leadership styles of school principals in three selected ...to ndavhe ramakuela and joyce rakgoale...
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LEADERSHIP STYLES OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IN THREE SELECTED
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCE
BY
SOLOMON NGWAKO MODIBA
A MINI - DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
MAGISTER EDUCATION IS
IN
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
IN THE
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
AT THE
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROF. K.P. DZVIMBO
JOHANNESBURG NOVEMBER 1997
(i )
DEDICATION
I dedicate this piece of work to the following people:
My late uncle, Peter Maimela Modiba,
My late aunt, Getrude Mamoletsi Modiba,
My grandmother, Magdeline Mokgadi Modiba
My mother, Lina Molatelo Modiba
My two elder brothers, Charles Mothopi Modiba and Andries Ramagia Modiba
Our younger brother, James Phatudi. Modiba,
My uncle, Johannes Makolobe Modiba,
To all my cousins, and lastly
To my Fiancee, Maria Makoma Makola and our son Jerry.
..k4,1tg;rt;Taift -,,rap_O-stace ga:
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is an exceptional honour to me to express a word of gratitude and appreciation to the following
people for having stood by me and demonstrated unequalled interest throughout this study. They
have for one way or the other made the total completion of this research study less burdensome
to me.
t
To my supervisor Professor K.P Dzivimbo, for his patience, compassion, scholarliness,
insight, ever positive comments, 24 hour accessibility, and above all, for his incredible
matchless commitment to scholarly works.
To all the Modiba family, for the wonderful and indefatigable support and assistance,
To the school principals, HODS, and teachers from the three selected secondary schools
for their honesty and time in responding to the questionnaire items .
To the Rand Afrikaans University for having awarded me a merit bursary to enable me to
carry out this research study .
To Dan Nkosi, Morgan, Tumi, and Bra Mash, for indefatigably organising the
acccomodation for me in. Johannesburg: --- --
To Ndavhe Ramakuela and Joyce Rakgoale for jointly, diligently, expertly, neatly, ably
and co-operatively typing this piece of work for me .
To Jerry Khozi for idefatigably photocopying sources for me .
But most of all, to the Almighty, for good health, for mercy, for having spared me and my
family, and for having made me who I am .
(III)
SINOPSIS
Een van die grootste en van die mees beduidende opvoedkundige probleme waarmee sowel
skoolhoofde, opvoeders, ouers, leerders, en die bree belangegeroepe konfronteer word, is hoe
ons skole in die moderne tyd bestuur word. Daar is toenemende konsensus tussen al die
belangegroepe dat herevaluering van hoe ons openbare sekondere skole bestuur word, baie kan
help om sommige van die probleme wat tot die onderprestering lei, aan te spreek.
Die doel van hierdie navorsingstudie was om die leierskapstyle wat deur die skoolhoofde
aangewned word, kritties te ondersoek. Aandag is geskenk aan die kollegiale, deelnemende,
permissiewe en outokratiese leierskapstyle. Daar is geen twyfel dat binne die konteks van die
politiese, sosisale, ekonomiese, en tegnologiese veranderings waarbinne die skole funksioneer,
dit noodwendige is vir die skole om hulle eie identiteit en staanplek te kry. Hierdeur sal die skole
in staatgestel word in die kompeterende opvoedingsmilieu te oorlef.
Hierdie navorsingswerk het aangedui dat die leierskaptsyl in 'n skool bestuursaspekte soos die
organiesasie se strukture, bestuurprosesse, bestuurstrategie, innoverende denke, waardes,
ensovoorrts sal beinvloed. Daar is ook onteenseglik bevind dat die ontwikkeling van 'n
kollektiewe visie, kollektiewe waardes, kollektiewe besluitneming asook die gees van
samewerking die sukses van die leierskapstyle in terme van die onderwyskwaliteit en
leergierigheid bepaal. Beide die vraelyste en die literatuuroorsig het bevestig dat met die
inagneming van die sosiale; die ekonomiese, en die politieke veranderinge in die land, daar twee
geskikte leierskapstyle is, naamlik die deelnemende en die kollgiale leierskapstyl. Alhoewel die
ondersoek van die leierskapstyle wat in die geselekteerde sekondere skole aangewend is, gewys
het dat die permissiewe en die outokratiese bestuurstyl die mees algemene was, is die toekoms
van hierdie twee leierskapstyle maar somber. Soos reeds gemeld, word die deelnemende en die
kollegiale bestuurstyle as die leierskapstyle vir die toekoms beskou as sou dit in staat wees om
onderwys in die algemeen, asook die gees van leergierigheid by die skool te bevorder.
Die hoofbevindinge van hierdie navorsingswerk is dat vir die leerders om leergierig te bly, en die
opvoeders om entoesiasties op te voed, dit belangrik is dat algemeen aanvaarbare leierskapstyle
(IV)
geimplementeer behoort te word. Hierdie soort van leierskapstyl moet die onderwyser en die
leerling as die belangrikste deel van die skool beskou en aanvaar. Waar die leerder en die
opvoeder voel dat hulle in die skool onvoorwaardelik aanvaar word, is dit maklik vir hulle om
te leer en op te voed tot die beste van hulle vermoe. Soos blyk uit die literatuuroorsig, is dit die
deelnemende en die kollegiale leierskapstyle wat 'n goeie opvoedkundige atmosfeer by die skool
kan help skep.
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
CHAPTER 1: DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 2
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM 3
1.4 AIMS OF THE STUDY 5
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS GUIDING
THE STUDY 6
1.6 METHODOLOGY 7
1.6.1 Population Sampling 7
1.6.2 Sampling Procedures 8
1.6.3 Research Instruments 8
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 9
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS 9
1.9 CONCLUSION 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEORY IN LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW 14
2.4 LEADERSHIP THEORIES 14
2.4.1 Great Man Theory 14
2.4.2 Trait Theory 15
2.4.2.1 Physical Traits 15
2.4.2.2 Personality Traits 16
2.4.3 Situation Approach Theory 16
2.5 TYPES OF LEADERSHIP STYLES 17
2.5.1 Collegial Leadership Style 18
2.5.2 Participative Leadership Style 20
2.5.3 The Directive Leadership Style 21
2.5.4 The Permissive Leadership Style 23
2.6 OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES CATEGORIZATION 25
2.6.1 The Charismatic Leadership Style 25
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2.6.2 The Transformational Leadership Style 26
2.7 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 27
2.8 CONCLUSION 31
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS
3.1 INTRODUCTION 32
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM 32
3.3 JUSTIFYING THE RESEARCH PARADIGM 35
3.4 POPULATION SAMPLING 36
3.4.1 Sampling Procedures 36
3.5 RESEARCHER'S ROLE 37
3.6 COLLECTION OF DATA 39
3.6.1 Sources of Data 39
3.6.2 Research Instruments 40
3.6.2.1 Pilot Study 41
3.6.2.2 Focus Group Interview 41
3.7 DATA RECORDING PROCEDURES 42
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 43
3.9 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TOOLS 44
3.9.1 Validity 44
3.9.2 Reliability 45
3.10 VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN 45
3.11 CONCLUSION 45
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 INTRODUCTION 47
4.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE 47
4.3 DATA COLLECTED THROUGH TEACHER'S
QUESTIONNAIRES 48
4.3.1 The directive leadership style dehumanizes 48
4.3.2 School contestations and management style 49
4.3.3 The participative leadership style boosts morale 50
4.3.4 The leadership style and its effects 50
4.3.5 Collegiality eases tension and ecourages flexibility 51
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4.3.6 Collegiality fosters a sense of ownership for the school 51
4.3.7 Merging the participative leadership style and collegiality 52
4.3.8 Managing change in an inclusive manner 52
4.4 DATA COLLECTED THROUGH HOD'S
QUESTIONNAIRES 53
4.4.1 Rejecting the practised leadeship style 53
4.4.2 Tight supervision of nonmanagers 54
4.4.3 A humane atmosphere enhances performance 54
4.4.4 Articulating as against implementation 54
4.4.5 Clamouring for democracy but abdicating responsibility 55
4.4.6 How one manages the school matters less 56
4.4.7 Collegiality stresses a sense of belonging 56
4.5 DATA COLLECTED THROUGH HEADTEACHER'S
QUESTIONNAIRES 58
4.5.1 Identification with the directive leadership style 59
4.5.2 The directive leadership style promotes docility 59
4.5.3 Democracy belongs to politics and not to education 60
4.5.4 Resorting to the nonchalant attitude 61
4.5.5 Situational factors and the practised leadership style 61
4.5.6 Collegiality demands commitment 62
4.5.7 Mandating the management of change 62
4.6 RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONAL PROTOCOL OF ONE
OF THE THREE SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS 64
4.7 CONLUSION 70
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION 71
5.2 SUMMARY 71
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 73
5.3.1 Behaviours believed to be part of effective leadership style 73
5.3.2 Awareness about other styles of leadership 74
5.3.3 The prominence of leadership style 74
5.3.4 The power of a visionary and open-minded leadership style 75
5.3.5 The leadership style and situational factors 75
5.3.6 Devising a management strategy for school principals 76
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5.3.7 Examining the leadership styles commonly practised 77
5.3.8 Facilitating the occurrence of quality teaching and learning 77
5.3.9 Difficulty in choosing a leadership style 78
5.3.10 The style of leadership and feelings of teachers and learners 78
5.3.11 Dissatisfaction regarding the practised leadership styles 79
5.3.12 A level of attendance by learners 79
5.3.13 A level of commitment by teachers 80
5.3.14 Images of the schools 80
5.4 CONCLUSION 80
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APPENDICES 82 6.1 APPENDIX I - QUESTIONNAIRES FOR TEACHERS 86 6.2 APPENDIX II - QUESTIONNAIRES FOR HODs 89 6.3 APPENDIX III - QUESTIONNAIRES FOR HEADTEACHERS 93
LIST OF TABLES 53 7.1 TABLE I - TEACHERS' RESPONSE 53 7.2 TABLE II - HODs' RESPONSES 59 7.3 TABLE III - HEADTEACHERS' RESPONSES 65
CHAPTER 1: DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM
1.1 Introduction
Many of the public secondary schools in the Northern Province are not functioning properly. This has been confirmed by the fact that for the past two years, the province obtained the last position in terms of matric results of all the nine provinces (Annon, 1997: 11). Ironically, the province was known to be the mecca of education in the 1960s and part of 1970s (Anon, 1997: 2). At this point in time the bulk of the public secondary schools are not functioning properly. Anon (1996: 3) states that "there is no wonder that the deputy president, Mr Thabo Mbeki declared the province a disaster province in the area of education in 1996."
In this study, attention is going to be focused on the leadership styles practised by school principals in managing their schools. The investigator is going to concentrate on the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles. The mentioned leadership styles are going to be critically examined. The research problem is: to what extent is satisfactory performance in public secondary schools attributable to the leadership styles practised? As stated not long ago, the bulk of the secondary schools in the N.Province have grounded. This is a problem because some of those schools were known to be performing satisfactorily and now they are struggling in terms of results. In practice this problem is evidenced when parents stop persuading their children from attending in the schools which are not functioning properly. Instead, parents are seen to be taking their children to private schools where performance is still satisfactory. This problem of underperformance by some public secondary schools contains undesirable consequences. If the problem remains unresolved the bulk of the resources in some of the public secondary school are going to be underutilised.
It is in the light of the above exposition that the investigator intends examining the leadership styles used in secondary schools with a view of unravelling the above explicated research problem. As evidenced by the literature surveyed, the type of leadership styles used in some secondary schools in the province are debatable. The reasons for that are many and varied. Suffice to articulate that the collegial and the participative leadership styles were found to be scarcely utilised in the three selected secondary schools. There is a clear evidence confirming the point that the bulk of the
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secondary schools are still managed along the permissive and the directive styles of management. Arguably, these are the leadership styles not relevant and germane to our modern day times, notwithstanding individual conditions in distinct schools.
The significance of undertaking a study of this nature rests on the fact that some secondary schools in the N.Province perform consistently good while others are struggling. Indeed investigations are necessary to explain why there is such a state of affairs. This is the problem that needs to be critically examined and then resolved. One of the first steps towards resolving this problem is to acknowledge the fact that our present day school can never be successfully managed along some old leadership styles. The leadership styles that are part of the researchers investigatory problem are the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive.
