedseriousconcernsaboutusingpayasanincentivetoimprovestudentoutcomes.Manydidnotrejectthegeneralpremisethatmoreeffectiveteachersshouldearnmorethanlesseffectiveteachers.However,theyarguedthatdistrictscurrentlylackthemeanstomakeaccuratejudgmentsaboutdifferencesinmerit,andtheycontendedthatusingstudenttestscoresisfraughtwithdifficulties.AsBoulder,Colo.’sMarkChavezsaid,“[Meritpay]isnotastupidthing.It’sagreatthing,butwe’renotwidgetmakers.It’snotthatattheendofthedayyou’regoingtoseehowmanywidgetsImadecomparedtothisteacher,andIgetthemeritpay.…It’sprettyhardtodefinehowyou’regoingtogetmeritpay.”Presidentsalsoexpressedconcernthatperformance-basedpayplanswouldnecessarilycompareteacherswithverydifferentinstructionalassignments.JeffersofCollierCounty,Fla.,cautionedthatitwouldbe“verydifficulttocomparewhatakindergartenteacherdoesandahighschoolphysicsteacher[does].”Onlyfiveofthedistrictswevisitedincludedperformance-basedpayforindividualsintheircontracts.Forexample,Columbus,Ohio,hadintroducedaPerformanceAdvancementSystem,whichpaidindividualteachers$2,500forreachingthegoalstheyhadsetforimprovedstudentperformance.

Presidentscriticizedtwomechanismscommonlyproposedasthebasisforawardingmeritpay—administrators’evaluationsofteachingandstudenttestscores.Severaldoubtedprincipals’abilitytoevaluate

teacherseffectively.Forexample,Sweetwater,Calif.’sAlexAnguianosaid,“Idon’tbelieverightnowatthispointthatIcouldtotallytrusteachsiteadministratortomakethebestdecision.”Severalpresidentsquestionedthewisdomoftryingtorankteacherswhohavedifferentstrengthsandmakedifferentcontributionstotheschool.Boston’sStutmanillustratedhispointwithanexamplefrombaseball.HehadaskedbaseballfanstocompareAlexRodriguezandDerekJeteroftheNewYorkYankeesandfoundthatalmosteveryonesaid,“Rodriguezhasbetterstats,butI’dtakeJeter.”ThispromptedStutmantoask,“Ifsomebodyisgoingtogetthemerit[pay],whoisit?”Manypresidentsagreedthatproposalsforperformance-basedpaywouldbeuntenableuntildistrictscouldidentifyappropriateindicatorsoroutcomesonwhichtobasetheirdecisionandthendevelopthecapacitytodoitright.

Mostpresidentsalsorejectedtheuseofstandardizedtestscores,notonlybecausetheyviewedthemasinadequatemeasuresofstudentlearning,butalsobecausetheirusemightintroduceperverseincentivesintotheprocess,suchasleadingteacherstoviefortheclassesorstudentsmostlikelytoshowrapidgains.InPomona,Calif.,Rosssaidthatdistrictsshouldwanttheirbestteacherstoworkwithstudentswhostruggledmost:“Andthosearethekidsthat,nomatterhowgreat[theteachers]are,they’renotgoingtomoveasfarasyourhighperformers.”Afewpresidentswerefamiliarwithvalue-addedmodelsforperformance-basedpaywhichcould,theoretically,addresssuchissuesbymeasuringandtrackingstudents’growthovertime.JohnsonofColumbus,Ohio,saidthatherlocalunionwasinterestedinexploringthisapproach,despiteoppositionfromunionofficialsintheOhioEducationAssociation.However,mostpresidentsdoubtedthatcurrentapproachestovalue-addedassessmentsweresophisticatedenoughtocompensateteachersfairly.

Presidentsexpressedfarmoresupportforschool-basedawardsthatwouldencouragecooperationbyrewardingallteacherswhentheschoolmetitsachievementtargets.9Severaldistrictshadincorporatedsuchgroupincentivesintotheircompensationsystems.InCincinnati,forexample,teachersatschoolsthatmetachievementtargetseachearneda$1,400bonus.Althoughtheseschool-basedapproachesmaymotivateteacherstoworktogetherinordertoimprovestudentlearning,theydonotallowthedistricttorecognizeandrewardoutstandingindividuals,whichmanybelieveisthepurposebehindperformance-basedpay.


Market Incentives for Hard-to-Staff Subjects

Somereformersrecommendfinancialincentivestorecruitteachersofhard-to-staffsubjectssuchasmath,science,orspecialeducation.Thepresidentsexpressedconcernthattheseapproacheswouldunfairlydiscriminateamongteachersinwaysthatthestandardizedsalaryscalewasmeanttoeliminate.Dayton,Ohio’sWillieTerrellexpressedacommontheme:“Ateacherisateacher.”DeLacyofHowardCounty,Md.,echoedthatposition,suggestingthatanypaydifferential“isjustnotfair.”

Othersthoughtthatthesemarket-basedincentivesmightundermineeffortstorewardgoodperformance.FrederickCounty,Md.’sBrennansaid,“It’shardertofindamathteacherthanahistoryteacher.Iunderstandthat.Butatthesametimeamediocrescienceteachershouldn’tbepaidmorethanafantasticsecond-gradeteacher,justbecausethey’reteachingscience.”MontgomeryCounty,Md.’sCullisonagreed:“Youcanbeareallybadscienceteacher,andthey’restillgoingtopayyou$5,000morethanifyouareawonderfulEnglishteacher.”

Nonetheless,severalpresidentsacknowledgedthatplacingnewteachershigheronthesalaryscalecouldhelpalleviateteachershortagesinspecificfields,andtheyendorsedtheseapproaches.Othersopposedtheminprinciple,butquietlyaccededtotheiruse.Ourcontractanalysisconfirmedthatnearlyhalfofthedistrictsofferedfinancialincentivesbasedonteachingassignment,althoughsuchbonusestendedtoberelativelysmall.

Incentives to Attract Teachers to Hard-to-Staff SchoolsManydistrictsalsostruggletostaffchronicallyunderperformingschools,particularlythoseservinglow-incomeandminoritystudents.Offeringpayincentivestoteacherswhotransfertothesemorechallengingschoolsprovedrelativelypopularwiththepresidents;onlythreeopposedthestrategyoutright,while10saidthattheirdistrictshadalreadyimplementedsuchplans.AsWestminster,Colo.’sLynchsaid,“Iamokaywiththeideathat,ifyougointoahard-to-managebuildingwithsignificantlylowerachievement,withtoughkids,thatyoupickupacoupleextradollars.”

Severalwhoopposedtheseplanssuggestedthatsuchincentivestoteachinlow-incomeschoolswouldfurther

stigmatizetheschoolsandstudentsinthem.MontgomeryCounty,Md.’sCullison,whowas“100percentopposed,”challenged:“Whatdoesitsayaboutthosechildren,ifyouaresayingyouhavetopaypeoplemoretogothere?Itmakesmeshiver.”Othersquestionedthefairnessofprovidingbonusesforteacherswhotransferredtounderperformingschoolswithoutsimultaneouslyrewardingotherswhohadbeenteachingthereformanyyears.

Somepresidentssaidthattheirteachersavoidedhard-to-staffschoolsbecausetheywerepoorlymanagedorlackedinstructionalresources,conditionsthatfinancialincentivesforindividualswouldnotremedy.Columbus,Ohio’sJohnsonsaid,“Alotofourhard-to-staffschools[havedifficultybecauseof]whotheadministratorisinthebuilding.”ValerioofColoradoSprings,Colo.,agreed,sayingfacetiouslythathermemberswanted“combatpay”forcopingwithineffectiveprincipalsathard-to-staffschools.HowardCounty,Md.’sDeLacyargued,“Iftheyhadtheresourcestheyneededtobesuccessfulinthoseschools,theywouldn’tneedadditionalpay.”

Inresponsetotheseproblems,severalpresidentsrecommendedthatdistrictscombinefinancialincentivesforteachersanddedicatedresourcesforimprovingstrugglingschools.InMiami-Dade,teacherswhoagreedtoworkinthe“SchoolImprovementZone,”agroupof39low-performingandhard-to-staffschools,receivedadditionalpaytocompensateforteachinganextendedschooldayandlongerschoolyear.Baltimore’sEnglishheartilyendorsedasimilarprogramthathadbeenestablishedinherdistrictbuthadbeencutbecauseoffundingproblems.Shesaidthat,ifthemoneyreturned,shewouldsupporttheprogram“inaheartbeatbecausetheyrealizethattheyneedtodosomethingdifferenttohelpthesechildrenachieve.”InbothMiami-DadeandBaltimore,theapproachofpayingteacherssubstantialincrementsforworkinglongerhoursinidentifiedschoolsreceivedwiderendorsementthanthepure“combatpay”model.

Replacing the Single Salary Scale

OnlyDenver,withitsalternativecompensationsystem,ProComp,whichwasratifiedbymembersin2004andimplementedin2006,hadinstitutedcomprehensivechangebyreplacingthesinglesalaryscalewithanewpaysystem.Onenteringtheprogram,allDenverteachersareassignedabasesalary,determinedbytheir


priorsalarylevel,whichcanthenbesupplementedforacquiringadditionalknowledgeandskills,asuccessfulprofessionalevaluation,improvedstudentperformance,aswellasbonusesforworkinginhard-to-staffschoolsandassignments.Theplanwasdevelopedandrefinedovertimeandisbeingimplementedgradually.AllnewteachershiredafterJanuary2006wererequiredtojointhenewplan,butexperiencedteacherscandecidebothwhetherandwhentojoin.Becausetherewerefinancialadvantagesforveteranteachers’earlyenrollment,PresidentUrsettareportedthatmanyhadsignedonearlyintheinitiative.

Twootherdistricts,Columbus,Ohio,andCincinnati,addressedtheneedsofasetoflow-performingschoolswiththeMilkenFamilyFoundation’sTeacherAdvancementProgram(TAP),whichdistributessubstantialincentivefundsbasedonindividualandschool-leveltest-scoregainsaswellasteachingevaluations.

Beyondthesefewexamples,though,thepresidentsweinterviewedwerereluctanttoseriouslyentertainfundamentalchangestothestructureofthesalaryscale.Severalofthosewhoexpressedinterestcontendedthat,beforemakingchanges,allteachersneededtoearnhigherwages.ThecommentsofCollierCounty,Fla.’sJeffersweretypical:“Let’snottalkaboutbonuspayorpay-for-performanceorcareerladdersuntileveryone’spaidaprofessionalwage.”Otherpresidentswhoknewabouttheseplanswantedtowaitfortheresultsofotherdistricts’experiments.Westminster,Colo.’sLynchsaid,“CanDenverbethegoodmodel?Thejuryisstillout.Wewillwaitandsee.”

However,afewpresidentsacknowledgedthattheycouldnotwaitforeverbecausecompensationreformwasgoingtohappenwithorwithoutthem.MontgomeryCounty,Md.’sCullison,whoopposedusingtestscoresasthesinglemeasuretorewardteachers,nonethelessarguedthattheunionneededtobeinvolvedinthedebate:“Ithinkwedohavetolookatpayforperformance,butIthinkwehavetodecidewhattheperformanceisorhowwemeasureperformance.Andifweasaunionarenotengagedinthediscussion,thenitwillbetestscores.”Shecontinued,arguingthatwithoutpayreform,teacherscouldnotearnwhattheydeserved:“We’renevergoingtogetmorethan5percent[payincreaseeachyear].…IfIwantteacherstostartbeingpaidwhatIthinktheydeserve,I’vegottolookatalternatewaysofpayingthem.”

