leadership theory 2

Leadership Theory 2: An introduction

BA Hons Business Level 6

Janette Bradnick

Contemporary leadership theory•Our focus now tends to be on:

▫What leaders do▫How they do it (styles)▫What sort of leaders (types) carry out these

activities and practice these styles and•And we look at any evidence of what

makes them effective leaders•Much recycles previous leadership

theories

What leaders do• Most convincing analysis: John Adair (1973),

Action Centred Leadership:• There are 3 essential roles of leaders:

▫Define the task▫Achieve the task▫Maintain effective relationships

• These translate into 3 areas of need, which areinterdependent

Action-centred leadership – Task functions

• Achieving the objectives of the work group

• Defining group tasks

• Planning the work

• Allocation of resources

• Organisation of duties and responsibilities.

Action-centred leadership – Team functions

• Maintaining morale and building team spirit

• The cohesiveness of the group as a working unit

• Setting standards and maintaining discipline

• Systems of communication within the group

• Training the group

• Appointment of sub-leaders.

Action-centred leadership –Individual functions

• Meeting the needs of the individual members of the group

• Attending to personal problems

• Giving praise and status

• Reconciling conflicts between group needs and needs of the individual

• Training individuals.

How they do it: Leadership styles• Leadership style = the approach leaders use when

relating to their followers (sometimes called management style)

• There is no one best style; the best approach is the one that fits the situation (aligns with situational and contingency theories) and will depend on:

• The type of organisation, the nature of the task, the characteristics of the followers and of the group as a whole, and the personality of the leader.

• Effective leaders can flex their style to meet the demands of the situation

Daniel Goleman’s Six Leadership Styles (2000)Style Characteristics Use when

Coercive Demands compliance

In a crisis or with problem people

Authoritative

Mobilises people When new vision/direction are needed

Affiliative Creates harmony To heal wounds and to motivate people under stress

Democratic Forges consensus To build agreement and get contributions

Pacesetting Sets high standards

To get fast results from a motivated team

Coaching Develops people To improve performance and develop strengths

DISCUSS:

Research suggests that four of Goleman’s leadership styles have a positive impact on organisational climate and performance.

But what factors in an organisational context would make the other 2 styles more effective?

(Break into groups of 3-5 and discuss and share your ideas and then will present your thoughts to the class – 10 minutes group discussion + 10 minutes presentations – each group 2- 3 min)

Leadership styles• Tannenbaum and Schmidt identified a continuum

of leadership styles based upon:▫The degree of authority used by the manager▫The area of freedom available to the manager

The four main styles:• Tells• Sells• Consults• Joins

Activity: Discover your own style• Which style do you think you tend to adopt?

• Now complete the questionnaire, score it and read about your style (your leadership style questionnaire)..\Your leadership style Questionaire.docx

• Is this what you predicted? Why do you think it is the same or different from your prediction?

• What will be the impact of your result?

Leadership style decisions•The choice of style is influenced by 3 main

forces:Forces in the

manager: incl. personality, background, experience

Forces in the subordinate: incl.

personality, expectations

Forces in the situation: incl. the specific situation

and pressures

Team Leadership - Historical Perspective of– 1920s-1980s

20-30s 40s 50s 60-70s 80s

• Human Relations movement

• Collaborative efforts at work

• Group dynamics

• Social science theory

• T group

• Leader’s role in T group

• Organizational development

• Team leader effectiveness

• Quality teams

• Benchmarking

• Continuous improvement

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Practice, Sixth Edition ©

2012 SPublications,

Inc.

Historical Perspective of Team Leadership – 1990s

90s

• Group dynamics

• Social science theory

• Team-based, technology enabled

• Global perspective

• Flatter organizational

structure

• Strategies for competitiveadvantage

Parker 1990

Effectiveness research The use of teams has led to:Greater productivity, more effective use of resources, better decisions & problem solving, better-quality products & services, increased innovation & creativity

BUT organizational culture needs to support employee involvement

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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth

Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.Hill’s

Model for Team Leadership

Team Leadership Model

•Model provides leader or designated team member with a mental road map to help ▫Diagnose team problems, and▫Take appropriate action to correct team problems

•Effective team performance begins with leader’s mental model of the situation

•Mental model reflects▫Components of the problem▫Environmental & organizational contingencies

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Leadership Decision 1 Should I Monitor the Team or Take Action?