1.2 Problem Statement
There is a distinction between the research topic and the research problem. Booth, Comb and Williams (1995: 51) maintain that the researcher risks wasting the reader's time if he or she cannot distinguish between a topic to read about and a research problem to solve. The above explication suggests that with a research topic the investigator gathers data about it while with the research problem the investigator strives to have it solved. The pre-requisite of the investigator solving the research problem is to understand it better. Booth et al (1995: 63) contends that no skill is more useful than the ability to recognize and articulate a problem clearly and concisely. This is said to be an ability in some ways even more important than solving the problem. If the research problem is vaguely articulated it can be difficult to solve it.
Booth et al (1995: 54) continues to argue that the investigator has no research problem until he or she knows the cost of his or her incomplete knowledge or flawed understanding. This is a cost that one can define in terms of a yet greater ignorance or misunderstanding. The expressed statement means that research problems involve only what the researcher and the reader do not know or what they do not fully comprehend. From the above argument it is vivid that every researcher needs a good research problem to work on.
In this study on leadership styles used by school principals on managing their schools,
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the research problem is: to what extent is satisfactory performance in secondary schools attributable to the management styles practised? This is a problem because some schools which were known to be performing satisfactorily have now grounded in terms of performance. This is to say such schools are struggling. In practice this problem is evidenced when many parents stop persuading their children from attending in those schools. Instead, parents take their children to the private schools where performance is still satisfactory. This problem of underperformance by some public secondary schools contains undesirable consequences. If the problem remains unresolved the bulk of the resources in some public secondary schools are going to be underutilised.
In view of what has been discussed about the research problem, the dilemma of this research project can be condensed by means of the following questions:
what is a leadership style and how is it construed? how do we draw a line of distinction between a leadership style and a mere leadership strategy based on the manager's beliefs and values? what leadership styles are commonly practised in public secondary schools; and why? how can the headteachers select the appropriate and relevant leadership styles so that effective teaching and learning occur?
The significance of undertaking a study of this nature rests on the fact that some secondary schools in the N.Province perform consistently good while others are struggling. Examining leadership styles as an aspect of management could assist in illuminating these experienced inconsistencies and contradictions by the N.Province's certain public secondary schools.
1.3 Significance of the Problem
To know the research problem and to articulate its significance are two distinct exercises. This statement signifies that it is not as easy as it appears to express the importance of the research problem. Booth et al (1995: 22) buttresses the expressed point by confirming that even the experienced researchers often cannot answer the questions about the significance of their research right from the start. Booth et al (1995: 22) continues to remark that although the above statement sounds paradoxical, it remains a fact that most researchers can only articulate the significance
3
of their research when they have finished a first draft of their report. Until the first
draft is consummated many investigators will not fully comprehend the significance
their findings should have for others.
In the world of scholarly research, the significance of academic research hinges on
how much it changes and rearranges beliefs regardless of whether those new beliefs
lead to action (Booth et al, 1995: 22). The expressed point links up quite well with
the view that in much academic writing, the researcher does not attempt to explain
the cost of the reader's ignorance by showing how his or her research will improve the
world. Rather, the investigator shows how by not knowing or understanding one
thing, both researchers and readers cannot understand some larger and more
important matter both the investigator and the reader have an interest in
understanding better (Booth et al, 1995: 55).
No doubt, the researcher has to understand a study whose research problem will be
beneficial to the readers upon resolving it. Booth et al (1995: 49) buttresses this fact
when stating that what sets one apart as a researcher of the highest order is the ability
to develop a question into a problem whose solution is significant to one's research
community.
Bearing the preceding explication in mind, the significance of this research problem
is as follows:
to make a significant contribution towards illuminating the complexities of
leadership styles in relation to the satisfactory performance in schools;
to provide headteachers with some management tools which can assist them
in coping with leadership challenges in schools;
to assist in recommending the leadership styles which can be used by
struggling secondary schools to yield satisfactory performance;
to assist school managers in analyzing and reviewing their own leadership
styles in order to enhance those styles of leadership in terms of the needs of
their institutions;
to attempt to bring to light that which block superior performance in many
public secondary schools in the N.Province and beyond;
to be of relevance to education and policy issues at the provincial and national
levels throughout the country;
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to accentuate the significance of initiatives in schools coming from teachers and other stakeholders and not always from headteachers alone; and the findings of this research study will serve both as an applied and basic research. This means the study hopes to be of immediate use and have practical relevance on the one hand and advance knowledge in the area of educational management on the other hand.
Having stipulated the significance of the research problem, it is now necessary to state the aim of this research project.
1.4 Aims of the Study
The aim is an exact demarcation of that which one is investigating. One normally distinguishes between general and specific aims. The following could serve as an example: The general aim of this research project is to investigate the leadership styles used by school principals in managing their schools.
In order to achieve the general aim it is the specific aim of this mini-dissertation to: examine the opinion of teachers, HODs and headteachers with regard to behaviours they believe to be part of the effective leadership styles; make a critical inquiry of whether principals in the selected public secondary schools in the N.Province are aware of the existence of other leadership styles, besides the ones they are practising; examine how a particular leadership style comes to prominence over others; investigate how a visionary and open-minded leadership style changes the image of the school from negative to positive; examine critically how a leadership style influences or is influenced by situational factors; and devise a management strategy in order to provide school principals with some management tools which could assist them in coping with leadership challenges.
Remarking about the aims of the study, LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 37) maintain that the aim of the study can be to fill gaps in an existing knowledge base, to expand the knowledge base, to initiate investigation in a neglected line of inquiry, or to
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facilitate integration of an emerging conceptual field. This research study has as one of its aims to fulfil all what LeCompter and Preissle (1993: 37) are articulating.
1.5 Research Questions and Assumptions Guiding the Study
It is not uncommon for a researcher being guided by the qualitative school of thought to use research questions and assumptions to guide his or her research inquiry. Buttressing this point LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 30) argue that specific research questions have to be answered by particular information. These scholars advise that research questions are amenable to modification, reformulation, and redirection during the course of the ethnographic study. Remarking about the research questions, Creswell (1994: 52) states that the researcher needs to ask one or two grand tour questions, followed by no more than five to seven subquestions. Subquestions are said to be narrowing the focus of the study without necessarily constraining the qualitative researcher. The research questions asked become the working guidelines rather than truths to be proven.
The advice Creswell (1994: 50) is offering regarding the research questions is that the investigator has to use nondirectional wording when formulating questions. This implies that the formulated questions should describe rather than relate variables or compare groups. Again, the investigator must expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study. This vividly confirms that in qualitative studies the research questions are under continual review and reformulation.
The research assumptions which are going to guide this study are as follows: the investigator assumes there is a problem of leadership styles today in many public secondary schools in the N.Province; the researcher assumes that most if not all the leadership styles practised are not conducive to the teaching and learning environments; the inquirer assumes that the styles of leadership determine the feelings of teachers and learners in terms of ownership of the school, and the researcher assumes teachers and learners can be alienated or attracted to the school as a sequel of leadership styles practised by the school principal.
It is in view of the expressed research assumptions and research questions that the researcher intends examining critically the type of leadership styles being practised
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in the selected public secondary schools in the N.Province. The investigator is going to focus on the sample of leadership styles such as the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive.
1.6 Methodology
In order to conform to the conventions of scholarly writings, the researcher needs to view his problem of study from a particular theoretical perspective. There are of course various perspectives from which the investigator could look at the research problem under study. There is functionalism, Marxism and Interpretivism.
In reality some problems under study could best be examined through the usage of certain theoretical perspectives than through others. For instance, the research problem such as a study of the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles of school principals could best be examined through interpretivism more than the other two mentioned perspectives. In the first place, functionalism and Marxism have some mechanical and deterministic elements (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 74). Interpretivism on the other hand does provide room for researcher to consider individual reason and cultural rules around the problem of study.
In short, interpretivism has been selected to be the theoretical perspective that undergirds this study. This is a result of the relevance and significance the researcher finds in this point of view than in other mentioned perspectives. Interpretivism provides an account in which individual reason and cultural rules are given a primary role. Instead of searching for universal laws that are thought applicable to all forms of society, it emphasizes rule governed behaviour, a degree of individual autonomy and the uniqueness of logical situations (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 102).
1.6.1 Population sampling Armstrong (1993: 75) states that sampling involves the collection of attitudes, opinions and facts from a representative number of people in the total population. LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 60) define a sample as a subset of a larger population. The term sampling denotes extracting systematically from a large group some smaller portion of that group so as to represent adequately the larger group. Sampling is undertaken when studying an entire population
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is too unwieldy, too expensive, too time-consuming or simply unnecessary.
1.6.2 Sampling procedures Various sampling procedures exist. There are the simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, quota sampling, and cluster sampling. Out of these sampling procedures the investigator in this study is going to sample his population through simple random sampling. Behr (1982: 15) defines such a procedure as a sample which is so constituted that every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. Comparatively speaking, the researcher finds the simple random sampling to be more relevant and superior to other sampling procedures. In selecting the sample for this study, probabilistic sampling is going to be used. LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 38) contend that probabilistic sampling involves extracting from an already well-defined population a subset for study approximating the characteristics of the group from which it was derived. For the purpose of this study the population is going to include all teachers, HODs and headteachers of the six secondary schools in Mankweng area office.
All the six secondary schools in Mankweng area office are going to have equal chance of being selected into the sample. The investigator is going to write on a piece of paper names of all the six secondary schools. Thereafter each school is going to be assigned a number. The numbers written on pieces of papers are going to be placed in a box. Random sampling will be conducted in order to emerge with only three schools. The random selection of the three schools implies the automatic random selection of each principal and deputy principal of the selected schools onto the sample. In the case of various departments, lists are going to be made of different departments, for example commerce, official languages etcetera which the HODs are supervising. Names of departments are going to be written on pieces of papers and put into a box. Three HODs are going to be selected from each school by the name of department which is going to be randomly selected from the box. This method is also going to be used to randomly select five teachers from each of the three schools.
1.6.3 Research instruments A number of research instruments through which data could be collected are
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available. There is an interview, observation, case study, questionnaire and
others. The investigator could use one research instrument to collect data.
Alternatively, two or more techniques could be used. The usage of many
techniques is referred to as triangulation. Triangulation assists in
corroborating the data collected. LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 159) state
that choosing methods for data collection means considering available
alternatives and continually re-examining and modifying decisions.
1.7 Limitations of Study
Each research design is subject to numerous limitations. Inevitably, in one way or the
other, the researcher's investigatory problem is going to be prone to certain research
limitations whether the investigator likes it or not. Admitting and acknowledging the
existence of the study limitations is a relevant point of departure towards
demonstrating research honesty. Above all, that is the first positive step in
meditating about how to attempt to blunt the severity of those study limitations
(Rickman, 1967: 77).
Since each research is subject to numerous limitations, in this study of the
participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles attention
is going to be focused on the major limitations only. Expectedly, such limitations
include finance and time. The impact of these two major limitations is likely to result
in the reduction of the number of items used in the questionnaires. Owing to
financial impediments only thirty copies of questionnaires are going to be made.
Fifteen copies are going to be for teachers and the other fifteen for school managers.
The limitation imposed by time impacts on this research study in various ways.
Suffice to articulate the point that it impacts on the distribution of questionnaires to
various teachers and school managers in the distinct secondary schools. That is why
only three secondary schools in the Mankweng area office are going to be selected to
be the focused sample.
1.8 Definition of terms
1.8.1 Leader It is not that easy to talk of a leader without mentioning something about
leadership. A leader and leadership are terms which are closely tied together
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(Sikula, 1993: 144). Gannon (1991: 220) argues that by simply being in a
managerial position does not make a person a leader. Sadie (1988: 146)
defines a leader as "a person who actually wants change". He is not content
with the status quo and if discontented, he is not willing to sit around wanting
someone else to produce ideas for changing the situation. Litterer (1993: 182)
defines a leader as "an individual in the group given the task of directing and
co-ordinating the relevant group activities or who, in the absence of the
designated leader, carries the primary responsibility for performing these
functions in the group."
Senge et al (1994: 435) do not necessarily believe in a single individual as a
leader in an organization. This is vindicated by the fact that a learning
organization is a theme they are stressing. Other than seeing the survival of
an organization in terms of a single leader, Senge et al (1994: 436) advocates
for collective or team leadership. It is no surprise this statement: organizations
are moving away from the "great individual" model of leadership, and moving
toward being led by a team of executives instead (Senge, et al 1994: 435).