Thepresidentswereadamantabouttheimportanceofcompensationtoalltheirmembers,andmanyarguedthathighpayandgoodbenefitswerecrucialinattractingandretainingstrongteachers.However,theywerereluctanttoadoptfar-reachingreformstothesinglesalaryscale.Averyfewtookthetraditionalunionstance,opposingallpaydifferentialsthatwerenotbasedonexperienceanddegreesearned.Most,however,acknowledgedthatchangewasinevitable,giventhecurrentcontextofaccountability,marketcompetition,andanewcohortofteacherswhohavemanyotheroptionsforemployment.Thus,thesepresidentsentertainedorendorsedmodifyingtheirpayscaleinordertoaddresstheneedsofstrugglingschools,stemshortagesincertainsubjectareas,offerrewardsforindividualsorschoolsthatmadeprogress,orprovidespecialrolesforcoachesormentors.Severaldistrictscombinedtheseelementsforamorecomprehensivereformprograminafewschools,whileothersimplementedoneortwoonasmallerscaleacrossthedistrict.AlldistrictsexceptDenver,however,stoppedwellshortofreplacingthesinglesalaryscale,preferringinsteadtowatchforresultsthereorwaitforbettermeasuresandmechanisms.

Addressing Teacher QualityTeachersunionswereestablished,inpart,toensureequaltreatmentfortheirmembers.Ratherthanallowdistrictstorelysolelyonadministrators’judgment,whichmightbebiased,collectivebargainingagreementsusuallyincludeobjectiverulesandmeasurestobeusedinteacherhiring,layoff,transfer,andevaluation.Recentresearchhasestablishedclearlythatallteachersarenotalike;however,somearemuchmoreeffectivethanothers.10Therefore,schooldistrictsmustcarefullyselect,assign,evaluate,andsupportteachersifallstudentsaretobewell-taught.

Someeducationanalystscriticizeunionsforcontractprovisionsthattheysaysetlowstandardsforperformanceorstripprincipalsofauthoritytohiretheteacherstheywant,assignthemtothepositionswheretheyaremostneeded,anddismissthemiftheyfailtoperformwell.11Nearlyalloftheunionpresidentsinthisstudyacknowledgedtheseconcernsaboutteacherquality,sometimessuggestingthattheuniondidplayaroleinblockingorstallingneededchange.However,theiraccountsoflocalpractice,coupledwithouranalysisofcontractlanguage,suggestthatcriticsoftenoverstatetheobstructionormisplacetheblame.Inmanydistricts,


unionpresidentssaidthatprincipalshadsubstantialdiscretioninhiringandassigningteachers,aviewthatourcontractanalysisconfirmed.Moreover,manyofthepresidentssaidtheydidnotdefendineffectiveteachersunlesstheirdueprocessrightshadbeenabridged.Inaddition,localunionshadundertakenprogramstoimproveteacherquality.Aconsiderablenumberwereprovidinginductionandprofessionaldevelopmentforteachersandsomesponsoredprogramsinwhichmasterteachersadvisedandthenassessedtheirpeers.

Filling Open Teaching Positions

Theprocessofhiringandassigningteachersinaschooldistrictiscomplexandtypicallyincludesseveralsteps.Whenaschoolhasanopenposition,itcanbefilledwithanewhirefromoutsidethedistrictorwithateacheralreadyemployedbythedistrictwhotransfersvoluntarilyorinvoluntarilyfromanotherschoolorwhoreturnsfromleave.Bystatelaw,thedistrictmustfindaplace(oratleastprovideasalary)foreachteacherwhohasbeenawardedtenure.Collectivebargainingagreementsoftenestablishthesequenceandtimelineforthehiringandassignmentprocess,specifythecriteriatobeweighedintransfers(suchaseducationalqualifications,priorexperience,orsenioritybasedontheteacher’sdateofhirebythedistrict),andidentifywhoattheschool(theprincipal,teachers,orparents)participatesinreviewingandselectingcandidates.

Basedonourinterviewsandcontractanalysis,wefoundthatschoolofficialshaveconsiderablelatitudetofillopenpositions.However,consistentwithpriorresearch,wefoundthattheymaynotusethediscretiontheyhaveinselectingteachers.12

When Hiring Occurs and Who Makes the Hiring Decision

Formanyyears,teachers’contractshaveconstrainedprincipalsbyrequiringthemtoofferopenpositionsintheirschoolstotransferapplicantsbeforepostingjobsforoutsidecandidates.Inlargedistricts,thissequenceandtheslowpaceofpersonnelofficeshavedelayedhiring,oftenpromptingstrongexternalcandidatestofindjobselsewhere.13Somepresidentssaidtheywereworkingwithmanagementtocondensethehiringtimetable,thusenablingtheirdistricttohireoutstanding,externalcandidates.InBoston,forexample,labor

andmanagementhadcondensedthehiringtimetablefromthreemonthstofourweeks,andmostpositionsweresimultaneouslyopentobothtransferandexternalcandidatesinearlyMarch.Thus,Bostoncouldcompetewithsuburbandistrictsforprimeteachingcandidates,therebyimprovingthequalityofteachersinthedistrict.

Althoughsomecriticscontendthatadministratorsarehamstrungbyunionrulesthatrestrictprincipals’roleinhiring,thepresidentsweinterviewedwidelyreportedthat,inrelationtotheunioncontract,principalsintheirdistricthadthesoleorfinalsayindecidingwhomtohire.One-thirdsaidthatteachersservedonhiringcommittees,althoughusuallyonlyinanadvisorycapacity.Intheotherdistrictsinoursample,teachersplayednoroleatallinhiring.Forexample,DeLacyinHowardCounty,Md.,saidthatprincipalstherehave“totalauthority”todeterminewhowillteachintheirschool.

The Role of Seniority in HiringTheseniorityrankingofteachers,determinedbytheirinitialdateofhireinadistrict,isoftenthoughttoplayadominantroleinfillingopenteachingpositions.Onestudyfoundthistobethecaseinfivelarge,urbandistricts.14However,the30presidentsweinterviewedsaidthatseniorityplayedafarlessdecisiveroleinpersonneldecisionsthanmanyassume.Thiswasconfirmedinourcontractanalysis.Senioritycontinuedtobewidelyusedintwosituations.Thefirstwastodeterminewhichteacherwouldberequiredtotransferwhentheschoolcutapositioninacertainsubjectorgrade.Thesecondwastodeterminewhichofthedistrict’steacherswithinacertificationfieldwouldbelaidoffinareductioninforce,whichoccurredinseveraldistrictsofourstudywhenthereweresubstantialbudgetcutsorenrollmentdeclines.However,seniorityveryseldomwasrequiredtobethedecisivefactorwhenschoolsdecidedwhothenewteachersintheirschoolwouldbe.OnlyinDaytonwassenioritysaidtobetheoverridingfactorwhentwoormoreteacherswithappropriatequalificationsappliedtotransfertothesameposition.

Insomedistricts,senioritywasthedeterminingfactorifallcandidateswereequallyqualifiedforaposition.However,principalsstillcouldassignmoreweighttoteachers’qualificationsthantoseniority.InGladesCounty,Fla.,PresidentJaniceBrowntoldofajuniorhighschoolreadingteacherwith21yearsofsenioritywhoappliedtoteachkindergarten,forwhichshewasalsowell-qualified.


However,theelementaryprincipalchosetohireanewteacherwhohaddoneherinternshipinhisschool.Brownobserved,“Seniorityplayedlittleornosignificanceinthatdecision.…It’ssupposedtobeafactorinthedecision,butit’snotthecontrollingfactor.”TheWorcester,Mass.,contractlistsfactorssuchas“educationalpreparation”or“qualityofperformancewithintheeducationalprofession”thatmustbeconsideredindecidingwhocantransferintoaschool.Senioritywassaidtofunctiononlyasa“tiebreaker,”if“everythingisthesame.”

Inasurprisingnumberofdistricts,seniorityplayednoroleatallwhenschoolsdecidedhowtofillanopeningintheirbuilding.Forexample,MontgomeryCounty,Md.’sCullisonexplainedthatifateacherwantedtotransfertoaparticularschool,“seniorityhasnothingtodowithit.It’sallaboutyourabilitytosellyourself.”Denver’sUrsettanoted,“Wedonothaveseniorityatall.TheygotridofitbeforeIcame.”Instead,ateacher’sexperienceinasubjectoratagrade-levelwasoneofninecriteriathathadtobeconsideredbytheschool-basedhiringcommitteeastheymadetheirdecision.Othercontracts,suchasthoseinColumbus,Ohio,andPalmBeachCounty,Fla.,requiredthatthetwomostseniorcandidatesapplyingtotransfertoaschoolbegrantedaninterview,butneitherhadaclaimontheposition.

Presidentssaidthat principalssometimesfailedtoexercisetheirrightasmanagerstousemultiplecriteria,fearingaformalchallengeorgeneralintimidationbytheunion.Somepresidentssuggestedthatadministratorsfeltobligedtohonorsenioritywhen,infact,theywerenot.Thus,senioritybecamedecisivebydefault,eventhoughitneednothavebeen.

Must-Place TransfersAlthoughourinterviewsandcontractanalysissuggestedthatmostprincipalshadsubstantialdiscretioninhiring,therewasonesituationinwhichtheyhadlittlesay—whendistrictadministratorshadtoplaceatenuredteacherthatnoschoolwantedtoaccept.Typicallysuchateacherwasreturningfromleaveorhadlostapositionduetoprogramcutswithinaschool.Criticsoftenblameunioncontractsandseniorityforthisforcedassignment,althoughtheyhavelittleornothingtodowithit.Allstates—eventhosethatdonotgrantteacherscollectivebargainingrights—providesubstantialjobprotectionsforteacherswhohavebeenawardedtenureafterthreeorfiveyearsintheclassroom.Asaresult,principalsare

sometimesforcedbythedistrictofficetoacceptwhatLosAngeles’Duffycalledthe“must-place”teachers.Becausethisrequirementcomesfromstatelaw,notcollectivebargaining,changingthetransferlanguageincontractswouldnotalleviatethispressureonprincipalstoaccepttheseteachers.

Teacher Evaluation and Dismissal

Thequalityofadistrict’steachingforcecanbestrengthenedbyprovidingregularevaluationsthatincluderecommendationsforimprovementandleadtotimelydismissalofteacherswhofailtomeetthedistrict’sstandard.Therefore,itisextremelyimportantforadministratorstomakecarefuldecisionsbeforeateacherisawardedtenure.Typicallytheunionanddistrictofficialsestablishtheproceduresforobservations,evaluations,anddismissalsduringcollectivebargaining.Oneofthemostpersistentcriticismsofunionsisthattheyobstructthedismissalofweakteacherswithexcessiveproceduralrequirementsandahard-hittinglegaldefenseonbehalfofanyteacherthedistricttriestofire.

Statecollectivebargaininglawobligesunionstofairlydefendanyteacherinthebargainingunit(unionmemberornot)whoserightstodueprocessareviolated.Itisimportanttonote,however,thattheunionisnotrequiredtosupportateacherwhodisagreeswiththesubstanceofherprincipal’sevaluationorthedistrict’sdecisiontodismissher.Anumberofpresidentsexplainedthattheyandtheirexecutivecommitteehaveconsiderablefreedomindecidingwhethertodefendateacherwhentheevaluatorhasfollowedthenegotiatedprocedures.Amongthepresidentsweinterviewed,veryfewreportedthattheirunionautomaticallydefendsanyteacherwhomthedistrictmovestodismiss.Voicingacommonsentiment,Georgetown,Ohio’sMelissaCroppersaid,“Idon’tthinktheunionshouldbeprotectingpeoplewhodon’tbelongintheprofession.…Iprotectprocedures.Ifanadministratorwantstogetridofateacher,thenthereisaproceduretofollowforthat.Andifthatprocedureisnotfollowed,thentheunionhastostepinandprotectthat.ButIdon’tfightforabadteachertobekeptinthedistrict.”