• Leaders can:▫Diagnose, analyze, or forecast problems (monitoring) or take

immediate action to solve a problem▫Focus on problems within the group (internal) or which

problems need intervention▫Make choices about which solutions are the most appropriate

• Effective leaders have the ability to determine what interventions are needed, if any, to solve team problems

• All members of the team can engage in monitoring

• Leaders differ in timing of taking action

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Leadership Decision 121

Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Leadership Decision 2 Should I Intervene to Meet Task or Relational Needs?

Task Getting job

done Making

decisions Solving

problems Adapting to

change Making plans Achieving goals

Even more challenging in virtual teams

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Maintenance Functions Developing positive climate Solving interpersonal

problems Satisfying members’ needs Developing cohesion

Leadership Decision 3 Should I Intervene Internally or Externally?

•Leader must:▫Determine what level of team process needs leadership

attention:▫Internal task or relational team dynamics, if:

Conflict between group members Team goals unclear

▫ External environmental dynamics, if: Organization not providing proper support to

team

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Leadership Actions• Leadership Functions – performed internally

or externally

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Task•Goal focusing•Structuring for

results• Facilitating

decision making•Training•Maintaining

standards

Relational•Coaching•Collaborating•Managing conflict•Building commitment•Satisfying needs•Modeling principles

Environmental•Networking•Advocating•Negotiating support•Buffering•Assessing•Sharing information

Internal Leadership Actions External Leadership Actions

Internal Task Leadership Actions

• Set of skills or actions leader might perform to improve task performance:▫Goal focusing (clarifying, gaining agreement)▫Structuring for results (planning, visioning, organizing,

clarifying roles, delegating)▫Facilitating decision making (informing, controlling,

coordinating, mediating, synthesizing, issue focusing)▫Training team members in task skills (educating,

developing)▫Maintaining standards of excellence (assessing team and

individual performance, confronting inadequate performance)

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Internal Relational Leadership Actions

•Set of actions leader needs to implement to improve team relationships:▫Coaching team members in interpersonal skills▫Collaborating (including, involving)▫Managing conflict and power issues (avoiding

confrontation, questioning ideas)▫Building commitment and esprit de corps (being

optimistic, innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing)

▫Satisfying individual member needs (trusting, supporting, advocating)

▫Modeling ethical and principled practices (fair, consistent, normative)

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External Environmental Leadership Actions

• Set of skills or behaviors leader needs to implement to improve environmental interface with team:▫Networking and forming alliances in environment

(gather information, increase influence)▫Advocating and representing team to environment▫Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources,

support, and recognition for team▫Buffering team members from environmental

distractions▫Assessing environmental indicators of team’s

effectiveness (surveys, evaluations, performance indicators)

▫Sharing relevant environmental information with team

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Strengths

•Provides answers to what constitutes excellent teams

•Provides a cognitive guide that assists leaders in designing and maintaining effective teams

•Recognizes the changing role of leaders and followers in organizations

•Can be used as a tool in group leader selection

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Criticisms•Model is incomplete. Additional skills

might be needed •May not be practical as the model is

complex and doesn’t provide easy answers for difficult leader decisions

•Fails to consider teams that have distributed leadership, where team members have a range of skills, and where roles may change

•More focus required on how to teach and provide skill development in areas of diagnosis and action taking

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Application

• Useful in leader decision making

• Can be used as a team diagnostic tool

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Team Effectiveness31



Types of leaders1. Charismatic leaders2. Inspirational leaders3. Visionary leaders4. Transformational leaders5. Transactional leaders6. Authentic leaders7. Laissez-faire 8. Superleaders

1. Charismatic leaders

• Re-emergence of trait theory.• Rely on their personality to get people to follow them• Burns (1978) coined the term: suggested that charismatic

leaders were treated as being endowed with exceptional powers or qualities which inspire followers

• A process of formulating an inspiring vision of the future and then demonstrating the importance of that vision. Conger & Kanungo, (1998)

• Charismatic leaders operate as visionary and transformational leaders and may ▫ use unconventional behaviour▫ take risks▫ motivate by personal example

• But: charisma can be used to abuse trust for the self-interest of the leader and “the ability to inspire trust, not charisma, is what enables leaders to recruit others to a cause” Bennis (2010, p.4)

2. Inspirational leaders• Understands the spirit within.

• Connects with the led, appreciates the capabilities of others, and through trust unlocks the powers in others.