What makes Senge et al (1994:435) to advocate for team learning is his
comprehension of the fact that problems organizations are today facing are
enormously complex and those problems have political ramifications. Only
collective leadership in an organization could best cope up with such problems
(Senge et al, 1994: 435).
1.8.2 Effective leader or leadership It may not be that difficult to be a leader, but to be an effective leader may
not be that easy. Lippit (1988: 88) contends that an effective leader does not
run away from involvement, he confronts people; and situations, he takes the
initiative, does not act over-cautiously, and does not just react to a situation.
He acts facing up to issues and problems. The effective leader understands
himself and the person who understands himself is best able to confront
situations and lead others. An effective leader is described as willing to take
risks, not afraid to rock the boat and does not fear failures. Lippit (1989: 88)
proceeds to mention that for a leader to be able to confront, search and cope
depends on a trust relationship being established between other members of
the group or organization.
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1.8.3 Manager and leader
Hicks (1995: 300) contends that the terms leader and manager are not necessarily interchangeable because leadership is a subclass of management. Moorhead & Griffin (1989: 322) contend that a person may be a manager or leader or both. They further state that a leader can be formal, that is, someone appointed to head a group, or informal, where one emerges from the ranks of the group according to a consensus of the members. 'Gast (1994: 341) remarking about the cardinal role being played by the leader maintains that "management activities such as planning, organizing and decision-making are dormant cocoons until the leader triggers the power of motivation in people and guides them toward goals." A person can be a leader without being a manager. On the other hand a person who is a manager may not necessarily be a leader. A person is a manager by virtue of holding a formal position. A leader could be determined by those led, not just by a position.
Zaleznik (1991: 13) in his article titled "Managers and leaders: Are they different..." argues that managers and leaders have different attitude toward their goals, careers, relations with others and themselves. Zaleznik (1991: 14) remarks that it takes neither genius nor heroism to be a manager, but rather persistence, tough-mindedness, hard work, intelligence, analytical ability and perhaps most importantly, tolerance and good will. He further reports that managers and leaders are very different kinds of people. They differ in motivation, personal history, and in how they think and act. Manager's goals are said to be arising out of necessities rather than desires and that manager's goals are deeply embedded in the history and culture of the organization.
1.9 Conclusion
In this study attention is focused on the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles used by sc-hools pricnipals to run their schools. The statement of the problem is vividly articulated together with aims which this study strives to achieve. The significance of undertaking the study of this nature has been expressed together with research questions and assumptions guiding the study. The procedures and techniques to be followed in gathering data are eloquently provided together with the limitations affecting the study. Finally, operational terms that are going to be used throughout this study have also been defined.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Teachers are unlike workers in non-school settings in several other ways. They are relatively isolated from one another, compared to their counterparts in other work settings. They expect and experience a high degree of autonomy in the control of their daily work. There is low level of interdependency among teachers in terms of task accomplishment. As professionals, teachers are not closely supervised and they exercise a great deal of discretion in their daily work. Given their physical isolation from one another and the limited amount of direct supervision received from school administrators, it is very difficult for administrators to influence teacher practices (Anon, 1995: 65).
Teachers can with relative ease ignore most efforts by administrators to influence their teaching or what occurs in their classrooms. The purveyed argument vividly demonstrates the significance of selecting leadership styles appropriate to school settings. Where there is a mismatch between the school setting and the exercised style(s) of leadership, an unjustifiable outcry of a leadership style being inefficacious can be voiced. Evidently, leadership styles that prickle school administrators to prefer change to stability could be germane and relevant to school settings unlike to other distinct settings (Hevesi, 1996: 16). Principals as school administrators need to value and work toward change in themselves before they expect change in teachers. This means that reform begins one rung below the reformer (Anon, 1995: 59). Where stability is preferred to change stagnation could ensue. Change in a school deserves to be managed. This enables the organization, schools included to introduce change successfully (Armstrong, 1995: 41).
This study focuses on the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles of school principals. The relevance of examining the articulated leadership styles rests on the fact that it is through the leadership styles practised in a school that there will be a difference in that school. This is to imply that the leadership styles in a particular school are capable of either getting that school up and running or stifling the occurrence of quality teaching and learning in that school (Charlton, 1993: 29).
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2.2 The Significance of Theory in Literature Review
The inductive model of thinking used in qualitative research designs has implication for the placement of theory in qualitative research studies. Theories are found when reviewing literature. So, their inclusion in a literature survey is a logical extension and part of the literature (Creswell, 1994: 89). Using theories one has to limit their number. Creswell (1994: 89) suggests that the researcher needs to attempt to work with one overarching theory that explains the central research assumptions or research questions in the study. This study is going to examine what the existing theories articulate about the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles. A knowledge of how distinct theorists approached and comprehended the expressed leaderaship styles of school principals enables the investigator to gain more insight into this study. Such an insight will stand the researcher in good stead as regards the dynamics and complexity of the expressed leadership styles (Hunt et al, 1984: 8).
Creswell (1994: 93) sounds a word of advice to qualitative researchers to use theories or patterns consistent with the qualitative research design. In this study the researcher has used interpretivism as an overarching theory. Interpretivism, more than other theoretical forms, stands out to be capable of informing this study successfully and competently. As regards the placement of theory or pattern, Creswell (1994: 94) states that one does not begin with a theory to test or verify phenomena. Consistent with the inductive model of thinking, a theory may emerge during the data collection and analysis phases of the research. Alternatively, it may be used relatively late in the research process as a basis for comparison with other theories. In a qualitative study, theory or patterns are viewed as emerging during the course of the design. Again, it is not the intent of the qualitative study to be constrained by theory. Notwithstanding all said, theory gives one's work a scholarly character.
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 119) argue that theories may centre on understanding and interpretation of the meaning of constructs rather than explanation of phenomena. The above statement means that some theories address interpretive rather than sensory phenomena. Largely, theories addressing the interpretive paradigm focus on something inferentially derived rather than directly observed. With the research like the study of four leadership styles used by schools principals
13
to manage their schools, the researcher has made use of an overarching theory focusing both on phenomena inferentially derived and directly observed. The investigator is convinced such a way of approaching one's study eliminates much flaws than it creates.
2.3 Literature Review
Literature review can be conceived as an argument, a debate between the investigator and the audience, in which statements or propositions first are made by the researcher in the form of assertions that a particular problem is interesting, worth investigating by means of specific methods, and amenable to interpretation by the theories suggested by the author (LeCompte SL Preissle, 1993: 152). These authors proceed to state that in support of those propositions, references are made to other studies which have addressed similar or related issues, both those which confirmed the hunches of the researcher and those which did not. These references are used as evidence, and are located by scrupulous library search.
2.4. Leadership Theories
This study focuses on the leadership styles used by school principals in schools. Those leadership styles are the collegial, the participative, the permissive and the directive. The selection of one or two leadership styles by the school principal is in most cases based on the leadership theory which the headteacher identifies himself or herself with. The expressed statement implies that each style of leadership is informed and guided by a particular leadership theory. There is a great man theory, the trait theory, and the situation approcah theory. Each of the articulated leadership theories is going to be discussed in detail.
2.4.1 The Great Man Theory
This theory holds a view that a leader is a great man. Leadership qualities are said to be inborn, and that people naturally follow individuals who have these qualities. In terms of this theory the great man is responsible for history rather than history being responsible for the great man. This theory contends that some individuals appear to have been destined to greatness because of a combination of favourable circumstances. Those circumstances include among others family background, education and personal attributes. The personal
14
attributes in mention include intelligence, drive and ambition.
Kazmier (1989: 147) states that "the great man theory is least sophisticated
since it suggests that the successful manager is an innately competent leader
who is born rather than made." The theory states in no uncertain terms that
the basis for the success of an innately competent manager cannot really be
uncovered by studying him or his methods.
2.4.2 Trait Theory
The second leadership theory known to be informing some leadership styles
is the trait theory. This theory identifies traits of a great leader that make him
different from the rest of us. The theory argues that there do not seem to be
any physical attributes, nor is the leader necessarily endowed with superior
intelligence. Chromosomes and genes have not been positively related to
leadership in terms of inheritance, nor has a particular personality or
behaviour pattern been identified. The only conclusion so far reached is that
there is nothing conclusive about leadership traits(Litterer, 1993: 185).
Traits theorists suggest that leaders could be identified by certain
characteristics which they possess inherently. This theory and the "great man
theory" were popular until about the mid-1940s when their rationale were
seriously questioned (Litterer, 1993: 182). Early trait theorists believed that
such characteristic were inherited, that is carried in the genes and passed along
from one generation to the other. The belief was eventually modified and
expanded upon to include the idea that traits could be acquired also via the
learning process and experience.
Two basic classifications of trait theories are the physical traits and personality
traits.
2.4.2.1 Physical Traits
Litterer (1993: 184) states that the physical traits are the earliest and crudest
forms of trait theories. Leaders, both potential and current were described in
terms of physical attributes. One's physique and anatomy were stressed.
One's framework, structure and constitution were also significant. Factors
such as height, weight, strength, posture and muscle were associated with
15
leadership potential and ability. According to trait theorists, physical
characteristics still may be required as leadership pre-requisite in some
situations for some leaders given the tasks they are expected to perform.
2.4.2.2 Personality Traits
Sikula (1993: 53) contends that new personality theories began to stress
personality and psychological traits factors. Such factors are honesty, loyalty,
ambition, initiative and intelligence. Researchers, however, proved
consistently that no universal personality leadership traits existed. Both
personality traits theory and physical traits theory are at best only a partial
explanation of leadership ability. In short, trait theorists look for the
identifiable and distinguishable characteristics or personality profile of the
leader.
2.4.3 Situation Approach Theory
This approach stresses the fact that there are certain traits and capacities that
are crucial for effective leadership in one situation and not in another. Here
the leader seeks to discover what actions are required by groups, under various
conditions if they are to achieve objectives, and how different members take
part in those actions (Lippit, 1989: 87)
The situation approach theorists contend that certain leadership characteristics
are relevant in some situations and not in others. This theory emphasizes that
in a situation where a particular leadership style has to be exercised, there are
variables which deserve attention. Such variables are:
traits of the leader;
characteristics of the followers;
characteristics of the task;
characteristics of the organization; and
characteristics of the external environment.
Sikula (1993: 34) puts it explicitly that, the situational approach to leadership
purports that leadership is situational. This is to say leadership is dependent
upon unique factors and circumstances within the total environmental context.
Lippit (1989: 88) argues that since such factors and circumstances change
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frequently and often rapidly, leadership is not a process that can be studied via
a static theory or a complacent concept.
2.5 Types of Leadership Styles
Charlton (1993: 30) notes that the leadership styles approach was introduced
in the 1950's. An assumption underlying this approach was that there was one
best style of leadership, favouring the democratic approach over the other
styles of leadership. Extensive research, however, showed that the
appropriateness of the style of leadership was dependent on the situation, the
maturity, and needs of the followers. Criticism was levelled at the exclusive
focus on the leader without consideration being given to task, followers and
situational variables.
A leadership style as defined by Glueck (1991: 99) is the way a leader uses
influence to achieve the organizational goals. Many management experts
believe the manager's leadership style is fundamentally influenced by his
attitudes toward employees and thus by the theory of leadership the manager
follows consciously or unconsciously. For instance, if the manager sees the
employees as people who do the work under his direction, the style is directive.
Where the manager sees employees as colleagues with certain extra
responsibilities and different duties, the style is then participative.
Glueck (1991: 100) contends that most managers do have a predominant or
core leadership style. This is the style they feel fits them or they are most
comfortable with. However, all but a few managers have the ability to vary
their styles of leadership to fit varying circumstances or different people. For
example, a particiapative leader may become directive and make all the
decisions, issue orders, and so forth when there is a crisis situation. A directive
leader may operate with participative style in dealing with some especially
trusted employees. This flexibility contributes to a manager's effectiveness.