Cambridge,Mass.,PresidentToner,whoalsoisalawyer,hasexplainedthelimitsoftheunion’sobligationstohismembersinamemorandum.Hetoldus,“Allwecandoisholdtheschooldepartmentaccountablefordue

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process.Andguesswhat?Theyarefollowingtheprocess,aprocessthatwasnegotiatedinthecontractand[thattheteachers]arewellawareof.”Whenateachercametohimwithcomplaintsaboutanunsatisfactoryevaluation,Tonerexplained,“Look,thisdoesn’tmeanthatyouarefired.Itdoesn’tmeanthatyouareonyourwayout.Whatitdoesmeanistheyaredocumentingareasthattheyareconcernedabout,andyouneedtoworkonitandshowthatyouaremakinganeffort.…AndthatisallthatIcansayasyourunionpresident.”Heemphasizedthatdistrictofficialsalsohadobligations;theycouldnot“ignoresomebodyinaclassroomfortwoyearsandthensay,‘Oh,youarenotmeetingexpectations.’”

Recently,somestateshavereducedoreliminatedthedueprocessprotectionsofnon-tenuredorprobationaryteachers.Insomedistricts,presidentsreportedthattheirnoviceteacherscouldbedismissedwithlittleornoexplanationand,thus,theunioncouldprovidenoprotectionwhatsoeveriftheircontractswereterminated.Presidentsinsomedistricts,includingGreeley,Colo.,Boulder,Colo.,andNeedham,Mass.,observedthattheirdistrictshadrecentlybeguntodismisslargenumbersofprobationaryteachers.Needham’sPresidentNeilsen,notingtheincreaseindismissalsofnon-tenuredteachersduringthepast3or4years,observed,“What[thenewteachers]don’tunderstandisthatinNeedhambeinganacceptableteacherisn’tgoodenough.…Thestandardisexcellence.”Inafewcases,however,presidentssuggestedthattheaccelerateddismissalofnon-tenuredteacherswasintendedlesstoensurequalitythantomaintainmanagement’sprerogativeoverlabor.

Somepresidentswhoexpressedconcernaboutthequalityofteachersinthedistrictblamedadministrators,sayingthatfrequently,teacherswhoneededassistancewereneverobserved,evaluated,orgivenadviceabouthowtoimprove.Westminster,Colo.’sLynchadvisedadministratorstotakethisresponsibilityseriously:“Don’tdojustdrive-bys.Getinthereandtakealook.Andwhenfolksarefailingtomeetstandard,ifyouthinktheyare,givethemsomesignificanttimetoimprovebeforeyoudroptheax.”Heandotherunionpresidentssaidtheyspendtimeadvisingadministratorsabouthowtoconductorwriteupevaluationssothattheypassproceduralmuster.

Althoughmostpresidentsweinterviewedspokeabouttheneedtodismissweakteachersandtodonomore

thanprotectdueprocess,aconsiderablenumbersaidtheydidnotactivelycounselteacherstheyknewtobeineffectivetoleavethedistrict.Moreover,afewsaidthattheirlocalunionchallengesalldismissalcasesinarbitration,whateverthemerits.Insomecasestheunion’sexecutivecommittee,whichultimatelydecideswhethertotakeacasetoarbitration,disagreeswiththepresident.PrinceGeorge’sCounty,Md.’sKilbyacknowledged,“Weprobablyprotectmorethanweshould,ifI’mgoingtobeblunt.”Whenaskedwhethershehadeverrefusedtodefendateacher,thepresidentshookherhead.

Peer Assistance and ReviewWithinoursample,wefoundevidenceofdistrictsandunionsworkingtogethertoreformteacherevaluation.ThePeerAssistanceandReview(PAR)programsinCincinnati,Columbus,Ohio,andMontgomeryCounty,Md.,representedthemostintensiveeffortstoensureteacherqualitybyreformingsupervisionandevaluation.PARinthesethreedistrictscombinedpeerassistanceandassessmentintooneprogram.Consultingteachers,whowereassignedtoassistbothnewandexperiencedpeers,eventuallyrecommendedwhethertheteacherstheyadvisedshouldbere-employed.Invirtuallyallcases,thejointlabor-managementpanelthatrantheprogramupheldtheirrecommendations.

PresidentsinthePARdistrictsreportedbothhigherretentionanddismissalratesthanduringearlieryearswhenadministratorsweresolelyresponsibleforteacherevaluation.MontgomeryCounty,Md.’sCullisonsaid:“Forthe10yearspriortoPARbeinginstitutedinMontgomeryCounty,exactlyonepersonhadleftthesystembecauseofperformance.…InthesixyearssincePARhascomein,400peoplehaveleftthesystembecauseofperformance.Nowmanyofthemdecidetoleavewithoutgoingthroughthedismissalprocess.…”Sheemphasizedtheimportanceofthisprograminsupportingandassessingnewteachers:“Ifthey’regoingtocomeandteachinmydistrictfor5years,Iwanttomakesurethey’rereallygood.Iwanttomakesurethat,ifIhavetogotothematforthem,IcansaythisissomeonewhohasgivenherheartandsoultothekidsinMontgomeryCounty.…ButI’mnotgoingtodothatforjustanybody.I’vegottohavesomelevelofassurancethatthesearehighlyskilledpeopleformetobeadvocatingfor,whichiswhyPARisreally,reallyimportanttome.”


Induction and Professional Development

Unionsinmostofthe30districtsalsowereactivelyinvolvedineffortstoenhanceteacherperformance.Althoughprofessionaldevelopmentiswidelyseenasaresponsibilityofmanagement,morethanhalfoftheunionpresidentsweinterviewedweredevelopingorpromotingunion-sponsoredinductionprograms,professionaldevelopmentprograms,orboth.Onaverage,thesepresidentslisted“professionaldevelopment” astheirthirdmostimportantpriority;onlysalaryandbenefitsreceivedmorerecognition.

Induction for New Teachers

Manypresidentsdescribedlocalmentoringprogramsthatmatchedexperiencedteacherswithnovicestoprovidesupportandadvice.Inafewdistricts,localunionsworkedjointlywithdistrictofficialstoprovidesuchmentoring.InPalmBeachCounty,Fla.,Harrisexplained,theunion“wantstokeep[newteachers]…andtodevelopthemintohigh-qualityteachers.…We’vebeenworkingcloselywiththedistrictandchallengingthemtoworkwithus[in]developingamentoringprogramforourteachers…thatwillhelpthembesuccessful.”

ThemostwelldevelopedmentoringprogramswereprovidedthroughthePeerAssistanceprogramsinCaliforniaorthePARprogramsinCincinnati,Columbus,Ohio,andMontgomeryCounty,Md.TheCaliforniadistrictsalsoofferedsupportthroughthestate-fundedBeginningTeacherSupportandAssistance(BTSA).Sweetwater,Calif.,whichofferedthemostcomprehensiveBTSAprograminourstudy,released12teachersfromtheclassroomtoprovidefull-timeassistancetofirst-yearteachers.

Professional Development for All Teachers

Somelocalunionsinoursamplealsohadbeguntoprovideshortprofessionaldevelopmentcoursesforteachers.Boston’sStutmansaidthatitisimportantfortheuniontobe“theinstrumentofchangeforthefurtherprofessionalizationofourownteachingranks.”Hedescribedhislocal’sfirstventure,twoday-longSaturdaysessionsthatprovidedstrategiesforclosingtheachievementgapandteachingEnglishlanguagelearnersaswellassomebasiclegalinformationabout

unionmembership. Stutmansaidthesessionswerewellattended—150teacherseachday—eventhoughtheunionwasnotauthorizedtodistributeprofessionaldevelopmentpointsforstaterecertification.Hesaidtheunionnotonlywantedtosupportteachers’improvement,butalsoto“putourselvesonthemapasfarasbeingagentsofthis…becausewe’realwayslookedatas[beingtheoneswho]protect,defend,andnegotiate.…Ithinkwehavealottooffer.”

Tovaryingdegrees,alloftheFloridaunionswhosepresidentsweinterviewed sponsoredprofessionaldevelopmentusingaprogramdevelopedbytheAFT’sunitforEducation,Research,andDissemination(ER&D).CollierCounty,Fla.’sJeffersdescribedhisunion’sextensiveofferingsofworkshopsandmodules,including,forexample,anintroductiontoresearch-basedfoundationsofreadinginstruction;howtoteachelementarymath;andhowtodealwithanti-socialbehavior. Hesaid:“We’retheprofessionaldevelopmentorganization.Weknowwhat’sgoingonaroundthecountryandtheactualprofessionaldevelopmentthatI’vereceivedfromthedistricthasbeenverypoor,inmyopinion.Buttheprofessionaldevelopmentfrom[ER&D]hasbeenfantastic.It’sareallygoodprogram.”

Mostoftheunionsthatsponsoredtheirownprofessionaldevelopmentwerelargeorganizationswithconsiderableresources.However,CropperinGeorgetown,Ohio,oneofthesmallestunionsinourstudy,alsohaddecidedtoleadonthisissue,explaining,“Iverymuchseetheunionasbeingaproactiveorganization.”Withthesuperintendent’sendorsementandbroadteacherinput,Cropperbegantoplanthefollowingyear’sfourdaysofprofessionaldevelopmentaboutincreasingtheuseoftechnologyininstruction.Althoughthispresident’sinitiativewasunusual,virtuallyallofthoseweinterviewedexpressedinterestinhavingtheunioninvolvedintheirmembers’ongoingdevelopmentasteachers.

Afewpresidentsdescribedprioritiesandpracticesthatarguablywouldobstructadistrict’seffortstoimproveteacherquality.Thesepresidentsdefendedseniority-basedtransfers,aggressivelychallengedprincipals’unsatisfactoryratingsofteachers,ortooknoresponsibilityforpromotingteachers’learningandgrowth.Insomecases,presidentsreportedthatcontinuedpatronage,favoritism,oradministrativeabusemadethemwaryofrelinquishingteachers’traditional,rule-bound protections.


However,thelargemajorityofthepresidentsweinterviewedsawvalueinpromotingteacherquality,bothbecausetheythoughtitwouldimprovetheirdistrict’sperformanceandbecausetheirnewteachersinsistedonit.Earlycareerteachersresentedpayingduestoanorganizationthatneglectedthemorthatprotectedtheirineffectivepeers.Sponsoringprogramsthatsupportedandretainednewteacherscouldsimultaneouslyservethedistrict,theteachers,andtheunion.However,thesepresidentswerenotsimplysteppingasidesothatadministratorscouldruntheschoolshowevertheyliked.Rather,theywantedtoplayanactiveroleinsuchefforts.

Reconceiving the Labor-Management Relationship

Collectivebargaining,whichwasdesignedforuseintheprivatesector,isabilateral,adversarialprocessinwhichlaborandmanagementareassumedtohavecompetinginterests;onmostissues,onlyonesidecanwin.Thisindustrialmodelworksreasonablywellwithassemblylineworkerswhoseresponsibilitiescanbepre-plannedanddirectlysupervised.However,itadaptspoorlytotheeducationsectorwheretheemployeesareprofessionalswhomustcontinuouslydiagnoseandrespondeffectivelytounpredictableneeds.15Moreover,theday-to-dayworkofteachersandadministratorsishighlyinterdependent,andneithercantrulysucceedwithouttheeffortsandsupportoftheother.Here,thesimpledichotomybetweenlaborandmanagementbreaksdown.