• Recognises and seizes the brief window of opportunity that acts as a powerful catalyst, inspiring the leader and the led.

Adair

A truly inspirational leader:

3. Visionary leaders•Inspired by a clear vision of an exciting

future and inspire their followers by successfully conveying that message to them

4. Transformational leaders• effective leaders raise people’s motivation and

sense of higher purpose• Are able by their force of personality to make

significant changes in the behaviour of their followers in order to achieve the leaders vision or goals

• involves motivating people to strive for higher goals (Burns, 1978)

• Emphasis is on generating a vision for the organisation, the leader’s ability to appeal to higher ideals and values of followers, and creating a feeling of justice, loyalty and trust

• Is about transforming the performance or fortunes of a business.

4.1 Transformational leaders•Yukl (1999) advised transformational

leaders to:▫Develop a challenging and attractive vision

together with employees▫Tie the vision to a strategy for its

achievement▫Develop the vision, specify and translate it

into actions▫Express confidence, decisiveness and

optimism about the vision and its implementation

4.2 Transformational Leadership: The Four ‘I’s

•Individualized consideration•Intellectual stimulation•Inspirational motivation•Idealized influence

Bernard M. Bass (1985)

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4.3 Individualized Consideration

• Showing concern for the individual• Identifying individuals’ abilities and

needs• Providing matching challenges• Providing opportunities to learn• Delegating, coaching and giving

developmental feedback…leads to a desire to improve and learn

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4.4 Intellectual Stimulation•Stimulating people’s intellect and

imagination•Questioning the status quo•Encouraging imagination and

creativity•Using and encouraging intuition

as well as logic…leads to a willingness to think

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4.5 Inspirational Motivation

• Inspiring people by articulating exciting possibilities

• Communicating a clear vision• Aligning organizational goals with

individual goals• Treating threats, problems and mistakes

as opportunities• Using appealing words and symbols

…leads to a willingness to exert extra effort

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4.6 Idealized Influence• Displaying charisma• Expressing confidence in the vision• Personally taking full responsibility• Displaying a sense of purpose, persistence

and trust• Emphasizing accomplishments• Gaining respect, trust and confidence by

personally demonstrating out-of-the-ordinary ability

…leads to trust, identification with the leader, and a desire to achieve to show

support

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•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TrZHqZwXr-U

•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60O2OH7mHys

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TrZHqZwXr-U



https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60O2OH7mHys



Stop and Think - Exercise- Considering senior business and political

leaders with whom you are familiar, either directly or through the media, which comes closest to the definition of transformational leader?

- Do you think that new, super, transformational leader looks like a ‘one best approach’?

5. Transactional leaders• A leader who treats relationships with followers in

terms of an exchange, giving followers what they want in return for what the leader desires, following prescribed tasks to pursue established goals

• Conforms to the stereotype of the manager not the leader

• Leaders can display both transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985) and transactional leadership behaviour is used to some degree by most leaders (Tavanti, 2008)

• http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/the-transactional-leader.html#lesson

http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/the-transactional-leader.html#lesson



5.1 Problems with Transactional Leadership

•Motivating and rewarding people with ‘carrots’ and punishing them with ‘sticks’ makes them feel like donkeys

•Lack of consideration for people’s ideas, needs and feelings

•Focuses only on planning, organizing, directing and controlling - and manipulation by reward

•Does not develop people to their fullest potential and contribution

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6. Authentic Leaders• Originally defined by George (2003, p12):

“Authentic leaders genuinely desire to serve others through their leadership. They are more interested in empowering the people they lead to make a difference than they are in power, money or prestige for themselves, They lead with purpose, meaning and values. They build enduring relationships with them. Others follow them because they know where they stand. They are consistent and self-disciplined”

• It’s about owning one’s personal experiences (thoughts, emotions, needs, preferences, beliefs) and behaving in accordance with one’s true self

• Based on positive moral and high ethical standards• They act in accordance with deep personal values and

convictions to build credibility and win the respect and trust of followers

7. Laissez-faire Leadership•Avoiding taking a stand•Ignoring problems•Not following up•Refraining from intervening

…leads to conflict and lack of achievement

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7.1 Research Findings• Transformational leaders achieve better

relationships, greater effort, more persistence, greater risk taking, more creativity and greater overall achievement among followers or subordinates

• Transactional leaders may achieve expected results but achieve less innovation

• Laissez-faire leaders are least effective• Transformational leadership can be developed

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7.2 Leadership Styles of Laissez-faire, Transactional and Transformational Leaders

•Effective leaders use different leadership styles in different situations

•Leaders may have one or more ‘natural’ or predominant styles

•Leaders perhaps rise and fall for this reason

•What styles are associated with laissez-faire, transactional and transformational leadership?