Hallinger and Heck (1996: 51) argue that there is little disagreement
concerning the belief that principals have an impact on the lives of teachers
and students. This suggests that strong administrative leadership is among the
factors within the school that make a difference in student learning. Hallinger
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and Heck (1996: 52) confirm that no single style of management seems appropriate for all schools. The Principal's leadership style or practice contributes to the outcomes that a particular school produces. This is but strongly mediated by other people and in-school processes. The principal's leadership style can shape the school's culture. For instance, a leadership style could promote collaboration within members of the personnel in a school. The principal's leadership style is simultaneously shaped by features of the school's culture such as teacher-resistance to change. The above argument vindicates the notion that the principal's leadership style effects need to be viewed as reciprocal rather than unidirectional.
2.5.1 The Collegial Leadership Style
Collegiality as a leadership style is a closeness that grows out of an understanding and caring for one another, resulting in group members getting to know one another better, wanting to listen to one another, being interested in one another's values, and perhaps most importantly wanting to be together (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 99). In an organization, collegiality is to the bosses, subordinates, and colleagues what a sense of family is to parents, siblings, uncles, aunts, grandparents and cousins. Collegiality could be comprehended as an emotional feeling of closeness to the group. An appropriate synonym for collegiality is community. When people have a sense of community they belong and have pride in the group.
One of the difficulties in creating a sense of community in organizations today is the sheer heterogeneity of almost any population one deals with. In many communities there is no stable set of shared values which rest on the more stable bedrock of a single religious denomination, a single ethnic identity and unchallenged tradition. Today we live with many faiths. We nurture a framework of shared secular values e.g. justice, respect for the individual, tolerance and so on, while leaving people free to honour diverse deeper faiths that undergird those values (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 99).
As a leadership style, collegiality is a means by which cultural, religious, ethnic and gender differences are free to be expressed and understood. Collegiality results in comfort and trust, allowing each member of a group to feel safe. In a collegial atmosphere, members are comfortably sharing both successes and
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failures, happiness and sadness, problems and opportunities, good things and bad, as well as hopes and fears. Collegiality promotes respect more effectively than power, authority, knowledge or experience. Some features of a collegial school or organization are honesty, trust, loyalty, commitment, caring, camaraderie, enthusiasm, support, patience, cooperation and synergy. Collegiality can produce the coherence good schools require and a vitality far beyond the reach of formalistic rules (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 100).
Collegiality is known to be encouraging a spirit where the group is an important natural resource to each of its members. Gresso and Wood (1990), quoted in Cunningham and Gresso (1993: 100) argue that collegiality is the key element to the success of any team-effort. Without it, the work of a team will not have an impact on the organization. Collegiality is the most important element in the success of and commitment to school improvement.
Hall (1971) found that groups with a history of collegial interaction and relationships handled conflicts differently and responded to them as opportunities for creating visioning. In non-collegial groups conflict was a serious threat that the group avoided by establishing neutral positions to maintain the status quo.
In addition to developing trust, mutual respect, openness, a sharing spirit and understanding, a group must have a professional interest in being together. Evidently, in a school where collegiality as a style of leadership is exercised the school will find it easy in bringing in a new sense of optimism and hope for the school as an organization. Participants in a school will display unsuspected strengths, bravery, endurance, generosity and loyalty when they have a strong sense of the group and are significant members of it. Collegiality creates the circumstances which evoke the greatest sense of wanting to contribute to the fullest. Talents that lay dormant due to earlier defeats, harsh treatment, cynicism, bitterness, self-doubt, or lack of support can be brought out within the security and caring of the collegial group (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 105).
Cunningham and Gresso (1993: 118) note that collegiality encourages the
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notion that each person in an organization must be heard and understood if an acceptable quality decision is to be made. Where there is collegiality, there is a sense of community. This is to say members will continue to draw upon each other for support and advice. Members of a group experience significant growth in resourcefulness, skilfulness, information and effectiveness. Collegiality works best when it eliminates the capricious and inconsistent use of power over less powerful members. It does not require confrontation or confirming behaviour, but allows for open discussion and consensus. It employs personal power, not positional power. Positional power is temporarily set aside, since group members communicate and cooperate in the spirit of caring for one another and the vision of the organization.
Scheerens (1992: 98) contends that collegiality forms the basis for developing cohesive, professional relations within school faculties and connecting them more closely to their surrounding neighbourhoods. As regards its significance for teachers, collegiality has been described by Sagor and Barnett (1994: 68) as teacher's ability to talk precisely about teaching and learning based on the following:
Observing one another, visiting other schools, jointly developing and delivering instructional materials, conducting demonstration lessons, and participation in collaborative action research projects.
Senge (1990: 245) sounds a word of advice that, colleagueship does not mean that one needs to agree or share the same views. On the contrary, the real power of seeing each other as colleagues comes into play when there are differences of view. Lewis and Smith (1994: 14) are of the opinion that a culture of collegiality results in high levels of participation within an institution.
2.5.2 The Participative Leadership Style
Lankard (1992: 92-125) notes that the participatory management style involves inputs not only in decision-making, but also in problem-solving by all members of an organization including stakeholders. It deserves to be stressed that the participative style of leadership does not mean that teachers alone
20
make decisions. Nor does it mean that the manager or leader, abdicates
responsibility. Merron (1995: 94) suggests that the participative leadership
style means that one involves others in the decision making process in such a
way that the final decision reflects their active input and takes into account
their concerns, needs and ideas. Remarking about the significance of
participative leadership style, Paisey (1981: 41) states that such a leadership
style requires teaching staff to be involved in the decision-making process of
the school through what he terms a "bottom-up strategy".
Glueck (1991: 103) asserts that the participative leadership style is talked
about much more than it is practised. McGregor (1960), quoted by Gibson
et al (1991: 30) argues that the participatory leader makes the following
assumptions about employees:
people are ambitious,
they seek responsibility,
they recognize and accept organizational goals,
they are dynamic and flexible, and
they are intelligent and possess creative potential
Basing everything on the above assumptions, it becomes vivid that how the
manager regards and practically views his nonmanagers, determines in part the
leadership style he would exercise over them. Clearly and evidently, where the
manager is confident and has unreserved faith in his nonmanagers, he will
resort to the participative leadership style in his dealings with them
(Negandhi, 1985: 129).
Hicks (1995: 288) notes that the participative style of leadership seeks to
obtain the cooperation of workers in achieving organizational goals by allowing
them to participate in decision making. It is believed that nonmanagers would
support a decision they were involved in reaching and that they would
consequently increase their productivity. Of interest about the participative
leadership style is that it does not relieve the leader of his decision making
responsibilities or of his power over nonmanagers.
2.5.4 The Directive Leadership Style
Some leadership researchers refer to the directive leadership style as
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conservative, autocratic and non-participatory (Feldberg, 1975: 111). The
directive manager is known to be having little interest in the opinions of
nonmanagers. Such a manager assumes rightly or wrongly so that under all
circumstances he or she knows more than they do. Predictably, the directive
managers or leaders have a tendency to use fear as a form of motivation. Most
regrettably they tend to see nonmanagers as units of production rather than
as fellow human beings. What in most cases enables them to hold tenaciously
to the directive leadership styles is that they frequently have a good track
record and become defensive when their decisions go wrong or misfire.
Leaders exercising this leadership style expect results and have little time for
failure and excuses (Hevesi, 1996: 21).
The above exposition of the directive leadership style convincingly paints a
gloomy picture of this type of leadership style. It deserves to be stressed that
since institutions and organizations are distinct from one another, such a style
of leadership has certainly an indisputable place in some organizations.
Buttressing the expressed point, Harding (1987: 30) declares that styles of
leadership will vary from person to person and from organization to
organization dependent upon the values and personalities of the leaders and
on the needs of the organizations. Harding (1987: 30) goes further to reveal
that the directive style of leadership though not that popular, in certain
circumstances such a style will be very effective. For instance, where the
manager is extremely competent, possessing a wealth of knowledge and
experience whereas the nonmanagers are by comparison inexperienced and
unwilling to accept responsibility, it will make sense for the manager to "tell"
them what to do. As its disadvantage, this style is too dependent upon the
individual in charge. Again no allowance is made for failures or inadequacies
on the part of the individual.
In conclusion, one needs to refer briefly to what is behind the selection of the
directive style of leadership amongst other competent leadership styles. McGregory
(1960) as quoted by Gibson et al (1991:30) notes that the directive managers or
leaders select the directive leadership style being guided by the following assumptions
they hold about their non-managers:
i. the directive leaders are convinced people are by nature indolent,
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they are further convinced that people lack ambition, dislike
responsibility and above all prefer to be led,
people are seen to be self-centred and too much indifferent to
organisational needs, and
employees are not very bright and lack creative potential.
2.2.5 The Permissive Leadership Style
Sikula (1993:157) defines a leadership style as a concept used to refer to a
manager's specific mode, fashion and distinctive manner of administrative
performance and conduct. What matters with a leadership style exercised in
a school is not so much the label, but whether that style of leadership is
efficacious or not. Agreeably, this is a view of leaders who are job-centred and
not people-centred. The question could be asked, are we in a school to satisfy
the interests, aspirations, desires, and allay fears of members of personnel or
to ensure that we all of us attain the school's goals? If we are in a school for
both the outcomes and the satisfaction of employees, then we better select one
option out of these two when time still allows (Hevesi, 1996:51).
There is a notion that the permissive style of leadership is no leadership style
at all. Such a notion disregards the fact that what matters with a particular
style of leadership is not so much its label but its ability to enable the school
leader to raise the performance of the school. Again such a notion disregards
the fact that one style of leadership can be appropriate and beneficial for quite
some time and then becomes impractical. There is no law stating that once a
particular style of leadership is selected, one should carry over with that style
until and until even if that style proves to be inefficacious. The school leader
upon thorough scrutiny of the realities obtaining in the school is at liberty to
determine what style of leadership is most necessary, when, why and for how
long should the leadership style in question be applied (Hevesi, 1996:50).
Senge et al (1994:64) remarks that "you can always sense the presence or
absence of leadership when you begin working in a new organization". This
statement suggests that any style of leadership has to be context sensitive for
that leadership style to survive. Hughes et al (1993 :105) buttresses the above
expressed view when stating that we need not look at the leader's behaviour
and conclude that he or she is a good leader or bad leader apart from the
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context.
Hicks (1995:303) outlines the following features of a permissive style of leadership:
there is complete freedom for group or individual decision with minimum of leadership participation; various materials are supplied by the leader, who makes it clear that he would supply information when asked. He takes no other part in work decisions; there is no frequent and spontaneous comments on member activities unless questioned, and no attempt to appraise or regulate the course of events; this style is not dependent on leadership to provide external motivation like other leadership styles; workers motivate themselves based on their needs, wants and desires; and workers are given a goal and left mostly up to their own to achieve it, using their ingenuity.
The permissive style of leadership has advantage of increasing workers' independence and expression and forces them to function as members of a group. Its strong disadvantage is that without a strong leadership the group could become directionless and uncontrollable. Frustration and organizational chaos could ensue.
Zaleznik (1991:19) argues that successful leaders are those who are keenly aware of the forces which are most relevant to their behaviours at any given time. Such leaders accurately understand themselves, the individuals, and the groups they are dealing with, the organisation, and broader social environment in which they operate. Successful managers of people can be primarily characterized neither as strong leaders nor as permissive ones. Rather, they are people who maintain a high batting average in accurately assessing the forces that determine what their most appropriate behaviour at any given time should be and in actually being able to behave accordingly.
Senge et al (1994:418) buttresses the point that what matters is not the label attached to a particular leadership style. To label a leadership style as
24
directive, permissive and so forth is not sufficient in a school. Performance is what matters and what has to. Senge et al (1994:418) maintains that "it is wrong to stereotype or categorize people because of any group they belong to". Categorization or stereotyping has the disadvantage of disregarding the fact that every individual's pattern of thinking and expression is unique, rooted in his or her personal experiences. The permissive style of leadership largely accommodates the uniqueness of all employees in a school. Hence, Senge et al (1994:417) notes that "organisations can never get to high performance participation without valuing the uniqueness that each person brings to the organisation".
2.6 Other Leadership Styles Categorization
The researcher considers it inappropriate to stop on the focused four leadership styles. Under normal circumstances any discussion about leadership and leadership behaviours prickles one to remark on the charismatic and transformational leadership patterns. The reason is that such forms of leadership patterns are too significant to be disregarded or excluded from the discussions pertaining to leadership styles. In short, the investigator contends that the debate about leadership styles without any mention of charismatic and transformational forms of leadership is totally incomplete.