Statelawdetermineswhethercollectivebargainingbetweenteachersandschooldistrictsisrequired,permitted,orprohibited,andwhatrangeofissuesthepartiesmayormustbargain.Forthisstudy,wechosetointerviewpresidentsinagroupofstateswithlaborlawsthatdifferedinimportantwayssothatwecouldconsiderunionleaders’viewsinarangeoflegalcontexts.However,collectivebargainingpracticesappearedtobeinfluencedfarmorebylocalhistory,economics,andpersonalitiesthanbystatelaw.(SeeAppendixXforadescriptionandcomparisonofthestatutesofthestatesinthisstudy.)

Currentthreatstopubliceducationhavecausedunionandmanagementleadersinmanydistrictstodevisenewwaystoworktogether.Ultimately,boththeteachersunionsandtheschoolsfacetheprospectofnotmeetingrequiredtargetsonaccountabilitytests,losingalarge

shareoftheeducationmarket,orfailingtoattractandretainastaffofcommittedandhighlyqualifiedteachers.Thus,therearestrongincentivesfortheunionandmanagementtoworktogetheronbehalfofbetterschoolstoday.Infact,thepresidentsinmanydistrictsdescribedevolving,collaborativeapproachestobothcollectivebargainingandcontractmanagement—approachesthatdiffermarkedlyfromthosethatprevailed30yearsago.Althougheachofthepresidentsdescribedauniquelabor-managementrelationshipwithupsanddownsovertheyears,theiraccountsoverallsuggestedadecreaseinhostilityandincreaseincooperation.

Thisfindingisconsistentwithdatashowingasteadydeclineinthenumberofteacherstrikesnationwideoverthepastthreedecades,fromahighof241in1975toonly15in2003.16Apparently,intoday’scontext,thecostsofresortingtohostile,adversarialtacticsexceedthepossiblegainsofsuchactions.Readerswhorecallfrequentstrikesinthelate1960sand1970smaybesurprisedtoreadaboutthemorerespectfulandinnovativeapproachestobargainingandcontractmanagementthatmanypresidentsinthisstudydescribed,fortheychallengeconventionalexpectations.

A Hybrid Approach to Collective BargainingFewerthanone-fourthofthepresidentsdescribedbargainingpracticesthatfitatraditional,adversarialmodel.TerrellofDayton,Ohio,saidthattheirapproach“isprobablythesameasit’sbeeninthepastyears.…It’sjustaregulartermoftraditionalbargaining,whereeachteampresentsproposalsandcounter-proposals.”Similarly,Sheehan,ofAmherst-Pelham,Mass.,saidbargainingthere“proceededinfairlyconventionalways.We’dmeetandcaucusandgooffintoourseparateroomsandthatwholedrill.”

Inthemid-1980s,someschooldistrictsbegantoexperimentwithreplacingthetraditionaladversarialmodelwithinterest-basedor“win-win”bargaining.17Partiesthatusethisapproachexplaintheirinterestsratherthanconcealthemandthenworktogethertogeneratecreativesolutionstodifficultproblems.Manypresidentsweintervieweddescribedaperiodwhentheirdistrictstriedtoconductalltheirbargainingusinginterest-basedapproaches,althoughonlytwo(PalmBeachCounty,Fla.,andBoulder,Colo.)saidthattheirdistrictscurrentlydid.


AccordingtoHarris,PalmBeachCounty,Fla.,reliedalmostexclusivelyoninterest-basedbargaining.Theparticipantsagreedontheissuestheywoulddiscussandthencollectedrelevantinformation.Atthebargainingtable,Harrissaid,“Thedistrictwilltalkaboutitandgivedifferentperspectives.Usually,it’sthedistrictsayingwhattheysee,andwe’resayingwhatwesee.But,believeitornot,moresothannot,wecometoagreementandseeeyetoeyeoncertainthingsbecauseit’swhat’sbestforourdistrict.”Inrecentnegotiations,thedistricthadusedtheprocesstodesignaprogramforstaffingandsupportingteachersinlow-performingschools.

Presidentswhohadparticipatedininterest-basedbargainingsaidtheprocesshaddistinctadvantages.Itcouldbeusedinthecontextofnegotiationstosolvecomplexproblemsordevelopnewprograms.Yetmanyalsosaidthatinterest-basedbargainingdidnotworkwellforallproblemsorsituations.Thus,overtimea“hybrid”approachthatincludedelementsofbothtraditionalandinterest-basedbargainingemergedinmanydistricts.Forexample,thismightmeandraftingandsharingproposalsinsteadofsimplyexchangingdemandsandmakingconcessions.Columbus,Ohio’sJohnsonsaidtheirlocalstrategywas“kindoflikewin-win,butnotwin-win.It’skindofliketraditionalbargaining—acombinationofthetwowaysofdoingit.”Thesidesidentifiedtheissuestheywouldworkon,andtheneachdraftedaproposaloneachissueusingaformalprocessthatinvolvedamediator.“So,ifourissueisdiscipline,wewoulddraftaproposal,andtheadministrationwouldhavetodraftoneaswell.…Everybodydraftsproposals,andthenwegetdowntoit,andwedosometraditionalkindsofbargaining.”

Somedistrictsusedaninterest-basedstrategytoaddressreforminitiatives(suchasaninductionprogramfornewteachers)andatraditionalapproachtoreachagreementonsalariesandbenefits.Onerationalethatseveralpresidentsgaveforemployingahybridapproachwasthatinterest-basedbargainingdidnotworkwelltoresolvedisagreementsaboutfinancialissues,especiallywhenresourceswerescarce.InWestminster,Colo.,wherethepartieshadusedcertainaspectsofinterest-basedbargainingforsixyears,Lynchsaid,“Interest-basedworksbetterwiththesidebarissuesthanitdoes[withthe]financial[issues].Moneyissuesjustgenerallytendtodrifttotraditionalbargaining.”Heconfirmedthattheyalwaysdiscussmonetaryandnon-monetaryissuesseparately:“Yes,always.Always.Separatesessionsentirely.”

Finally,somedistrictsusedjointsubcommitteesbothbeforeandduringbargaining,thusengagingabroadergroupofstakeholdersthanthetraditionalclosed-roombargainingsessionsofthepast.Miami-Dade’sAronowitzexplainedhownegotiatorsusedasetofsubcommitteestoaddressbothfinancialandnon-financialissues,includingstudentachievement,parentalinvolvement,professionaldevelopment,andbenefitsandcompensation.Similarly,Duffysaid32unionsubcommitteesinLosAngelesdevelopedproposalsthatfedintobargainingthere.Often,whilethesideswerenegotiating,jointsub-committeeswerealsomeeting.Theresultingprocesswasfarlesscontrolledandcentralizedthantraditional,bilateralbargaining.Thishybridapproachappearedtobeapragmaticstrategythatenabledthepartiestocollaborateonpartsoftheschoolimprovementagenda,whilealsoadvocatingforcefullyonbehalfoftheirconstituents.

Working Together to Manage the ContractOnceacontractissigned,itisalegallybindingdocumentthatmustbeadministeredandenforced.Inmanyways,thissubsequentprocessisascriticaltotheongoingoperationsofaschoolsystemascollectivebargaining.Somewouldarguethatitisevenmoreimportant,becausecontractlanguagemeansnothinguntilitisputintopractice.

Virtuallyallcontractsincludeagrievanceprocesswhichteacherscanusetofileacomplaintaboutanallegedviolationoftheagreement.Typically,grievancesarecomplaintsaboutpayorspecificworkingconditions,suchasnotreceivingapreparationperiod,beingassignedaclassthatexceedsanegotiatedclass-sizecap,ortheadministration’sfailuretocomplywithnegotiatedproceduresforteacherevaluation.Ifthegrievantisnotsatisfiedwiththeoutcomeafterthesuperintendentortheschoolboardhasruled,heorsheusuallyhas,bycontract,afinalopportunityforredressbyanoutsidearbitrator.However,unionofficials,nottheindividualteacher,decidewhichcomplaintsproceedtoarbitrationsincetheprocessimposesadditionalexpensefortheunion.

Thepresidentssuggestedthat,althoughthegrievanceprocesscontinuestohaveanimportantplaceincontractmanagementtoday,itisnolongerascentraltolabor-managementrelationsasitoncewas.Theunionleaders


saidthatmostgrievancestodayaredealtwithinroutinemeetingsorthroughtheworkofcommitteesestablishedtoresolvethedisputeatthelowestpossiblelevel,evenbeforeagrievanceisfiledformally.Whentheunionrepresentativesdecidethatateacher’scomplaintislegitimate,thepresident,vicepresident,orexecutivedirectormaycalltheprincipalorsuperintendentdirectly.Forexample,inAmherst-Pelham,Mass.,Sheehansaidhewasoftenableto“smooth[complaints]overbeforetheybecomeagrievancebycallingtheprincipal…andsaying,‘Well,didyouknow…?’Andwecantalkitthrough.”Sweetwater,Calif.’sAnguianodescribedhisregularworkingrelationshipwithdistrictadministrators:“Ihavestandingmeetings[everytwoweeks]withourdirectoroflaborrelations.Andalotofourissuesandproblemsareresolvedbythesestandingmeetingsthatwehave.”

Insomecases,localcontractsincludedmechanismsforaddressingproblemswellbeforetheybecamegrievances.Forexample,theCollierCounty,Fla.,contractcallsfor“facultyadvisorycommittees”ineachschool.Jeffersexplained:“Ifthere’saproblematyourschool,bringittothefacultyadvisorycommittee.Theygettosettheagenda.Theycallintheprincipal,andtheysay,‘Hereareourproblems;helpusfixthem.’Andmostofthetimetheygetfixedrightthen.”

Althoughpresidentsoftendownplayedtheroleofgrievancesinday-to-daylabor-managementinteractions,manyalsoinsistedthattherewerestilloccasionswhentheformalgrievanceprocesswasnecessary.Collaborativemechanismsworkedbestwhenproblemscouldberesolvedthroughconversationsorchangesinbehavior.However,ifresolutiondependedonsecuringmoreresources(forexample,payingforspecialistsassubstitutessothatteacherswouldhavetheirguaranteedpreparationperiod)ormightsetanimportantprecedent,theunresolvedproblemmightmovethroughtheformalgrievanceprocessandontoarbitration.

Collaboration and Continuous BargainingItbecameclearfromthesepresidents’accountsthatseveraldistrictswereinvolvednotonlyininterest-basedorhybridapproachestobargaining,butinakindofperpetualbargaining,duringwhichtheyidentifiedanddealtwithissuesastheyarose.Insomedistrictspressingeducationalproblemsorreformsthatcalledforchanges

inthecontractcouldnotwaitthreeyearsuntilformalbargainingwasscheduledtobegin.Severalpresidentssaidtheirdistrictshadcreatedstandingcommittees,composedofteachersandadministrators,whichwereauthorizedtoconductpreliminarybargainingaboutcertainissueswellbeforethestartofcontractnegotiations.Otherdistrictswentevenfurther,empoweringsuchcommitteestoamendthecontractatanytime.

ColoradoSprings,Colo.’sValerio,whosaidthatbargainingtherewas“hybrid,really,”explained:“Weactuallybargainalmostallyear.”Thedistricthada“jointcouncil,”composedofmembersofthetwobargainingteamswhometmonthly.Whenweaskedwhetherthepartieswerereallybargaining,Valerioresponded,“Ohyes.”Sheexplainedthatsomeoftheissueswouldhaveto“waituntilthecontractcomesup.Someofthem,wedomemosofunderstanding.”Ofteninsubsequentnegotiations,thepartiescodifiedthejointcouncil’sdecisions,whichwerealreadybeingimplemented.Notably,withthisprocessofcontinuousbargaining,formalcontractnegotiationsinColoradoSpringsusuallylastedonlytwoweeks.