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7.3 Leadership Styles of Laissez-faire, Transactional and Transformational Leaders: Self-assessments

• Laissez-faire leaders use no particular style much• Transactional leaders use only the directive style

significantly, and do so strongly• The more transactional leaders use management

by exception, the less participative they tend to be• Transformational leaders actively use all four

leadership styles - directive, consultative, participative and delegative

Roger Gill (1999)

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8. The Superleader• A leader who is able to develop leadership capacity

in others, empowering them, reducing their dependence on formal leaders, stimulating their motivation, commitment and creativity. (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010, p.618)

• The superleader idea uses past theories:The theory The new transformational

superleaderTrait-spotting Must have the right personality,

appearance, attributes, voiceStyle-counselling Must be caring, inspirational and

visionary, ethical, risk-takerContext-fitting/contingency

Style is consistent with rapidly changing environment, with the need to develop flexible organisational forms, motivate knowledge workers and develop a learning organisation

Commonalities and Differences in Transformational and Transactional Leadership across Hierarchies• Transformational leadership is displayed more at

higher levels than at lower levels• The effectiveness of transformational leadership

is the same at all levels• The use of both transactional leadership and

laissez-faire leadership is the same across the hierarchy

• The effectiveness of transactional leadership decreases above middle-management level

Gareth Edwards and Roger Gill (2003, 2005, 2009)

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Engaging Leadership

• UK model that focuses on ‘nearby’ leadership rather than ‘distant’ leadership in achieving employee engagement

• Engagement is the extent to which employees put discretionary effort into their work

• Entails aligning organizational and individual aspirations

• Measured by the Engaging Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (E-TLQ)

• High levels of reliability and validity reported

Beverly Alimo-Metcalfe and John Alban-Metcalfe (2001, 2005, 2007)

The Engaging Transformational Leadership Model (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe)

ENGAGING INDIVIDUAL

S

PERSONAL QUALITIES & CORE VALUES

Being Honest & ConsistentActing with

Integrity

Showing Genuine Concern

Being AccessibleEnabling

Encouraging Questioning

ENGAGING THE

ORGANISATIONSupporting a

Developmental CultureInspiring Others

Focusing Team EffortBeing Decisive

MOVING FORWARD TOGETHERBuilding Shared Vision

NetworkingResolving Complex

ProblemsFacilitating Change

Sensitively

Homework

For next week – watch the movie the Devil Wears Prada and answer the questions in the hand-out. We will discuss

the movie next week.

Review & Recap

Leadership in films: The Devil Wears Prada ( 2006)

1. Watch this movie2. Answer the questions3. Watch the whole film outside of class

and enhance your answers for next week

Recap from last class1. How many types of Leader’s were

discussed in class last week? Name them…

2. Contemporary Leadership theory focusses on?

Leadership in films: The Devil Wears Prada ( 2006)

1. Watch this movie2. Answer the questions3. Watch the whole film outside of class

and enhance your answers for next week,

4. Break in small groups of 3-5 and discuss the questions for the movie and prepare to present you ideas and thoughts to the class – 15 minutes + 20 minutes presentations

Other Contemporary Leadership Models

1. Visionary Leadership2. Charismatic Leadership3. Organic Leadership4. Centered Leadership5. Pragmatic Leadership6. Warrior Leadership7. Strategic Leadership8. Evolutionary Leadership Theory

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Problems with Transformational Leadership Theories

Useful contributions to leadership thinking, but…• Still incomplete explanations of leadership – each

one a single, different piece in the jigsaw puzzle• Methodological criticisms• Dubious construct validity• Ignore the situation or context of leadership• Fail to explain dysfunctional charisma• Fail to address or sufficiently explain vision,

sense of mission or purpose, values and ethics, and strategy

• A fragmented, confusing picture of disparate theories needs to be replaced by a more integrated paradigm

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Imas 2005-06

GENDERnone of the theories consider the role of women leaders

CROSS-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS culture has been neglected as the emphasis has been put on methods, structure and technology in organisation