2.6.1 The Charismatic Leadership Style
Senge et al (1994:418) maintains that "it is wrong to stereotype or categorize people because of any group they belong to". They resist the categorization on the grounds that it implies that one walks, talks and thinks like the whole group of people. Notwithstanding the expressed point, other scholars see it differently. Hunt et al (1984: 6) argues that there are two kinds of charismatic leadership. The first one obtains charisma by means of extraordinary vision communicated to the followers. The second one obtains charisma by means of crisis in the context of which charismatic qualities are attributed to the leader. Hunt et al (1984: 6) notes that crisis situations may invoke different kinds of leadership than non-crisis situations. This leads to leader-follower relationships developing differently in two situations. Some believe a charismatic leader has a gift of exceptional or even supernatural qualities namely a "charisma" that assists him lift ordinary people to extraordinary
25
heights.
The charismatic leader who obtains charisma by means of extraordinary vision communicated to followers is referred to as visionary charismatic leader. The one obtaining charisma by means of crisis is known as crisis produced charismatic leader. The common thread to both these charismatic leaders is that each attempts to create a new or different world that is phenomenologically valid for his or her followers. Visionary charismatic leaders produce charismatic effects primarily by linking individual needs to important values, purposes or meaning through articulation of a vision and goals. They inspire interpretative schemes through pointing out how individual behaviour can contribute to fulfilment of those values, purposes or meanings. Visionary charismatic do more than simply provide new schemata, values, theories or action. Followers must have a chance to successfully practise parts of the vision before they will attribute charisma to the leader (Hunt et al, 1984:16).
2.6.2 The Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leadership style is the one that motivates followers to work for transcendental goals and to perform beyond their expectations. Hunt et al (1984:6) contends that the transformational leadership develops follower autonomy. Burns (78) as quoted by Avolio and Bass in their article titled "Transformational leadership, charisma and beyond" conceptualize the transformational leader as one who motivates followers to work for transcendental goals instead of immediate self-interest and for achievement and self-actualization instead of safety and security.
The transformational leader provides ideas that result in rethinking of old ways and enables followers to look at problems from many angles and resolve problems that were at a standstill. Transformational leaders strive to make subordinates more self-confident. Leaders themselves are models of such self-confidence. Interesting to note about transformational leaders is that they do not necessarily react to environmental circumstances they create. From the transforming perspective the leader needs to be able to read situations to determine when the time is ripe for changing individuals, organisations or societal perspective. The transformational leaders deserve to be able to diagnose what can be feasibly done given the formal and informal constraints
26
of the environment within which they operate (Glueck, 1991: 120).
2.7 The Conceptual Framework
2.7.1 Introduction
In order to conform to the conventions of scholarly writings the researcher needs to view his problem of study from a particular point of view. There are of course various perspectives from which the investigator could look at the research problem under study. To cite but just a few perspectives, there is functionalism, Marxism and the Interpretivism. These three are not the only perspectives available. The researcher is at liberty to make use of one or all of these three perspectives to get more clarity to his problem of study.
In reality some problems under study could best be examined through the usage of certain theoretical perspectives than through others. For instance, the research problem such as a study of four leadership styles and their impact on change management could best be examined through Interpretivism more than the other two mentioned perspectives. In the first place, functionalism and Marxism have some mechanical and deterministic elements, Feinberg & Soltis (1985: 74). Interpretivism on the other hand does provide room for a researcher to consider individual reason and cultural rules around the problem of study. Feinberg & Soltis (1985: 75) maintain that both functionalism and Marxism affirm the view that an adequate explanation of social facts must reflect the kind of explanation that is often associated with natural science. This is one of the reasons why the writer is convinced that only Interpretivism will better illuminate leadership styles and their impact on change management.
In order that the Interpretivist perspective be fully comprehended, it is necessary to expose some basic elements or tenets of both functionalism and Marxism. Interpretivism can be adequately comprehended in relation to the other two perspectives. Somewhere these three points of view overlap. Both attempt to explain reality.
27
2.7.2 Functionalism and the Marxist theory Feinberg & Soltis (1985: 76) maintain that both functionalism and the
Marxist theory contend that like the physical and natural universe, social
behaviour is governed by discernable laws. This suggests that functionalism
and Marxism believe that if we examine social life scientifically, we should be
able to discover certain universal generalizations that govern and accurately
describe the development of human society. Feinberg & Soltis (1985: 76)
further argue that both the functionalists and Marxists have their basic
assumption being that the natural science as they are commonly understood,
provide an appropriate model for the understanding of social life.
In terms of viewing schooling, Marxists maintain that schooling is a major
instrument for maintaining and legitimating the domination of one group over
another (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 75). Marxists note that schools are largely
involved in legitimizing existing inequalities. The interpretation by the
Marxists highlights the way in which social rules are generated in
contemporary society, providing some people with great authority, while
restricting the opportunities for power and position available to others.
Feinberg & Soltis (1985: 100) state that Marxists argue that "schools provide
the systematic misrepresentation of the rules that are required to maintain
inequality and domination." The functionalists' view of schooling is not as
radical as the Marxists is. Functionalism argues that schools are an important
institution in facilitating the movement toward technological development,
material well-being and democracy (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 75). It is a view
of functionalist that in modern society there is a strong movement away from
distributing rewards and positions on the basis of ascribed values and towards
distributing them on the basis of achieved values. Functionalism
acknowledges that there was a time when the society would reward its
members in terms of who they were not in terms of their competence. This is
vindicated by the statement revealing that there is a movement form rewarding
according to ascribed values to rewarding according to achieved values.
2.7.3 The Interpretivist point of view Interpretivism has been selected to be the theoretical perspective that
undergirds this study. This is a result of the relevance and significance the
researcher finds in this point of view than in other two mentioned
28
perspectives.
Interpretivism is often advanced as a way to counter what is seen to be the
overly mechanical and deterministic model that is found in certain forms of
both functionalism and Marxism (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 101). Instead of
offering a strictly casual account of social life, Interpretivism provides an
account in which individual reason and cultural rules are given primary role.
Instead of searching for universal laws that are thought applicable to all forms
of society, it emphasises the rule governed behaviour, a degree of individual
autonomy and the uniqueness of logical situations (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985:
102).
Again, instead of emphasising the need to verify interpretations against an
"objective" world, the interpretive approach stresses the importance of
understanding and validating interpretations in their own contextual terms.
The Interpretivists hold the view that the social world is made up of
purposeful actors who acquire, share, and interpret a set of meanings, rules,
and norms that make social interaction possible. To understand and explain
why a particular student or teacher did a particular thing in a school,
Interpretivists would argue that we need to understand the way of life in that
society and the ways of doing things in that school. Interpretivism will also
remind us that we need to learn the purpose of the individual actors and the
social meanings that they share with others.
An Interpretivist point of view helps us to rethink both the functionalist and
the Marxist ideas about schooling (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 75). The
Interpretivists argue that any proposed explanation of social life will inevitably
fall short of a true scientific explanation because it always must be based on
some interpretation and hence be a subjective point of view. Interpretivism
advocates the development of methodologies to investigate and understand the
social world that do not merely imitate methodology of the natural sciences.
Winch (1985), a British philosopher who identifies himself with
Interpretivism notes that to know and understand certain things we need to
share a certain language and a social world of common understanding.
Substantiating his point, Winch (1985) contends that raising one's hand may
have different meanings in different contexts. In one situation by raising a
29
hand one may be greeting a friend, in another asking for a teacher's
recognition and in still another voting (Feinberg St. Soltis, 1985: 100). By
itself, the raw behaviour of hand raising has many meanings which are
differentiated by contexts. This suggests that meaning and interpretation are
not independent on the actor and the situation of acting. The above examples
are determined by the way the act is interpreted by the hand raiser and by
members of his community in a specific context.
Unlike functionalism and Marxism, Interpretivism acknowledges that culture
provides the larger context in which human messages are interpreted. This
implies that it is possible that the same behaviour may be interpreted
differently from one culture to another. Winch (1985) as quoted by Feinberg
& Soltis (1985: 100) notes that the primary task of social research is not to
uncover universal laws of realities that can be applied to any culture. It is
rather to uncover the specific framework that defines the rules and meanings
of cultural life for a specific group. Interpretivists agree that social behaviour
is role and rule following behaviour. Interpretivism stresses, however that
human beings do not engage in this behaviour in some mechanical way, but
in a way that requires human agency, interpretation, understanding and
monitoring. This implies that social scientists must be able to interpret
behaviour.
The Interpretivist perspective is not attempting to resolve the conflict between
functionalism and Marxism (Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 99). It attempts to
provide a new way to interpret, clarify, and sharpen the central issues that
separate these two competing positions. The attractiveness of Interpretivism
is to be found in its acceptance of other points of view, while on the other
hand, it seems to affirm that there is at least one point of view that is more
acceptable than any other. And of course, that view is the interpretive one
(Feinberg & Soltis, 1985: 102). Interpretivism, one may argue, seems to be
asserting the need to understand all perspectives on their own terms. This
perspective further seems to imply that all perspectives are equally worthwhile
and that researchers will do well to understand and tolerate each of them.
Feinberg (k. Soltis (1985: 102) conclude by maintaining that "the three
perspectives are not esoteric theories that have no relation to reality."
30
The central concern for Interpretivism is how individuals interpret and
understand their own social situations. Hence the Interpretivists attempt to
understand the actions of the actors or participants from their own point of
view and not just that of the Interpretivists.
2.8 Conclusion
The entire debate on literature review now comes to conclusion. Evidence abounds
that to introduce change in a school or any organization the management of that
change is more than essential. Again , to get our schools up and running and most
importantly to introduce a tradition of excellence in our schools we more than before
need leadership styles that are efficacious and above all context sensitive. In short,
any leadership style worth its salt needs to be educative in content and outcome.
This is to imply that leadership styles at all levels in educational settings should
primarily be concerned firstly with, the generaton of knowledge and secondly, the
promotion of efficacious quality teaching and learning . Any workable and
practicable leadership style needs to pave way for the ushering in of the culture of
productivity and commitment together with the culture of service and excellence in
our schools. Literature abounds with evidence confirming that in reality leaders
fundamentally find it difficult to change their leadership styles especially in view of
the fact that a style of leadership can become part and parcel of one's basic
personality. Perhaps changing one's personality can go a long way in expecting a
leader to modify his comfortable leadership style. In each leader, reveals literature,
there will be certain behavioural patterns that predominate. There is an argument
that such a fact makes generalizations about management or leadership styles
possible.
31
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS
3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate which leadership styles are being used in
secondary schools and the impact of those leadership styles on change management.
The research problem of this study lends itself to the qualitative research paradigm.
The choice of the qualitative perspective stems from the realisation that unlike the
quantitative school of thought, the assumptions of the qualitative paradigm are
relevant and germane to the study of leadership styles and their impact on change
management. Remarking about the assumptions of the qualitative design, Creswell
(1994: 145) advises that the researcher needs to discuss four or five underlying
assumptions or basic characteristics of the qualitative mode of inquiry and refer to
the distinctions between the quantitative and the qualitative paradigms.
3.2 Research Paradigm
The problem under investigation is suited to the qualitative mode of thinking than
to the quantitative perspective. Given the nature of the problem under study, the
investigator found more sense in the ontological, epistemological, axiological,
rhetorical and methodological assumptions of the qualitative school of thought than
of the quantitative paradigm. A brief discussion of each of these assumptions is given
below.
i. Ontological Assumptions
Ontology is the theory of reality. At times it is referred to as the branch of
philosophy which is concerned with reality (Rickman 1967: 44). Ontology
examines issues of existence and being. The qualitative mode of thinking does
not see reality as operating according to the immutable natural laws.
Ontologically, the qualitative school of thought is premised on the fact that
the only reality about leadership styles and their impact on change
management, is that which is constructed by the individuals involved in the
research setting. This implies that in research setting, multiple realities exist.
Those realities amongst others are the informants, the research situation, the
researcher; etcetera (Creswell, 1994: 4-5).