Similarly,inMontgomeryCounty,Md.,Cullisonsaidthattheir“labor-managementcollaborationcommittee…meetsmonthlyandcanactuallymakechangesinthecontract.”In2005–06,forexample,thecommitteerevisedthetimetableforteachertransfers,whichotherwisewouldhavewaiteduntilformalnegotiationsopened.Cullisonexplainedthatthemechanismwaslikethe“livingcontract”beingusedinRochester,N.Y.18Westminster,Colo.’sLynchtoldofongoingproblem-solvingbyan“adhocInstructionalIssuesCommittee”thatproduced“writtenagreementsthataredistributedtoallofthefolks,allthestaff.…Thesuperintendentsignsoffonthem,andtheyarefollowedandtheyareadheredto.Andwehavegottenthingsdonethatwouldnothavegottendoneatthecontracttable.…”

Presidentswhodescribedsuccessfuleffortstobroadenthescopeofissuesandexpandthetimeframeofnegotiationsstressedtheimportanceofhavingstrong,respectfulrelationshipswiththesuperintendentandotherdistrictofficials.Inthesesettings,unionpresidentsmetoftenwithsuperintendentswhoaskedfortheirviewsandsolicitedtheirhelpinresolvingbothdifficultandroutineproblems.Some,suchasNielsen,ofNeedham,Mass.,reliedprimarilyonformalmeetings:“There’sastandingmonthlymeetingbetweentheunionofficersandallthe


centraladministrators.”Othersinteractedmoreoften.Forexample,Cincinnati’sTaylordescribedhowsheandthesuperintendentworkedtogether:“Whenissuescomeup,Ihaveherhomenumber.Ihavehercellphonenumber.Shetakesmycalls,andItakehercalls.Weoftenaretalkingonthephoneat8:00inthemorningbeforemeetingsstart.Andthere’sveryopencommunication.”Trustwasthekeytotheserelationships.

Inotherinstances,evenrespectfulrelationshipsoccasionallybrokedown.SanteramoofBrowardCounty,Fla.,describedhisresponsewhenthesuperintendentmadeunilateraldecisionsthataffectedteachers’workingconditions:“Ijustcan’tallowthattohappen.Andwefileunfairlaborpractice.Andhe’llbackoff.Andwe’llsubpoenahim.Imeanjustthosethingsthatirritatethehelloutofsomebody;everyonceinawhileyouneedtokindofpokehiminline.”

Althoughmostpresidentsinourstudyspokeofhavinggoodworkingrelationshipswithdistrictleaders,noteveryonedid.Presidentswhosesuperintendentignoredthemortreatedthemwithdisrespectdescribedamuchmoreboundedbargainingprocess,bothinthekindofissuesthepartiesdealtwithandrangeofforumsinwhichthoseissuescouldbeaddressed.

Theunionleadersinthisstudywhoreportednegotiatinganexpandedagendafounditnecessaryandproductivetoadoptanontraditionalapproachtolaborrelations.Manyofthesepresidentsdescribedhybridapproachestobargaining,newmechanismsforadministeringthecontractefficiently,andinsomecases,bargainingthatcontinuedthroughouttheyear.Alloftheseinnovationsrequiredcollaborativerelationshipsbetweentheunionandtheschooladministration.

Thepresidentsdifferedinassessinghowbeneficialcollaborativelabor-managementrelationshipsultimatelyweretotheunions’interests.Someleadersexplainedthat,despiterelyingonthislessadversarialapproach,theystillresortedtotraditionaltacticsinbargainingorcontractmanagementinparticularlydifficultsituations.However,mostreportedthatitwasfarbetterforthepresidentandsuperintendenttomeetregularly,evenwhenseriousdisagreementsstoodbetweenthem.Manyunderstoodthatworkingcloselywithmanagementdidnotrequireabandoningone’sprinciplesorpriorities.Infact,suchinteractionwasprobablytheonly waytoeffectivelyadvancetheunion’sexpandedagendaintoday’scontext.

Conclusion

Newrealitiesinthecontextofpubliceducationthreatenthefutureofbothteachersunionsandpublicschools.Everywhereschoolsfaceunprecedenteddemandsforevidenceofstudentsuccessunderstateandfederalaccountabilitylaws.Someareencounteringstiffcompetitionfromcharterschoolsandvouchers,whichhavesubstantiallyreducedstudentenrollmentandforceddistrictsinstatessuchasOhiotoclosemanyschools.Districtsalsostruggletoattractandretainastrongteachingforceasalargecohortofveteranteachersretireandattritionratesamongnewteachersrise.

Analystsseekingtounderstandthesechallengesandthecurrentshortcomingsofpublicschoolsoftenturntheirattentiontoteachersunions.19Criticstypicallycontendthatunionsareantiquatedorobstructionistorganizations,atbestprovidingnobenefit,andatworstinterferingwithambitiousstrategiestoimproveschools.Thus,criticsproposethatunioninfluenceshouldbesignificantlyreducedoreliminatedaltogether.20Bycontrast,proponentsofunionsciteevidenceinselectedschooldistrictsofwhatconstructiveunionleadershipandcollaborativelabor-managementrelationshipscanaccomplish.Theyseepromiseinteachersunionstobuildanewprofessionalcultureofteachingandstrengthenpubliceducation.21

Thereiswideagreementthattheadversarialpracticesoftraditional,industrialunionismarenotwell-suitedforthecomplexchallengesschooldistrictsfacetoday.Intraditionalcollectivebargainingthesidesarefixed,rolesareinflexible,andinteractionsareritualized.Reformersintentonmakingschoolsnimbleandcompetitivewouldprobablynotchoosecollectivebargainingasthebestpathtoschoolreform.However,teachers’basicrighttoorganizeandbargainiscodifiedin45statelaws.Unionsarethecurrentrealityinmostschooldistricts.Thequestionisnotwhethertheywillcontinuetoshapelocaleducationpolicy,buthowtheywilldoso.

Itisleadersatthelocallevel—thoseelectedpresidentswhoshapetheirunion’spriorities,overseecontractnegotiations,andpubliclyrepresenttheteachers—whowilllargelydeterminewhetherthelocalunionobstructsoradvancesschoolimprovementefforts.Therefore,weconductedthisstudyinanefforttounderstandthesepresidents’viewsandprioritiesastheyandtheirdistricts


dealwiththedemandsofaccountability,competition,andatransformationoftheteachingforce.

Asagroup,thebroadsampleof30presidentsweintervieweddidnotfitthetraditionalstereotypeoflaborleadersreadytodobattleatanycostinordertoenhancetheirmembers’welfare.Insomecases,theyfiercelyopposedmanagement’sproposalsoractionswithtraditionaltactics,suchaspublicdemonstrationsorreproachfulpressreleases.Farmoreoften,however,theyworkedtogetherwithschoolofficialsonavarietyofinitiatives.Theyorganizedpoliticalactioninresponsetopendingeducationlegislation,increasedtheschools’flexibilitybyamendingproblematiccontractlanguage,orplannedandimplementednewprograms.Thosewhowentwellbeyondthebasicunionagendastillabsolutelyaffirmedtheimportanceofwinningbettersalaries,benefits,andworkingconditions.Yettheyframedthosegoalswithinthecontextofimprovingschoolsandretainingaskilledandcommittedteachingforce.

Negotiated Reform

Therewasevidenceinthepresidents’accountsandintheirlocalcontractsthattheyhadmadeimportantchangesin,andadditionsto,thecollectivebargainingagreementsandinstitutedinnovativeprogramsthatadvancedschoolreforms.Inmanydistricts,proceduresforteacherhiringandassignmenthadreducedoreliminatedtheroleofseniorityandincreasedthediscretionofprincipalstoappointtheteacherstheywanted.Manylocalunionsparticipatedinprovidinginductionormentoringsupportfornewteachersandongoingprofessionaldevelopmentforexperiencedteachers.Inseveraldistricts,PeerAssistanceandReviewprogramsengagedexpertteachersinsupportingandevaluatingallnovicesaswellasexperiencedteacherswhoneededhelp,thusincreasingtheoddsthatthedistrictwouldtenureonlyteachersjudgedtobeeffectiveandcoulddismissthosefailingtodotheirjob.Insomedistricts,differentiatedrolesforteachersascoachesorstaffdevelopersallowedespeciallyskilledteacherstohaveexpandedinfluenceastheyworkedwithpeerstoimprovethecapacityoftheirschools.Effortswereunderwayinseveraldistrictstoprovidenewincentivesforteacherstotransfertounderperformingschoolsandworklongerhourswithmoreresourcestomeetstudents’needs.Otherdistrictswereengagedinpilotprogramsthatmodifiedthestandardizedsalaryscaleandone—Denver—

wasimplementingthenation’smostcomprehensivepayreform,includingperformance-basedrewards.

Building a New Culture of Labor Relations Localunionleadersareimportantnotonlybecausetheycanrecommendsensiblechangesinthecontract,butalsobecausetheycanshapethecultureoflaborrelationsandprofessionalpracticeinthedistrict.Manypeoplebelievethatifproblematicprovisionsareeliminatedfromtheunioncontract,therewillbeconsequentchangesinthewayschoolswork.However,informalreportsfromschooldistrictsinnon-bargainingstatessuggestthatcertainfeaturesofeducationalpracticethatmanycriticsattributetounions—forexample,relianceonseniority,reluctancetodismissweakteachers,orrigidapplicationofrules—areinfactdeeplyrootedinschoolcultureeverywhereintheU.S.Thus,contractprovisionsareonlyonepartofalargerproblem,andasingularfocusonreformingorrestructuringcollectivebargainingtoimproveschoolingwillnotyieldtheneededchanges.Broaderattentiontothenormsandpracticesofbothunionismandteachers’workisneeded.

Severalofthepresidents’accountssuggestedthatthecultureofindustrialunionism,whichisrule-boundandadversarial,remainsaliveandwellintheirschooldistricts.Whereindustrialpracticesprevail,someprincipalsmanagetheirschoolswithedictsthatgenerateresentmentamongteachers,whileothersmanagedefensively,anticipatingtheunion’schallengesandavoidingconflict.Meanwhilesomeunionbuildingrepresentativesplaytheirpartinthispartisandrama,filingchargesandthreateninggrievancesinanefforttointimidateadministrators,evenwhentherearenoclearviolationsofthecontract.Suchadministratorsandunionleadersenactthepracticesoftheoldreality,ratherthanadaptingtothechallengesofthenew,whichcallfordifferentnormsofinteraction.

Althoughafewpresidentsseemedpoisedtocensureanyproposaloractionbymanagement,mostwerereadytoconsiderengaginginnewpossibilities,standingforunexpectedvalues,andshapingtheirlargeragendaonbehalfofbetterschools.

However,movingbeyondindustrialunionismisnoteasybothbecauseitrequireschangesincultureandrulesand


becauseitdemandsongoingleadershipbybothlaborandmanagementatalllevelsoftheschooldistrict.Localpresidentsareinakeypositiontoleadonbehalfofnewnormsandtopromoteanewcultureoflaborrelationsandprofessionalpracticethroughtheirpublicstatements,selectedinitiatives,andregularinteractionswithteachersandadministrators.

The Superintendent and President’s Working RelationshipThereisnorelationshipmoreimportantineducationallaborrelationsthanthatoftheunionpresidentandsuperintendent.Ifthatrelationshipfails,littleelsewillwork.Thepresidents’accountssuggestedthat,inorderforthiskeyrelationshiptosucceed,theremustbestrength,advocacy,andtrustonbothsides.Thetrustthatenabledpresidentsandsuperintendentstomovebeyondconventionallabor-managementpositionswasplayedoutintheirday-to-daypractices—regularandreliablemeetings,easyaccessbyphoneoremail,nosurprisesinthemedia,andmutualrespectthatisonpublicdisplay.