NEGLECTED APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.katmedia.ch/mutter-teresa-2003/images/mother%20teresa%20rome%201985-web.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.katmedia.ch/photogallery/&h=2887&w=1906&sz=111&tbnid=bINWLExWbkEJ:&tbnh=149&tbnw=99&start=1&prev=/images?q=mother+teresa&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8

http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.evgschool.org/indira%20ghandi_small.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.evgschool.org/Women&h=200&w=164&sz=38&tbnid=hWjgDq7AAloJ:&tbnh=98&tbnw=81&start=2&prev=/images?q=indira+ghandi&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8

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A ‘Meta-Model’ of Leadership:Six Core Themes and Practices

Based on a wide-ranging review of the academic and practitioner leadership

literature•Vision•Purpose or Mission•Values•Strategy•Empowerment•Engagement

Roger Gill (2012)

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A Model of Six Core Themes and Practices of Leadership (Gill, 2012)

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Shared Values

Identify, display and promote shared values that support the vision, purpose and strategies

Leadership

Vision

Engagement

Empowerment

Strategy

Define and communicate a valid and appealing

vision of the future

Influence, motivate and inspire people to want to do what

needs to be done

Develop, communicate and implement rational strategies that are

informed by shared values

Empower people to be able to do what needs to be done

Define and communicate avalid and appealing mission or purpose

Purpose

The reality of Leadership•Many first line managers will have no

appreciation of the leadership skills they will need.

•They will often see their role as being able to tell people what to do and then making sure that they do it, adopting a more transactional approach, focusing on getting the job done.

•=> leaders need to be developed… (how?)

Distributed Leadership- Leadership occurs at all levels of an organisation; it is a

widely distributed phenomenon- Leadership functions are best carried out by those who

have the interest, knowledge, skills and motivation to perform them effectively & much change occurs this way

- Self-managing teams with no formal leaders- Encouraged by flatter organisational structures,

teamwork, knowledge work, network organisation forms and the trend for employee empowerment and engagement.

- But formal, senior figures still continue to exercise leadership alongside distributed leadership.

Effective leaders• Work Foundation (Tamkin et al., 2010) research,

involving 260 interviews with 77 business leaders found that outstanding leaders:▫ View things as a whole rather than compartmentalising

them▫ Connect the parts through a guiding sense of purpose▫ Are highly motivated to achieve excellence and are

focused on organisational outcomes, vision and purpose▫ Understand they cannot create performance themselves

but are conduits for performance through their influence on others

▫ Watch themselves carefully and act consistently to achieve excellence through their interactions and their embodiment of the leadership role.

Leadership development• Are leaders born or made?• Yukl (2006) proposed that development programmes

must have the following if they are to be successful:▫ Clear learning objectives▫ Clear, meaningful content▫ Appropriate sequencing of content▫ Appropriate mix of training methods▫ Opportunity for active practice▫ High trainee confidence▫ Appropriate follow-up activities

• But the organisation must also provide the support and working conditions they need to carry out their role properly

Do we need leaders?•New leaders typically take up a new post

intoxicated with the prospect of transformation and radical revision

•This triggers an avalanche of transformation and hectic activity

•Repeated reorganisation leaves managers/ employees exhausted

•Blame for resulting chaos is sought but leader has already left to start the same elsewhere

•Really useless leaders kill enthusiasm, emotion, engagement trust

Breeds of leaders (adapted fr.Oxman et al. 2005)

BreedThe most common type of leader; self-focused, with a need to piss all over everything to mark territory

Well-meaning, but incompetent, and dangerous when aroused

Bureaucratic, commonly suffer from anal retentiveness, which makes them irritable

Ideological, focused on a specific peculiar aim derived from a specific peculiar way of looking at the world, to the exclusion of empirical evidence and common sense

Leaderless•Much debate•Little practice•A utopian desire?•Or simply informal/distributed

leadership?

In-class discussionIn groups of 3, think about a person that you consider a leader and list aspects of leadership qualities that you identify in this person. (10 minutes)

Present you ideas to the rest of the class.(20 minutes)

References• Buchanan, D.A. & Huczynski, A.A. (2010), Organisational

Behaviour, Prentice Hall

• Oxman, A.D. Sackett, D.L. Chalmers, I. and Prescott, T.E. (2005) A surrealistic mega-analysis of redisorganisation theories, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 98 (12): 563-68

leadership theory 2

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