32
For the purpose of this study, the investigator has examined how school
principals of the selected secondary schools interpret the participative, the
collegial, the directive and the permissive leadership styles. These leadership
styles are realities which are being mostly practised in schools. The researcher
further investigated what the teachers' interpretative understanding of the
mentioned leadership styles were. This clearly demonstrates that a researcher
who is being guided by the qualitative school of thought views reality as being
subjective and not objective as the quantitative paradigm compels. How those
headteachers and teachers individually and collaboratively viewed the impact
of the participative, the directive, the permissive and the collegial leadership
styles on change management was also critically examined.
ii. Epistemological Assumptions
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. It focuses on the basic conditions
of knowledge and how it is acquired. One can argue that epistemology focuses
on knowledge and knowing. Rickman (1967: 37) contends that epistemology
or the theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy which deals with how
knowledge is possible. Epistemologically, the qualitative mode of thinking
asserts that it is impossible to separate the inquirer from the inquired.
Epistemological questions are concerned with the issues concerning the
relationship between the knower, that is the researcher to the known or reality
(Rickman, 1967: 56).
Epistemologically, the qualitative research paradigm is premised on the fact
that the researcher interacts with those that are being studied. That
interaction could take various forms, ranging from the observation of subjects
to interviewing them (Creswell, 1994: 4). Again, the interaction could assume
the form of living with informants over a prolonged period of time. It may
amongst others also take the form of actual collaboration. When such
intermingling takes place, that is how knowledge is being created. In short, the
qualitative research paradigm's view of knowledge is that its formulation
happens in a situation where the researcher attempts to minimize the distance
between himself or herself and those who are being researched. The
qualitative research paradigm employs terms such as understanding, discovery,
and meaning during the course of creating knowledge (LeCompte Preissle,
1993: 51).
33
Rhetorical Assumptions
The rhetorical assumptions are related to the language prominently used in the
qualitative mode of thinking. Given the distinctions between the qualitative
paradigm and the quantitative paradigm, their rhetorical dimensions are likely
to differ. Creswell (1994: 4) argues that the rhetorical assumption or language
used by the investigator in the qualitative school of thought is informal. In the
case of a study of leadership styles such as the participative, the collegial, the
directive and the permissive, the investigator had used the informal language
to explicate these leadership styles. Having used the informal language implies
that the researcher explicated and elucidated those leadership styles in terms
of how the participants, namely, the headteachers and teachers understood
those styles of leadership. This saved the investigator from misrepresenting or
misinterpreting what the actors articulated regarding the leadership styles
under study.
Axiological Assumptions
There could be no gainsaying to the fact that the researcher is born and bred
in a particular society with values. When the researcher conducts a study the
values which he or she had been brought up in would influence his or her
research consciously or unconsciously. The qualitative line of thinking
stresses the importance of the investigator to acknowledge that he or she is not
value-free, the same with the research findings the investigator would emerge
with. Creswell (1994: 4) buttresses the expressed point by stating that the
qualitative researcher is aware of the value laden nature of his or her study
and he or she actively reports his or her own values, biases, judgements, as well
as the value nature of the information gathered from the field.
For the purpose of this study, all the researcher's values, biases, judgements
and the value nature of the information gathered from the field had been
divulged under the sub-heading the researcher's role.
Methodological assumptions
One of the clear lines of distinction that could be drawn between the
quantitative and the qualitative research paradigm is that based on
methodology. The quantitative school of thought is deductive in approach.
The qualitative paradigm follows the inductive logic. Given the exposition of
34
the above assumptions of the qualitative school of thought, it is vivid that the
researcher's investigatory problem could be studied more approximately and
convincingly through the qualitative research paradigm.
3.3 Justifying the research paradigm selected
The qualitative research design unlike the quantitative school of thought is not
atomistic in approach. This is evidenced by the fact that the former does not treat
social phenomena as isolates which is what the latter does. The qualitative paradigm
recognizes that social phenomena are linked in a network of patterns (Higgs, 1995:
285). The quantitative mode of thinking seeks to study and analyze social
phenomena as separate entities. This paradigm is premised on the assumption that
facts about social phenomena are out there in the world and have to be observed
separately in order to arrive at rules and scientific laws that could then be used to
generate scientifically provable answers. Primarily, the quantitative mode of thinking
treats phenomena as independent and separate variables which can only be
adequately understood if they are studied and treated as isolates. This is one of the
main reasons why the researcher is convinced the qualitative research paradigm is
superior to the quantitative research design in terms of investigating the directive, the
participative, the permissive and the collegial leadership styles and their impact on
change management (Higgs, 1995: 292).
Unlike the quantitative research design, the qualitative mode of thinking recognizes
the dialectical relationship that is a central feature of social phenomena. What is
impressive about the qualitative school of thought is that it stresses the immense
significance of not focusing on one element in a complex situation (Higgs, 1995:
292). As stated not long ago, the emergent paradigm treats the social phenomena as
a totality. Where there is a problem, that problems is looked at as interactive and
in the whole context instead of placing attention on a single factor. In the case of a
study of four leadership styles in secondary schools, the emergent paradigm will stress
consideration of the entire context in which those leadership styles are being
exercised. On the contrary, the quantitative research design would disregard the
context and focus solely on the styles of leadership as components of a complex
situation (Higgs, 1995: 292). Stressing the consideration of the entirety of the
context in which leadership styles are exercised, the qualitative mode of thinking
would advise that the following be taken into cognizance: the culture in a particular
35
school, the vision and mission statement, the entire organizational structures, management processes, values, management strategy, task innovation; etcetera.
3.4 Population sampling
Armstrong (1993: 75) states that sampling involves the collection of attitudes, opinions and facts from a representative number of people in the total population. The term sampling denotes extracting systematically from a large group or some smaller portion of that group so as to represent adequately the larger group. Sampling is undertaken when studying an entire population is too unwieldily, too expensive, to time consuming or simply unnecessary. It is unimaginable to talk of sampling to the total exclusion or disregard of the term population. The two terms are inextricably linked. Behr (1982: 13) notes that a population refers to all those cases about whom one wants to make an estimate. It may be unfeasible for the researcher to study the total population earmarking a particular attribute. The population could be too large or simply unavailable for study.
The researcher studies a particular attribute of the population through a sample and then generalizes about the population. By and large in qualitative studies, generalizing does not reign supreme like in quantitative studies. The qualitative research design aims at understanding the case under study in its context, hence this paradigm is inductive in approach. Armstrong (1993: 76) notes that bias can enter in if the sampling method does not allow each and every member of the population an equal chance of contributing to the sample.
3.4.1 Sampling procedures Various sampling procedures exist. There are the simple random sampling, systematic random, stratified, quota sampling, and cluster sampling. Out of these sampling procedures, the researcher in this study sampled his population through simple random sampling. Behr (1982: 15) defines such a procedure as a sample which is so constituted that every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. Comparatively speaking, the researcher found the simple random sampling to be more relevant and superior to other sampling procedures.
...
In selecting the sample for this study, probabilistic sampling was used.
36
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 78) contend that probabilistic sampling involves extracting from an already well-defined population a subset for study approximating the characteristics of the group from which it was derived. For the purpose of this study the population included all the school managers and teachers of the six secondary schools in Mankweng area office. The simple random sampling was used. The simple random sampling requires that the population to be sampled be selected first and that every unit in that population be identified, and each unit be accessible to the researcher for the study. That was mainly done to ensure that each unit had an equal chance of being selected.
All the six secondary schools in Mankweng area office had an equal chance of being selected into sample. The procedure followed by the researcher in emerging with the needed sample from the population follows. The names of the six secondary schools were written on pieces of paper and each school was assigned a number. The numbers written on pieces of paper were put in a box and random selection was made in order to emerge with only three schools. The random selection of three schools involved the automatic random selection of each principal and each deputy principal of the selected schools into the sample. In the case of various departments, lists were made of different departments, for example commerce, official languages etcetera which the HODs supervised. Names of departments were written on pieces of papers and put in a box. Three HODs were selected from each school by the name of department which was randomly selected from the box. This method was also applied to randomly select five teachers from each of the three schools.
3.5 Researcher's role
Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with the research process rather than outcomes or product. They are again interested in meaning, that is how people make sense of their own lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. The qualitative investigator is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument. One of the roles of the qualitative researcher is that he or she needs to be ready for a fieldwork. This implies that the researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behaviour in its natural setting. The researcher focuses attention
37
on the process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. The researcher needs to build abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details because the process of qualitative research is inductive in nature (Creswell, 1994:
145)
The qualitative research paradigm is interpretive in nature. The researcher needs to ensure that his or her biases, value, and judgements are stated explicitly in the research report. Such openness is considered to be useful and positive (Locke, Spirdus & Silver, 1987) as quoted by Creswell (1994: 147). In the current investigation of the study of leadership styles and their impact on change management, the researcher's biases are that the directive and the permissive leadership styles are prominent in public secondary schools. Conducting a study under such biases makes the researcher to expect to find the two mentioned leadership styles in the sampled schools. As regards the researcher's values, of these four leadership styles focused on in this study, the researcher's values are inclined towards the collegial and the participative leadership styles. The investigator's overall judgement is that public secondary schools give little attention to leadership styles as an aspect of management. Both the investigator's biases, values and judgement are going to be reflected throughout this study either intentionally or unintentionally.
Marshall & Rossman (1989) as quoted by Creswell (1994: 148) contend that gaining entry into the field could be a continuous problem as the researcher would be moving from one side to another. In this study, the researcher made use of the cover letter submitted to all school managers who were part of the investigator's sample. The school managers disseminated information to members of personnel about the investigator. Initially, as early as six months in advance, the researcher frequented the schools which were part of the population. The aim was to establish rapport with staff in those schools. The investigator did that intentionally, knowing that at some stage he would elicit their views regarding the styles of leadership practised in their schools and how those leadership style impacted on the management of change in their schools. As Marshall Rossman (1989) quoted by Creswell (1994: 161) argues, the researcher needed to immerse himself in the everyday life of the setting chosen for the study to be able to enter the informants' world and through ongoing interaction seeks the informants' perspective and meanings. This is what the qualitative perspective teaches.
38
3.6 Collection of Data
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 233) note that over-collection of unselected data threatens both non-interactive and interactive methods of data collection. The above assertion indicates that data could be gathered through the interactive and non-interactive methods. Creswell (1994: 143) contends that few writers agree on a precise procedure for data collection, analysis, and reporting of qualitative research. Data collection steps involve setting the boundaries for the study, collection of information through observations, interviews, documents, visual, materials, and establishing the protocol for recording information (Creswell, 1994: 148). Miles and Huberman (1984) as quoted by Creswell (1994: 148) suggest four parameters to be considered by the investigator when collecting data. Those parameters are the setting, that is where the research will take place, the actors, that is, who will be observed or interviewed. The third parameter is events. Events are what the actors would be observed doing or interviewed about. The last parameter is a process. Process has something to do with the evolving nature of events undertaken by the actors within the research setting.
3.6.1 Sources of data LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 158) argue that in qualitative studies sources and types of data are limited only by the creativity and energy of the researcher. Data are any kind of information which researchers can identify and accumulate to facilitate answers to their queries. A hallmark of qualitative research is eclecticism. Data collection in any study usually ends because time, energy, funds and forbearance have been exhausted rather than because the sources of information have been depleted.
Anderson (1990: 160) notes that in adopting a case study as one of the methods of qualitative research design, one uses the following sources of evidence: documentation, file data, site visits, direct observation and physical artifacts. In order to augment the information gathered through the questionnaire, the investigator made use of the observation method. Observational evidence are said to be very helpful for comprehending why things are suggested by other data sources. Through direct observation of teachers and school managers of one of the three schools under investigation, information was gathered to supplement the data gathered through the
39
questionnaire technique. This was part of triangulating the data gathered.
3.6.2 Research instruments A number of research instruments through which information could be gathered are available. There is an interview, observation, case study, questionnaire and others. The investigator can use one research instrument to collect data. Alternatively two or more techniques can be used. The usage of many techniques is referred to as triangulation. Triangulation assists in corroborating the data collected. LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 159) argue that choosing methods for data collection means considering available alternatives and continually re-examining and modifying decisions. Creswell (1994: 50) argues that when one modifies an instrument or combines instruments in a study, the original validity and reliability may become distorted, and it becomes important to re-establish validity and reliability.