Ourinterviewswiththelocalpresidentsallowedustohearhowtheyviewedtheirsuperintendent,thoughwehadnoopportunitytolearnaboutthatrelationshipfromtheotherside.Somepresidentsdescribedworkinginpartnershipwiththeirsuperintendent,otherstoldofbeingrespectfulrivals,andseveralsaidtheirsuperintendentdisparagedorignoredthem.Inaveryfewdistricts,presidentsreportedthatthesuperintendentwashiredwithamandatetobreaktheunionandreclaimtherightsofmanagement.Ananti-unionagendaonthepartofmanagementwaswidelyperceivedtobeanti-teacher,whichthepresidentssaidnotonlyprovokedresistancebutalsoincreasedteachers’militancy.Fromtheperspectiveofthepresidentsweinterviewed,amanagement-drivenmodelisnottheanswertothechallengesschoolsfacetoday,orevenanalternative.Thesepresidentsmaybereadytostepuptoanewlydefinedroleandrelationship,buttheyarenotreadytostepaside.

Manyreadingthisreportwillundoubtedlyconcludethatthepresidentswespokewithwerenotcandidabouttheirpriorities,sincetherealityinmanydistrictsfallsshortofwhatthesepresidentsespoused.Inanalyzingcontractdata,however,weoftenfoundconfirmationoftheprogramsandpracticestheydescribed.However,itwasalsoclearthatthepresidentshadideasandhopes

thatcouldnotyetberealized,eitherbecausetheycouldnotreachagreementwithmanagementorbecausetheirmemberswouldnotsupportthem.

Althoughthepresidentandthesuperintendentareinfluential,theydonotholdallthecardsinthelocallaborrelationship.Ultimately,thepowerofeventhemostprogressiveunionpresidentorsuperintendenttobuildamoreproductivelaborrelationshipcanbethreatenedbyconstituents,whooftenpullthemtoamoreconventionalstanceandpolarizedrelationship.Ontheunionside,suchconstituentsmightincludeapowerfulsubgroupofteachers,along-timeexecutivedirector,anin-houseUniservrepresentative,ormembersoftheexecutivecommitteeorbargainingteam.Sometimestheseindividualsfearthatteacherswilllosetheirinfluenceifunionleadersrelaxtheirgrip.Ontheotherside,asuperintendentfindsthatheorshecannotignoreschoolboardmembers,whoworrythatstudents’interestswillbeabandonediftheunionhastoomuchsay.Similarly,thepublic,whoexpectmanagementtocloselycontrolschoolspending,mustbeacknowledged.Superintendentsalsomustlistentotheconcernsofprincipals,whoexpecttheirauthoritytobeprotected.Thus,presidentscannotbeseenasbeinginbedwithmanagement,andsuperintendentscannotbeseenaspanderingtotheunion.

However,thepresidentsinthisstudywhoworkedwithschoolofficialstoconfrontthedistrict’sproblemsdidnotseemtoabandontheirmembers;nordidtheyavoidconflictastheyjointlyexploredpossibilitieswithmanagement.Similarly,thesuperintendentstheydescribedkeptstudents’interestandthepublicgoodclearlyinmindwhileworkingsteadilywiththeirpresidenttodevelopnewpracticesandnormsforlocallaborrelations.Theseproductiverelationshipswerenotsaidtobesmoothorfreeofdisagreements,buttheywererespectful,intense,andpurposeful.

Leadership Within a Divided UnionOfteninseekingtoadvancetheiragenda,thepresidentsweredealingwithamembershipdividedalonglinesofexperience,ideology,andperceivedprofessionalneed.Theywidelyreportedthatnewteacherswhojoinedtheirlocaluniondidnotsharethesameviewsastheveteranswhobuiltit.Thesenovicesdidnotdependablyalignwiththetraditionalunionpositionsonseniority,standardized


pay,oruniformroles.Instead,theyexpectedsupportfortheirteachingthroughprofessionaldevelopment,expressedinterestincareerladders,andwantedacompensationsystemthatwasnotbasedpurelyonseniorityandcredentialsandallowedthemtoprovetheirworth.Thepresidentssaidthatmanynewteachershadtobeconvincedtojointheunion,andveryfewexpressedinterestinleadingit.

Thoseweintervieweddescribedmakingearnesteffortstomeettheneedsofbothnoviceandveterancohorts.Sometimes,however,thisdividedattentionmeantthattheycouldnotadvanceacoherentvisionoraunifiedagendafortheunion.Inrespondingtocompetingobligations,theirleadershipwasconstrained,anditspotentialoftendissipated.

Thesepresidentswere,withsomeexceptions,experiencedteachersapproachingretirement.Ifanewgenerationofprogressiveunionleadersistoemergeinthenextdecade—leaderswhoworkcollaborativelyandproductivelyonbehalfofteachers,students,andschools—thennewteachersenteringschoolstodaymustseeaunionthatpromotestheirvaluesandinterests,ratherthanonethatprotectsthepast.Suchaunionwouldrecognizethatlaborandmanagementatthelocallevelsharethesamefateandthusmustjoinforcestofashioninstitutionalpoliciesandpracticesthatwillensurethesuccessofthestudentsandschools.Somepresidentsweinterviewedunderstoodthischallengeandwereleadinginthatdirectionwithnotablesuccess.Thefutureofteacherunionismandpublicschooldistrictswilldependonsuchlocalleadershipemergingandsucceeding.


Thisstudyisbasedoninterviewswith30recentlyelectedunionpresidentsclusteredinsixstates:California,Colorado,Florida,Maryland,Massachusetts,andOhio.Mostaspectsofthisstudy—researchdesign,datacollection,anddataanalysis—tookplacebetweenJanuaryandSeptember2006.

Sample

Inbuildingoursample,weselectedstatesthatpermitorrequirecollectivebargainingbutwhosecollectivebargainingstatutesdiffer.Forexample,teachersunionshaveastate-grantedrighttonegotiatealegallybindingcontractwiththeirschooldistrictinallstatesofoursampleexceptColorado,whichhasnocollectivebargaininglaw.ThescopeofissuesthatmustbebargainedisbroadinFlorida,butrelativelynarrowinCalifornia.InMassachusettsandCalifornia,unionscanbargaintochargeallteachers(unionandnon-unionmembersalike)anagencyfeefornegotiatingontheirbehalf,whileFloridaprohibitssuchanagreementandMarylandrequireseachdistricttoreceiveapprovalfromthestatelegislaturebeforedoingso.TeachersinColorado,Ohio,andCaliforniaarepermittedtostrike,whilethoseinMassachusettsandFloridamaynot.Thus,thisarrayofstatesallowedustoexploretheroleofstatelawindefiningtheunionpresidents’work.Wealsoconsideredgeographicdiversity,whichledustochooseonestateeachfromtheNortheast,Mid-Atlantic,Southeast,Midwest,andtwofromtheWest.

Withineachstate,weselectedfivepresidentswhohadbeenelectedwithinthepasteightyears.Wefocusedonrecentlyelectedpresidentsbecausewewereinterestedinknowingwhethertheseindividualswereapproachingtheirjobinnewways,giventhenewcontextofaccountability,competition,teacherturnover,andthedeclineofunionsintheprivatesector.Werestrictedoursampletoasingleregionwithinastate(e.g.southernCalifornia)withthehopeofbuildingasampleofpresidentswhoworkedwithinarelativelyconsistentlabormarketcontext.Withineachregion,weselecteddistrictsthatvariedinsize,character(urban/suburban/rural),andwealth.Wealsosoughttoincludeunionsthatvariedinaffiliation(AFT/NEA),althoughallunionsaremergedinFlorida.Wewantedtoincludeunionsthatwerecommittedtotraditionalpracticesaswellasthoseinvolvedinreform.Therefore,weconsultedwithnationalexpertsandstateunionofficials,andweanalyzednewsreports.Moreover,wesoughttobuildasampleofindividualswho,basedonourpreliminaryresearch,hadarangeofviewsandstrategies.Wealsoattendedtothedemographiccharacterofourtotalsampleandoccasionally

choseoneindividualoveranotherinordertoachievegreaterdiversityinteachingexperienceorraceandethnicity.

Data Collection and Analysis

FromMarchtoSeptember2006,weconductedinterviewsofapproximatelytwohourseachwiththepresidentsinoursample.Ofthese,28wereconductedinthepresident’slocalsettingandtwowereconductedbyphonewhenthoseindividualswereunavailableduringoursitevisits.Interviewsfollowedasemi-structuredprotocolthatexploredthepresidents’perspectivesandpracticesregardingbargainingandlaborrelations;theirmembers’concernsandbeliefs;theirapproachestoleadership;andtheirviewsaboutspecifictopicssuchaspay,peerreview,andteacherassignment.TheinterviewprotocolisincludedinAppendixII.

Interviewsweretranscribedverbatimandcodedusingtheoreticalandopencoding.Inourfirststageofanalysis,wecreatedthematicsummariesthatcapturedsalientaspectsofeachpresident’saccountsoonaftertheinterview.Wethencodedtranscriptsusingtopicsthatwedrewfrompriorresearch,identifiedinthethematicsummaries,orheardduringtheinterviewsthemselves.Simultaneously,wedevelopedmatricestoidentifypatternsinthedataandtotestemerginghypotheses.22Wealsowroteanalyticmemosthatexaminedpatternsandrelationshipsinthedata.23Inallstagesofresearch,wecheckedourinterpretationswithothermembersoftheresearchteam.

Westudiedcollectivebargainingagreementsbothbeforeandafterconductingsitevisitsandinterviews.Weidentifiedasetofkeyprovisions,suchasthosethataffectstaffingorpay,andcreatedaspreadsheetallowingustocomparecontractlanguageonthesetopicsacrossall30districts.Contractanalysisisonlypartiallyinformativebecauseprovisionsarenotalwaysimplementedorenforcedandthemeaningsofwordsandphrasesoftenvaryacrosssettings.Onlyintensivecasestudiescandocumenthowthecontractisusedinpractice.Therefore,wefocusedprimarilyonwhetherandhowcertaintopicswereaddressedinthecontracts,recognizingthatwehadtobecautiousaboutconclusionsdrawnfromthisprocess.

Becausethisstudyisbasedonapurposivesample,itsfindingscannotbegeneralizedtoallrecentlyelectedteachersunionleaders.However,byexaminingcloselythesepresidents’priorities,attitudes,andaccountsoftheiractions,weseektoilluminatetheexperiencesofagroupofpeoplewho,toourknowledge,haveneverbeenstudiedsystematicallybefore.

Appendix I. Methods


1. Backgroundinformation—personal(yearsteaching,yearsindistrict,subjectstaught,schoolsworkedin).

2. Backgroundinformation—district(numberofschools,socio-economicstatus)andunion(whenfirstbargained).

3. Haveyoualwaysbeenactivelyinvolvedwiththeunion?(Whyorwhynot?)• Whatroleshaveyouhadorinitiativeshaveyoubeen

involvedinasaunionmember?(Whenandforhowlong?)• Havetherebeenkeyeventsorpeoplewhoinfluenced

yourparticipation?

4. Iwanttoaskaboutyourelection:• Whydidyourunforoffice?• Wereyouseentorunasasupporteroropponentofthe

priorpresident?• Whatweretheissuesintheelection?• Howclosewasthevote?

5. Unionleadersholdarangeofviewsaboutwhatateachersunionshoulddo:• Fromyourpointofview,whatshouldthemainpurpose

oftheunionbeatthelocallevel?• Doyouseeanyrolefortheunioninreforming

education?• Strengtheningtheteachingprofession?• Instructionalimprovement?

6. Relationshipswithaffiliate andsourcesofsupport:• Whatroleifanydoesthestateaffiliateplayinyour

work?Whatdoyouthinkaboutthat?• Whatothersourcesofsupportdoyourelyon?

7. I’minterestedinknowinghowmuchsupportyouthinkyouhavefrommembers:• Whatproportiondoyouthinkstronglysupportwhat

you’vesaidordone?Stronglyoppose?• Doyoursupporterscomefromanyparticularsubgroup

(age,experience,elementary/secondary,race,insiders/outsiders)?

• Doyouropponentscomefromanyparticularsubgroup?

• Doyouhavestrategiesforgainingsupport?• Atthistime,wouldyousaythatyouaregaining

support,losingsupport,orstayingaboutthesame?Evidence?

8. Mostoftheteacherswhoformedthisunionwillretireby2010.Isthereanythingaboutthecohortofnewteachersthatyoukeepinmindasunionpresident?

9. I’dlikeyoutotellmealittleaboutthelaborrelationshipandwhetherithaschangedovertime:• Wherewouldyouputitonacontinuumfromadversarial

tocollaborative?• Hasthatchangedovertime?Ifso,why?• Havethereeverbeenstrikes?When?• Worktorule?

10. Wewanttounderstandhowyouandthesuperintendentworkdaytoday:• Howlonghasthesuperintendentheldthatposition?

(insider?outsider?)• Howwouldyoudescribeyourworkingrelationship?

• Wouldthemembersseethis?• Areyouragendasinsync,ornot?• Couldyougiveanexampleofanissueorexperience

thatillustratesasuccessfulaspectofyourworkingrelationship?

• Anunsuccessfulaspect?• Howdoyoudealwithgrievances?Domembers

supportthisapproach?

11. Areyoucurrentlybargaining?• Ifso,whatapproachareyouusing?(Positional,

interest-basedetc.)• Ifnot,whatapproachdidyouuselasttime?• Whatare/werethekeyissuesbeingnegotiated?

12. Isthecontract:• Closelyenforced/compliedwithorvariablyimplemented?• Isthereschool-by-schoolvariation?• Aregrievancesandarbitrationscommon?Rare?How

manyinayear?• Howmanygrievancesarepending?

13. Pleaselookatthislistofissues(Seechartofissues).• PartA:Couldyoucirclethefourthathavebeenmost

importanttoyouastheleaderofyourunion?• PartB:Now,forthefouryoucircled,we’dliketo

knowhowmuchyourmembers,thesuperintendent,andschoolboardagreewithyouaboutthesefourissues.Pleaseratethemfrom1to5,with1beinglittleagreementwithyourpositionand5beingincloseagreement.

• Discussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesacrossparticipantsandaskforexplanations.

14. Thereareseveralreformsthatarebeingdiscussedinotherdistricts.We’reinterestedinknowingwhethertheyhavecomeuphereandwhatyouthinkabouteach:• Performance-basedpay• Payincentivesforspecialassignments(hard-to-staff

schools)• Peerreview(assistanceandevaluation)• Changingtheroleofseniorityinteacherassignment• Careerladders• Charterschools

15. Whatareyourmostimportantaccomplishmentsasunionpresident?

16. Couldyoutellussomeofthelessonsyou’velearnedaspresident?

17. Whatareyourgoalsforthefuture?

18. Isthereanythingelsethatyou’dliketoadd?

Appendix II. Interview Protocol


Pleasecirclethefourissuesthataremostimportanttoyouasaunionleader.

Issue

Salary

Benefits

Payforperformance

Incentivepayforspecialassignments

Classsize

Professionaldevelopment

Newteachersupport

Teacherevaluation/dismissal

Peerreview

Teacherassignment(transfersandhiring)

Careerladders/differentiatedrolesforteachers

Instructionalreformissues

Schoolsafetyanddiscipline

Other(specify):___________________

Towhatextentdoeseachgroupagreewithyourpositionontheissues?

Pleaseratethelevelofagreementonascalefrom:

1(littleagreement)to5(muchagreement)

Issue Membership Superintendent School board

Salary

Benefits

PayforPerformance

Incentivepayforspecialassignments

Classsize

Professionaldevelopment

Newteachersupport

Teacherevaluation/dismissal

Peerreview

Teacherassignment(transfersandhiring)

Careerladders/differentiatedrolesforteachers

Instructionalreformissues

Schoolsafetyanddiscipline

Other(specify):

Appendix II. Interview Protocol (continued)


Thefollowingchartssummarizeinformationfromthecollectivebargainingagreementsofthe30districtswestudied.Weperformedthisanalysistohelpusdeterminewhethertheprioritiesandreformsthesepresidentsspokeofareenumeratedinlocalcollectivebargainingagreements.Ouranalysissupportsmanyofthefindingsfromourinterviews.Contractanalysis,however,isnecessarilylimited:itreliesonlyontheinformationinthecontract,doesnotaddresshowcontractprovisionsareimplemented,andattemptstodistillcomplexissuesintosimplecategories.

Mostobviously,contractanalysisdependssolelyonthecollectivebargainingagreementsthemselvesandthusmayignorekeydistrictpolicies.Somepolicies,suchasthosethatgovernlayoffs,maybedefinedbystatelawsratherthanbythecontract.Somedistrictscreateorchangelegallybindingpolicythrough“memorandaofunderstanding,”sideagreements,orarbitration.Insomecases,theseagreementsneverbecomepartoftheformalcontract.Forexample,Columbus,Ohio,hasawellestablishedPeerAssistanceandReviewprogram,butthecontractmentionsitonlyinpassingasonealternativetoadministratorevaluation.Similarly,Cincinnatihasdevelopedapayforperformanceplaninseverallow-performingschools;wedescribethisprograminSection4,“AddressingTeacherQuality.”Theinitiativeisrelativelynewanddoesnotappearinthedistrict’scollectivebargainingagreement.Thus,purecontractanalysisdoesnotreflectandsometimescontradictswhatisactuallyoccurringinthedistrict.

Equallyimportant,themerepresenceofacontractprovisiontellsusverylittleaboutitseffectinpractice.Asnewcontractsgenerallybuildonearlierversions,manyprovisionsremaininthedocumentbutdonothaveanypracticalsignificance;insomecases,newerprovisionsactuallycontradictotherelementsofthecontract.Somedistrictsalsofollowthecontractquiteclosely,whileothersonlyrefertospecificprovisionsinextremescenarios.Thus,enforcementvariestremendouslyandgovernsthepracticalsignificanceofcontractlanguage.Furthermore,contextmatters;districtsthathaveexperiencedrapiddemographicgrowthforthepasttwodecadesmaynothaverevisitedlayofflanguagewritteninthe1970s,whiledistrictsindeclinemayhavebargainedrevisedlanguageinthelastnegotiation.Thus,theselayoffprovisionsmaymeansomethingverydifferentinthesetwodistricts.

Finally,collectivebargainingagreementsarecomplicated,andtheirprovisionscannotbeeasilyreducedtoone-pagecharts,aswehaveattemptedtodohere.Forinstance,transferandassignmentpoliciesinvolveahostofcriteriathatwedistilledintofivecategories.Furthermore,staffingofteninvolvesmanyotherissues,suchaswhenintheschoolyeardifferentpartsoftheprocessoccur;ourchartsdonotcapturesuchdetailedinformation.Thus,twodistrictsthatappeartousesimilarcriteriamayinfacthavequitedistincttransferprocedures.Readersinterestedinmoredetailaboutcontractprovisionsshouldexaminethefullcollectivebargainingagreement.Tofacilitatethisprocess,wehaveincludedweblinkstoavailablecontractsinAppendixXI.

Appendix III. Analysis of Selected Contract Provisions

Appendix IV. Pay Incentives Described in Collective Bargaining Agreements

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Schoolwide PFP**

Number of Districts

Individual PFP**

Hard-to-Staff Schools

Shortage Subject Area

NBPTS Stipend

Specialized Roles*

*Theserolesincludedepartmentchairs,instructionalcoaches,mentors,andotherspecializedinstructionalroles.

**Pay-for-Performance.


Appendix V. Involuntary Transfer Procedures Described in Collective Bargaining Agreements (Criteria for Placement in New School)

0 5 10 15 20 25

Evaluations/Performance

Number of Districts

Demographic Balance

Qualifications

Seniority

Administrative Discretion Determining Factor/“Tie Breaker” Other Factor

Appendix VI. Voluntary Transfer Procedures Described in Collective Bargaining Agreements (Criteria for Placement in New School)

0 5 10 15 20 3025


Number of Districts

Demographic Balance

Qualifications

Seniority

Administrative Discretion Determining Factor/“Tie Breaker” Other Factor


Appendix VII. Layoff Procedures Described in Collective Bargaining Agreements (Criteria for Determining which Teachers to Lay Off)

0 5 10 15 20 3025


Number of Districts

Demographic Balance

Qualifications

Seniority

Administrative Discretion

Determining Factor/“Tie Breaker” Other Factor


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nty

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nie

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2825

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eP

resi

den

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ceG

eorg

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nty

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olK

ilby

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3535

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o

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ati

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lor

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Yes

2828

Bar

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ing

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Yes

2727

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EA

100%

Day

ton

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ieA

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rell,

Jr.

MA

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ice

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ent

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%

Geo

rget

own

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issa

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pp

erF

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o8

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ntH

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yS

usan

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oks

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3437

Grie

vanc

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hair

NE

A10

0%

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dat

aar

ese

lf-re

por

ted

by

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np

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den

ts.N

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eans

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rep

orte

d.

*W=

Whi

te;A

A=

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anic

† Not

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ome

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luni

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rto

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ldin

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ativ

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s“s

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enA

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ved

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mer

ged

uni

ons

are

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dfi

rst

by

affil

iate

tha

tfir

stw

onr

ight

to

rep

rese

nt.


Appe

ndix

IX. D

istr

ict C

hara

cter

istic

s

Dis

tric

tN

umb

er o

f S

cho

ols

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ber

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den

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nro

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end

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r)

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cent

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ori

ty

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den

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om

e S

tud

ents

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ure

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anic

ity

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anic

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Appe

ndix

X. S

umm

ary

of S

tate

Col

lect

ive

Barg

aini

ng S

tatu

tes

Bar

gai

ning

Sco

pe

Ag

ency

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asse

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olu

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erm

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dc

ond

ition

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em

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ymen

t.(“

Term

san

dc

ond

ition

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em

plo

ymen

t”is

defi

ned

by

law

to

incl

ude

asp

ecifi

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es).

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gain

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plo

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ayr

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cy

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ajor

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uest

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edia

tor

isu

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fect

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ent

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uest

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ct-fi

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g.F

inal

bin

din

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bitr

atio

nm

ay

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ten

into

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ent

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gree

d

upon

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the

par

ties.

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tute

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es

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cted

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ter

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ple

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es.

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lora

do

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stat

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and

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ight

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yees

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rds

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gain

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itht

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efine

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faith

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ryB

road

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ours

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ot

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term

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dc

ond

ition

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clud

ing

grie

vanc

ep

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dur

esa

rem

and

ator

ysu

bje

cts

ofb

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inin

g.T

heF

lorid

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ttor

ney

Gen

eral

has

rul

edt

hat

agre

emen

ts

may

be

“all

enco

mp

assi

nga

ndm

ay

infa

ctt

ouch

on

ever

yel

emen

tof

the

re

latio

nshi

p.”

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hib

ited

by

stat

ela

w.