In this study, the investigator has used the interactive method of collecting data. The reason is that the interactive methods permit investigators to substantiate their perceptions and interpretations of participants by posing questions about actors and using those questions in their daily interaction with participants. Again the interactive method provides a lengthy association that allows analysis of latent and implicit functions and processes in group life (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993: 233). Unequalled attention needs to be given to how we gather data, since the data collection procedures raise issues of credibility, authenticity, trustworthiness and comprehensiveness about information.
For the purpose of this study which focuses on the directive, participative, collegial and the permissive leadership styles and the impact of these leadership styles on change management, the questionnaire was used. The data which the researcher emerged from the filed with were gathered through the questionnaire instrument. Other data were collected during the course of reviewing literature. In order to get data as broad as humanly possible, concerning this study, distinct questionnaires were used. There was a questionnaire for school principals and their deputies, another for HODs and the last one for teachers. The researcher aimed at comparing and contrasting information from these three categories of respondents. That was part of
40
triangulating the data gathered. Through such a process the investigator could easily establish whether the data collected correlated or were conflicting with each other.
Behr (1982: 150) notes that in a questionnaire, questions could be close-ended or open-ended or both combinations. For the purpose of this study, the researcher employed the close-ended questions and the open-ended questions. With the close-ended questions respondents were not expected to elaborate or give reasons for their answers. It was a matter of respondents making ticks to questions asked. Open ended questions enabled respondents to state their cases freely and possibly give reasons as well. Such questions were chosen because they are known to be evoking fuller and richer responses. They probably probe deeper than the close-ended questions (Behr, 1982: 150). Saddening about open-ended questions is that the work of tabulating and summarising the responses could be time-consuming and often very tricky.
3.6.2.1 Pilot study Initially, a pilot study was done in order to revise questionnaires. The investigator conducted the pilot study on a captive audience, namely of teachers, HODs and school principals. The pilot study also helped in modifying some areas of extreme sensitivity from questionnaires. To add to the information collected through the questionnaire, school principals, members of the HODs and teachers of one of the three schools were observed on duty by means of a participant observation technique which lasted for eight months.
3.6.2.2 Focus group interview After the questionnaires were received the focus group interview was held with all teachers who were part of the sample. The focus group interview was held with only one sampled school. The investigator aimed at triangulating the data gathered by conducting the focus group interview. The interviewees were asked similar questions which were contained in the questionnaire. To guard against the problem of maturity by respondents, the focus group interview was conducted the day after questionnaires were returned. Although the interview was not tape recorded, the researcher made some notes during the course of
41
interviewing process. The investigator found the interview to be very helpful in confirming or disconfirming the data contained in questionnaires. LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 181) advise that researchers should carefully record the respondents' exact words since paraphrasing could mask or distort the meanings intended by the respondents. When the investigator wrote down some notes during the interview, the above advise was kept in mind.
Both the focus group interview conducted and the questionnaires used to gather data were based on the literature reviewed. Through the literature studied, the researcher got an insight about what leadership styles are and what change management is. Such an insight guided the investigator when formulating questions to be included in the questionnaire. Again; an insight gained when literature was surveyed was imperative in assisting the researcher to be broad-minded in selecting the research techniques that could gather appropriate and the most needed data. The research techniques relevant to this study were the ones which would gather data through which the aims of this study would be achieved. In short, literature review is one of the research techniques through which a wealth of data pertaining to leadership styles and change management were collected.
3.7 Data Recording Procedure
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 223) contend that the data collected by participant observers, non-participant observers, interviews and questionnaires are recorded as field notes. Field notes are defined as written accounts made on the spot or as soon as possible after their occurrence and they represent the interactions and activities of the researcher and the people studied. Before entering the field, qualitative researchers plan their approach to data recording. These questions are significant: What is to be recorded? and how will it be recorded? are two critical concerns to be addressed (Creswell, 1994: 149).
Bodgan and Bilken (1992) as quoted by Creswell (1994: 152) state that a researcher should design an advance protocol for collecting information. As the above assertion advises, for the purpose of this study the researcher has used the observational protocol. Such an observation protocol was a page divided by a line in the middle. In this study the events observed were classified under the following categories: the
42
prevalence of signs of the following: the collegial, the directive, the participative and
the permissive leadership styles and how these styles of leadership were seen to be
impacting on organizational structures, management processes, etcetera. Reflective
notes written depended largely on how the investigator observed events. The
investigator looked for the directive, collegial, participative and permissive signs of
leadership styles being guided by the Interpretivist perspective. This is the theoretical
perspective which undergirds this study. How the leadership style impacted on
management processes were also examined and recorded down.
3.8 Data Analysis Procedure
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 330) note that qualitative analysis is Interpretive,
idiosyncratic, and so context dependent as to be infinitely variable. A creative analyst
can never be sure that the ending will match the point of view adopted in the
beginning of a study. Analysis can be viewed as a staged process by which a whole
phenomenon is divided into its components and then reassembled under various new
rubrics. The researcher needs to assemble chunks of data fitting those pieces together
so that they are a coherent whole. What constitutes the heart of analysis is the
process of pulling apart the field notes, matching, comparing and contrasting
(LeCompte & Preissle, 1993: 237).
In qualitative research unlike in quantitative designs, several simultaneous activities
engage the attention of the researcher, namely, collecting information from the field,
sorting the information into categories, formatting the information into story or
picture, and actually writing the qualitative text (Bodgan and Biklen, 1992) as quoted
by Creswell (1994: 154). The above assertion confirms that in qualitative designs
data analysis is carried out in the same time as data collection. Bodgan and Biklen
(1992) argue that all the activities of analysing and collecting data in qualitative
design are carried out simultaneously by the experienced researchers although the
beginning researchers may want to treat them separately.
For the purpose of this study, information about leadership styles and their impact
on change management were gathered through observation, focus group interview,
questionnaire and above all by means of literature review. The information was put
into categories like the directive leadership style, the participative leadership style,
the collegial leadership style, the permissive leadership style and how each of these
43
leadership styles stifles or enhances the management of change in public secondary
schools. The categories were later used to form a story or picture and the actual
writing of this research report.
3.9 Validity and Reliability of Tools
Creswell (1994: 157) contends that qualitative researchers have no single stance or
consensus on addressing traditional topics such as validity and reliability in
qualitative studies. In a qualitative study the researcher is expected to discuss plans
to triangulate, or find convergence among sources of information, different
investigators or different methods of data collection. Validity refers to the extent to
which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability on the
other hand, is the extent to which a measuring device is consistent in measuring
whatever it measures (Creswell, 1994: 144).
3.9.1 Validity
Ary et al (1985: 190) notes that there are four types of validity. These are the
content validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity and construct validity.
Content validity refers to the degree to which an instrument samples the
content area which is to be measured. One may ask this question with regard
to a questionnaire as a data collection instrument: does its content sample the
content area of leadership styles and change management? Does the
questionnaire ask what it is supposed to measure regarding the directive, the
participative, the permissive and the collegial styles of leadership together with
the management of change? Ary et al (1985: 192-193) state that through the
face validity, which is subjective evaluation of what a measuring instrument
is supposed to measure and through the sampling validity, which is an
adequate sampling of the potential questions from a well defined universe of
items, content validity can be ensured. Predictive validity according to Ary et
al (1985: 193) refers to the extent to which an instrument can predict the
future performance of individuals. With regard to this study, the question to
be asked is whether the data gathered through questionnaires could predict
how paying peculiar attention to the collegial, the participative, the directive
and permissive leadership styles used in selected secondary schools could lead
to the improvement of performance in those schools and beyond.
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3.9.2 Reliability
According to Ary et al (1985: 200) reliability of a measuring instrument is the
degree of consistency with which the instrument measures what is supposed
to measure. The above scholars proceed to reveal that the less variation an
instrument produces among the repeated measurements, the more reliable it
is. A perfectly measuring device, produces exactly the same results every time
it is used. The inaccuracy of the instrument represents a problem related to
validity of the instrument. It is possible for an instrument to be reliable
without being valid. However, an instrument cannot be valid if it is also not
reliable. Reliability is an essential component of validity. If an instrument
provides inconsistent or unreliable measures, the measures would be inaccurate
or invalid (Ary et al, 1985: 201). Therefore if the questionnaire is unreliable
in sampling the questions relevant to the directive, permissive, participative
and collegial leadership styles together with the impact of these styles of
leadership on change management, then the information gathered would be
invalid for that study. The problem can however, be overcome through the
literature review of the aspects to be investigated, so that one could come up
with a reliable sampling of questions.
3.10 Validity of the Research Design
LeCompte and Preissle (1993: 330) advise that seeking unitary meaning for validity
in qualitative research is a mistake. They argue that making the qualitative approach
to validity analogous to validity used in quantitative investigations may distort the
very features of the qualitative design that contribute something special to the human
sciences. The risk in such an analogy is rigidity, dogmatism, and the stifling of
creativity. Validity is the concept used in the sciences, natural and human to
represent the philosophical and lay notion of truth. Like many scientific constructs,
validity is associated with accuracy. Validity requires determining the extent to
which conclusions effectively represent empirical reality, and assessing whether
constructs devised by the researchers accurately represent or measure categories of
human experience (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993: 323).
3.11 Conclusion
This chapter centred around how the researcher went about gathering data relevant
45
and germane to the problem under investigation. As the discussion has shown, the
best way for the investigator was to follow the qualitative school of thought given its
superiority over the quantitative train of thought in this study. Justification for
selecting the ethnographic research design over the positivistic one was vividly
elucidated. How data were collected, recorded, what the researcher's role was, the
steps the investigator took to ensure validity and reliability of the research
instruments employed, together with ensuring the validity for the entire study was
also excellently articulated.
46
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Introduction
The main focus of this research study was to probe into the leadership styles used by school principals in managing their own schools. Attention was focused on the collegial, the participative, the permissive and the directive leadership styles. The purpose of this chapter is to present and analyse data gathered through the questionnaire, observational protocol and above all through the review of literature. One of the ultimate aims for conducting the study of this nature was to find ways of enhancing performance in schools. Hevesi, (1996: 2) advises that there are no ready-to-wear solutions to the problem of low performance in secondary schools. He proceeds to argue that searching for a ready-made quality recipe, instead of creating one that meets the organisation or the school's unique requirement is seen as one of the obstacles of quality transformation of our schools.
When data pertaining to the management of change were presented and analysed the following aspects of change management were taken into account:
that the achievement of sustainable change requires strong commitment and collaborative leadership, that those managing change at all levels should have the temperament and leadership skills appropriate to the circumstances of the organisation and its change strategies, that although there may be an overall strategy for change, it is best tackled incrementally except in crisis conditions, that change will always involve failure as well as success. Failures must be expected and be learned from, and that resistance to change is inevitable if the individuals concerned feel they are going to be worse-off implicitly or explicitly (Armstrong, 1995: 42)
4.2 Population and sample
Section A of the questionnaires for teachers, HODs and headteachers contained items on demographic variables. It was therefore germane and appropriate that the presentation and analysis of those demographic variables be made in this chapter. Items on demographic variables for teachers, HODs and headteachers in the
47
questionnaires were similar.
A total number of 30 teachers and school managers combined, responded to the questionnaires. 73.3% were males and 26.7% were females. 93.4% of the teachers were members of teachers union of which the largest percentage were affiliated to the South African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU). The results showed that 6,7% of the teachers were not affiliated to any union. The responses indicated that 66.7% of the principals were males and 33.3% were females. The age of the respondents ranged from 28 to 58 years, with the average age of the respondents being 39.6 years old. The largest percentage of respondents were in the range of 30-39 years old.
As regards educational qualifications; 6.7% had Std 10 only, 16.7% had a post school diploma, 26,7% of the respondents had a B-degree and the other 50% had postgraduate qualifications. Pertaining to religious commitment; 90% of the respondents were Christians and 10% indicated that they belonged to no religious denomination.
Regarding the entire staff members' level of commitment to their duties in their own schools, 63.3% responded that the level of commitment was poor. 36.7% saw the level of commitment as average. As regards the image of their schools in their communities, 43.3% responded that the image was poor, 30% argued that it was at an average level and 26.7% contended that the image was disturbing.
4.3 Data collected through teachers' questionnaires
Fifteen teachers, that is five teachers from each of the three selected secondary schools, were given questionnaires to respond to. Questions varied by responding to the questions by agreeing or strongly agreeing, disagreeing or strongly disagreeing to the statements given. When analysing the statements, both agreeing and strongly agreeing responses were combined as just an agreeing response. Responses for disagreeing and strongly disagreeing were as well merged. They were merged to mean a disagreeing responses.