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erp

arty

can

req

uest

med

iatio

nor

fa

ct-fi

ndin

ghe

arin

gst

hrou

gha

sp

ecia

lm

agis

trat

e.If

eith

erp

arty

rej

ects

the

m

agis

trat

e’s

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mm

end

atio

ns,t

he

scho

olb

oard

ser

ves

ast

hele

gisl

ativ

eb

ody

int

hed

isp

ute

by

hold

ing

pub

lic

hear

ings

inw

hich

bot

hsi

des

exp

lain

the

irp

ositi

ons.

The

sch

oolb

oard

res

olve

sth

ed

isp

ute

thro

ugh

wha

teve

rac

tion

itd

eem

sto

be

int

hep

ublic

’sb

est

inte

rest

.

Pro

hib

ited

.

Mas

sach

uset

ts

Dut

yto

bar

gain

in

good

faith

.B

road

.Wag

es,h

ours

,sta

ndar

ds

of

pro

duc

tivity

and

per

form

ance

,and

ot

her

term

sof

em

plo

ymen

tin

clud

ing

but

not

lim

ited

to

clas

ssi

ze,t

each

er

wor

kloa

ds

are

man

dat

ory

sub

ject

sof

b

arga

inin

g.

Bar

gain

able

.Ob

ject

ors

mus

tb

eal

low

edt

oob

tain

ar

ebat

efo

ran

yp

ortio

nus

edfo

rp

oliti

cal

pur

pos

eso

rth

ose

not

rela

ted

to

colle

ctiv

eb

arga

inin

g.

Eith

erp

arty

may

req

uest

med

iatio

n.If

im

pas

sec

ontin

ues,

eith

erm

ayr

eque

st

fact

-find

ing.

Par

ties

may

mut

ually

agr

ee

tow

aive

fact

-find

ing

and

mov

eto

ar

bitr

atio

n.A

rbitr

atio

nm

ayb

eb

ind

ing

ifag

reed

to

by

bot

hp

artie

s.

Pro

hib

ited

.


Appe

ndix

X. S

umm

ary

of S

tate

Col

lect

ive

Barg

aini

ng S

tatu

tes

(con

tinue

d)

Bar

gai

ning

Sco

pe

Ag

ency

Fee

Imp

asse

Res

olu

tio

nS

trik

e

Mar

ylan

d

Dut

yto

bar

gain

in

good

faith

.B

road

.Wag

es,h

ours

and

oth

er

wor

king

con

diti

ons

are

man

dat

ory

sub

ject

sof

bar

gain

ing.

The

cal

end

ar

and

cla

sss

ize

are

pro

hib

ited

su

bje

cts.

All

othe

rm

atte

rsu

nles

sp

rohi

bite

db

yla

wa

rep

erm

issi

ble

su

bje

cts

ofb

arga

inin

gup

onm

utua

lag

reem

ent

oft

hep

artie

s.

Sta

tele

gisl

atur

em

ust

app

rove

rig

htt

ob

arga

in

it.E

xist

sin

eig

ht

coun

ties.

Eith

erp

arty

or

the

stat

esu

per

inte

nden

tm

ayr

eque

stm

edia

tion,

but

“th

ep

ublic

sc

hool

em

plo

yer

shal

lmak

eth

efin

al

det

erm

inat

ion

ast

om

atte

rst

hat

have

b

een

the

sub

ject

ofn

egot

iatio

n.”

Pro

hib

ited

.

Ohi

o

Dut

yto

bar

gain

in

good

faith

.B

road

.Wag

es,h

ours

,ter

ms,

and

ot

her

cond

ition

sof

em

plo

ymen

tan

d

the

cont

inua

tion,

mod

ifica

tion

and

/or

del

etio

nof

an

exis

ting

agre

emen

tar

em

and

ator

ysu

bje

cts

ofc

olle

ctiv

eb

arga

inin

g.

Bar

gain

able

.A

nym

utua

llya

gree

du

pon

imp

asse

re

solu

tion

pro

cess

may

be

follo

wed

,ot

herw

ise

the

follo

win

gp

roce

dur

esa

pp

ly.

Ifno

agr

eem

ent

isr

each

ed4

5d

ays

bef

ore

the

cont

ract

exp

ires,

am

edia

tor

isa

pp

oint

ed.E

ither

par

tym

ayt

hen

req

uest

afa

ct-fi

ndin

gp

anel

.The

pan

el’s

re

com

men

dat

ions

are

bin

din

gun

less

a

sup

erm

ajor

ityr

ejec

tst

hem

.Ife

ither

par

ty

reje

cts

the

reco

mm

end

atio

nst

hey

are

mad

ep

ublic

.

Per

mitt

eda

fter

em

plo

yees

exh

aust

th

eim

pas

ser

esol

utio

np

roce

dur

es.

Sou

rce:

Nat

iona

lEd

ucat

ion

Ass

ocia

tion.

(Nov

emb

er2

002)

.Col

lect

ive

Bar

gain

ing

Law

s fo

r P

ublic

Sec

tor

Ed

ucat

ion

Em

plo

yees

.


Appendix XI. web links to Contracts

California

ChulaVista Notavailableonline

Grossmont http://www.ectu.org/gea/contract/contract.html

LosAngeles http://www.utla.net/contracts/PDFs/UTLA2004_2006Contract.pdf

Pomona Notavailableonline

Sweetwater http://www.seacta.org/contract_05_08/CONTRACT_05_08.html

Colorado

Boulder http://www.bouldervalleyea.org/

ColoradoSprings http://www.cseateacher.org/

Denver http://www.denverclassroom.org/

Greeley http://www.greeleyea.org/

Westminster http://www.weaonline.org/

Florida

BrowardCounty http://www.btuonline.com/index.asp

CollierCounty http://ccea.naples.net/

GladesCounty Notavailableonline

Miami-DadeCounty http://www.utd.org/

PalmBeachCounty http://www.palmbeachcta.org/

Maryland

BaltimoreCity http://md.aft.org/btu/

FrederickCounty http://www.myfcta.org/

HowardCounty Notavailableonline

MontgomeryCounty http://www.mcea.nea.org/

PrinceGeorge’sCounty http://www.pgcea.org/contracts2.cfm

Massachusetts

Amherst Notavailableonline

Boston http://www.btu.org/leftnavbar/contractdownload.html

Cambridge http://cambridge.massteacher.org/cta_members.html

Needham http://district.needham.k12.ma.us/hr_contracts.htm

Worcester Notavailableonline

Ohio

Cincinnati http://www.cft-aft.org/

Columbus http://www.ceaohio.org/

Dayton http://dea.ohea.org/constituttuion/contracttc.htm

Georgetown Notavailableonline

Mt.Healthy Notavailableonline


Endnotes

1 JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham,eds.,Collective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006).

2 Forcasestudiesexploringthetransitionfromtraditionaltoreformunionism,seeCharlesTaylorKerchnerandJuliaE.Koppich,A Union of Professionals: Labor Relations and Educational Reform(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1993).

3 Foradetailedhistoryoftheearlydaysofcollectivebargaining,seeRichardD.Kahlenberg,“TheHistoryofCollectiveBargainingamongTeachers,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools, eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham (Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.7–26.

4 TheattitudesofteacherswhobelongtoGenerationXareexploredinJulieBlair’sarticle,“Gen-XersApatheticAboutUnionLabel,”Ed Week,January31,2002.

5 Toreadaboutthedifferentexpectationsthatmanynewerteachersholdfortheircareerinteaching,seeH.G.Peske,E.Liu,S.M.Johnson,D.Kauffman,andS.Kardos,“TheNextGenerationofTeachers:ChangingConceptionsofaCareerinTeaching,”Phi Delta Kappan,83(4),304–311;SeePublicAgenda,Stand By Me: What Teachers Really Think About Unions, Merit Pay and Other Professional Matters(Washington,D.C.:PublicAgenda,2003).

6 Anagencyfeeisthechargethatnonmembersofaunionmustpaytotheunionbecause,bylaw,theyreceivethebenefitsofunionrepresentation.Oftenagencyfeesareveryclosetothecostofuniondues.Unionsinstateswhereagencyfeesareallowed,therefore,areguaranteedatleastsomefundingfromteacherswhodonotchoosetojoin.

7 Foradiscussionofthecostsofthisfixedsalaryscaleincollectivebargaining,seeMargueriteRoza,Frozen Assets: Rethinking Teacher Contracts Could Free Billions for School Reform(Washington,D.C.:EducationSector,2007).

8 Foraclearoverviewofthecurrentteachercompensationsystemsandopportunitiesforreform,seeAllanOddenandCarolynKelley,Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do: New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools, 2nd edition (ThousandOaks,CA:CorwinPress,2002).

9 Formoreinformationonschool-basedawards,seeHerbertG.HenemanIII,AnthonyMilanowski,andStevenKimball,Teacher Performance Pay: Synthesis of Plans, Research, and Guidelines for Practice,CPREPolicyBriefRB-46(Philadelphia:ConsortiumforPolicyResearchinEducation,2007).

10DanielMcCaffery,J.R.Lockwood,D.Koretz,andLauraHamilton,Evaluating Value-added Models for Teacher Accountability(SantaMonica,CA:RAND,2003).

11PaulT.Hill,“TheCostsofCollectiveBargainingAgreementsandRelatedDistrictPolicies,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools, eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.111–140.

12FrederickM.HessandAndrewP.Kelly,“Scapegoat,Albatross,orWhat?TheStatusQuoinTeacherCollectiveBargaining,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools, eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.53–87.SeealsoDaleBallou,Teachers Contracts in Massachusetts (Boston:PioneerInstitute,2000).

13JessicaLevinandMeredithQuinn,Missed Opportunities: How We Keep High Quality Teachers Out of Urban Classrooms(Washington,D.C.:NewTeacherProject,2003).

14JessicaLevin,J.Mulhern,andJ.Schunck.Unintended Consequences: The Case for Reforming the Staffing Rules in Urban Teachers Union Contracts(Washington,D.C.:NewTeacherProject,2005).Incontrast,Ballou’s2000analysisof40Massachusettsdistricts’collectivebargainingagreementssuggestedthatseniorityplayedarelativelyminorroleinteachertransferandhiring.

15CharlesTaylorKerchner,JuliaE.Koppich,andJosephT.Weeres,United Mind Workers: Unions and Teaching in the Knowledge Society (SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1997);SusanMooreJohnsonandSusanM.Kardos,“ReformBargainingandItsPromiseforSchoolImprovement,”inConflicting Missions? Teachers Unions and Educational Reform, ed.TomLoveless(Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2000),pp.7–46.

16FrederickM.HessandAndrewP.Kelly,“Scapegoat,AlbatrossorWhat?,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools, eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham (Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.53–87.

17RogerFisherandWilliamUry,Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1984).

18SeeSection50ofthe2004–06RochesterTeachersAssociation/RochesterPublicSchoolscontractat:http://www.rochesterteachers.com/contract/2004_2006RTAcontract.pdf#search=%22rochester%20teachers%20association%20living%20contract%22.

19See,forexample,RichardColvinandLizWillen,eds.,From Contracts to Classrooms: Covering Teachers Unions, (NewYork,NY:TheHechingerInstituteonEducationandtheMediaTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,2007).

20See,forexample,TerryM.Moe,“UnionPowerandtheEducationofChildren,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools,eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.229–255.

21See,forexample,LeoCasey,“TheEducationalValueofDemocraticVoice:ADefenseofCollectiveBargaininginAmericanEducation,”inCollective Bargaining in Education: Negotiating Change in Today’s Schools,eds.JaneHannawayandAndrewJ.Rotherham(Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPress,2006),pp.181–201.

22MatthewB.MilesandA.MichaelHuberman,Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook(2nded.)(ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1994).

23JosephA.Maxwell,Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach(ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,1996).

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