A brief discussion of each of these findings is given below. 4.3.1 The directive leadership style dehumanizes
Out of fifteen teachers, twelve respondents agreed with the statement. This
48
is an indication that only 20% of the teachers disagreed with the statement
while 80% responded positivelty to the pronouncement. Notwithstanding this
finding, Glueck (1991: 101) provides a justification for the exercise of a
directive style of leadership. He contends that the nature of employees impact
on the leadership style to be exercised over them. Some employees are said to
have been raised in a society in which most leaders follow the directive model.
Where the directive style of leadership is dominant in a society, in a school
setting employees may expect that type of leadership style and are likely to
work better when getting what they expect.
To the statement touching on the usage of positional power as against expert
power in schools, thirteen teachers out of fifteen revealed that interaction in
their schools was based on the position one holds. Only two teachers denied
or disagreed with the statement. In terms of percentage, 86.7% agreed with
the statement and 13.3% disagreed.
4.3.2 School contestations and management style
There was an overwhelming support for the statement arguing that much
problems in schools can be traced back to the type of leadership style
practised. Out of fifteen teachers, fourteen responded positively and only one
teacher disagreed with the statement. This indicates that the statement
obtained 93.7% support as against 6.7%. About the expressed state of affairs,
Hevesi: (1996: 21) argues that the directive style of leadership is too
dependent upon the individual in charge. Since there is no allowance for
inadequacies or failures on the part of an individual, it therefore means that
there is no individual or organizational learning.
To the statement that the directive leadership style can be used to clamp down
on threatening teachers, the bulk of the respondents identified themselves with
the pronouncement. Out of fifteen teachers, fourteen agreed with the
statement and only one teacher disagreed. Once again the percentage
remained 93.7% as against 6.7%. In support of the expressed finding, Duncan
(1985: 213) argues that some leaders used to contend that other forms of
leadership styles are new and unproven as compared to the directive leadership
style.
49
4.3.3 The participative leadership style boosts morale All the respondents identified themselves with this statement. This indicates
that the statement obtained a 100% support from teachers. This can be a
significant indication that the bulk of the teachers are fast becoming tired and
bored of being managed along other forms of leadership styles other than the
participative leadership style. Lankard (1992: 92) argues that the participative
leadership style does not mean the transfer of power and authority from the
headteacher and HODs to the teachers and learners. It means attempting to
use the bottom-up strategy. To the statement that centralizing the
management of the school to only a handful of members of the personnel, robs
the schools of many talents around, the bulk of respondents answered
positively. Out of fifteen teachers, twelve respondents agreed with the
statement while only three teachers disagreed. The statement thus had 80%
support as against 20% in its disfavour.
Regarding the statement contending that as a teacher, one develops a sense of
self-worth when one's inputs are being considered and implemented, there was
unequalled support. Fifteen of the respondents identified themselves with the
pronouncement. In terms of percentage, this means that there was 100%
support for the statement. Merron (1995: 94) stresses that the significance of
having quality decisions reflecting the concerns, needs, ideas and active input
of all staff members is beneficial to all members of the school.
As regards the statement that it serves no use for the school leader to pretend
to be practising say the participative leadership style while in fact he believes
in the directive leadership style, most respondents answered positively to the
statement. Eleven out of fifteen teachers unreservedly aligned themselves with
the pronouncement. Only four teachers disagreed with the statement. To
support the above finding, Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1991: 26) contend that
leaders ought not to use the "democratic facade" to conceal the fact that they
have already taken a decision which they hope the group will accept as its own.
4.3.4 The leadership style and its effects Responses to the statement that both the type of leadership style practised in
a school together with the results being brought about by that style of
leadership are significant, the bulk of the respondents answered positively in
50
favour of the statement. Twelve out of the fifteen teachers supported the
statement. Only three respondents disagreed with the statement. This puts
the percentages to 80% as against 20%. On the question of the permissive
leadership style promoting job autonomy, eleven responded positively. Four
teachers refuted the pronouncement. Therefore, the pronouncement obtained
73% support against 26,7% in its disfavour.
4.3.5 Collegiality eases tension and encourages flexibility
Twelve of the respondents answered yes to the statement that collegiality
accentuates the significance of a relaxed atmosphere. The other three
respondents rejected the statement. This indicates that there was 80% support
for the statement as against 20% in the statement's disfavour. Regarding the
statement that no leadership style should be rigid as collegiality teaches, there
was overwhelming support. Fifteen of the respondents identified themselves
with the pronouncement. This means that the statement had 100% support.
4.3.6 Collegiality fosters a sense of ownership for the school
Out of fifteen teachers, fourteen teachers responded positively to the
statement. Only one teacher disagreed with the statement. This means that
the statement received 93.3% support from teachers as against 6.7% of
respondents refuting the statement.
Respondents showed an overwhelming support for the statement contending
that collegiality stresses the significance of redistributing power and authority.
Out of fifteen teachers, thirteen responded positively to the articulated
statement. Two respondents did not agree with the statement. Expressing
their responses in terms of percentage it is 86.7% as against 13.3%. This
suggests that the bulk of teachers in the selected secondary schools saw the
solution to some problems in schools as the redistribution of power and
authority within the entire members of the school.
Regarding the statement that the collegial style of leadership motivates staff
members in a school to work collaboratively and have a desire to be together,
the bulk of the respondents answered positively. Out of fifteen teachers,
fourteen agreed with the statement with only one respondent disagreeing.
This implies that the statement had 93.3% support as against 6.7% rejection.
51
4.3. 7 Merging the participative leadership style and collegiality The overwhelming support was received to the statement that it can be an
ideal thing that the participative leadership style and collegiality be merged
and then exercised concurrently, All the fifteen teachers agreed with the
statement. This is to imply that there was 100% agreement with the
statement by all the respondents.
4.3. 8 Managing change in an inclusive manner The bulk of the respondents aligned themselves with the statement arguing
that one of the attributable factors why teachers resist a particular change
being introduced the exclusivist tendency of managing change can be the
cause. Fifteen of the teachers indicated that they identified themselves with
the statement. So, the statement had a 100% support. The total support given
to this finding acknowledges the fact that change is too complex and dynamic
to posit.
The presented and analysed findings are represented in table 1 on pages 52
and 53. The vertical line represents the statements, that is from 4.3.1 to 4.3.8.
The horizontal line represents the teachers responses, that is by agree, strongly
agree, disagree and strongly disagree to the statement.
TABLE 1
TEACHERS' RESPONSES
QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
A SA D SD TOTAL A
TOTAL
D
%
A
% D
4.3.1 (i ) 5 7 1 2 12 3 80 20
(ii) 4 9 1 1 13 2 86,7 13,3
4.3.2 (i) 5 9 0 1 14 1 93,3 6,7
(ii) 5 9 1 0 14 1 93,3 6,7
4.3.3 (i) 7 8 0 0 15 0 100 0
(ii) 3 9 3 0 12 3 80 20
(iii) 6 9 0 0 15 0 100 0
(iv) 4 7 4 0 11 4 73,3 26,7
4.3.4(i) 5 7 3 0 12 3 80 20
52
(ii) 4 7 2 2 11 4 73,3 26,7
4.3.5 (i) 5 7 0 3 12 3 80 20
(ii) 3 12 0 0 15 0 100 0
4.3.6 (i) 5 9 0 1 14 1 93,3 6,7
(ii) 4 9 2 0 13 2 86,7 13,3
(iii) 5 9 1 0 14 1 93,3 6,7
4.3.7 9 6 0 0 15 0 100 0
4.3.8 (i) 8 7 0 0 15 0 100 0
CODES:
A= Agree SA= Strongly agree D= Disagree SD= Strongly disagree %= Avarage percentage
4.4. Data collected through HODs' questionnaires
Questionnaires were given to nine HODs of three selected secondary schools. This implies that three HODs in each school formed part of the research sample. All the questions or questionnaire items centred around the participtive, the collegial, the directive and the permissive leadership styles together with the impact of those styles of leadership on change management. HODs responded to the statements in the questionnaires by indicating if they agree, strongly agree, disagree or strongly disagree.
A brief discussion of each of the findings is given below. 4.4.1 Rejecting the practised leadership style
To the question whether the HOD was going to use the same leadership style practised by his present senior if he were a headteacher, the responses varied. Out of nine HODs, six answered negatively to the statement. Only three HODs responded positively to the question. This implies that 66.7% of the HODS were dissatisfied with the leadership styles used by their headteachers.
53
Only 33.3% indicated that they were satisfied. Glueck (1991: 100) stresses
the point that only few managers have the ability to alternate their styles of
leadership to fit varying circumstances.
4.4.2 Tight supervision of nonmanagers The bulk of respondents agreed with the statement arguing that teachers and
learners can only discharge their responsibilities when constantly reminded.
Seven out of nine HODs agreed with the statement while only two
respondents disagreed. Therefore, 77,8% as against 22,7% were for the
statement. McGregor (1960) as quoted by Gibson et al (1991: 30) argues that
where HODs are eager to supervise nonmanagers that can be explained in
terms of the erroneous assumptions held of the nonmanagers and learners.
Firstly, the HODs assume that nonmanagers lack ambition, dislike
responsibility and above all prefer to be led.
Mixed responses were obtained regarding the nature of the appointment of
HODs. Five HODs out of nine affirmed the statement, while four HODs
disagreed with the statement. This is to say that 55.6% were for the statement
and 44.4% of the respondents refuted the pronouncement. Such responses
confirm the erroneous assumptions by some HODs that by and large the
subordinates are by nature indolent or lazy. It is only through supervision
that the subordinates' laziness can be eradicated McGregor (1960) as quoted
by Gibson et al (1991: 30).
4.4.3 A humane atmosphere enhances performance Mixed responses were obtained on whether the HOD needs to openly inform
the subordinates that they need to toe his line since he is their senior. Out of
nine HODs, four agreed with the statement and five HODs refuted the
statement. This signifies that 44.4% were in favour of the statement with
55.6% rejecting the pronouncement. The mixed responses for this finding is
a vivid example to the fact that some HODs feel that teachers and learners are
part of the school and that through collaboration between headteachers,
HODs, teachers and learners the school as an organization stands to benefit
from that sense of belonging (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 99).
4.4.4 Articulating as against implementation
54
The responses were overwhelmingly high to the statement contending that the
participative way of managing a school is easily articulated than lived and
implemented. Seven respondents out of nine supported the statement with
only two HODs responding in the negative to the statement. This indicates
that the statement obtained 77.8% as against 22.2% in its disfavour.
Substantial support was received from the HODs regarding the statement
articulating the point that the inclusion of teachers in the school's decision
making process can assist in improving results in a school and bettering the
image of the school. Eight out of nine respondents were in support of the
pronouncement. Only one HOD responded negatively to the statement. The
percentage amounted to 88.9% as against 11.1%. In support of the finding
Senge et al (1994: 417) argue that organizations can never get to high
performance participation without valuing the uniqueness each person brings
to the organization.
4.4.5 Clamouring for democracy but abdicating responsibility.
The statement expressing the point that the general trend prevalent in our
schools is for teachers to clamour for democracy but abdicate responsibilities
that come with it, received an overwhelming response. Out of nine HODs
none of them indicated rejection to the pronouncement. In a sense all the
respondents identified themselves with the articulated statement. This means
that the statement obtained a 100% support.
The statement contending that the success of the participative leadership style
depends on its introduction in a slow creep form and not in a big bang
manner, received a considerable support from the respondents. Six out of nine
HODs answered in favour of the statement while three respondents refuted
the pronouncement. Expressing the responses in terms of percentage it will be
66.7% as against 33.3%. Glueck (1991: 101) argues that some employees
expect the directive leadership style because they were brought up under such
a style of leadership. For any other style, that style must be introduced slowly
but surely.
The majority of the HODs responded positively to the statement conteding
that the participative style of leadership can misfire in producing the desired
55
results because of teachers being used to a different leadership style. Six
HODs out of nine responded positively to the pronouncement with only three
HODs answering no to the statement. The percentage is 66.7% support for
the statement as against 33.3% in the statement's disfavour.
4.4.6 How one manages the school is of less significance Responses to this statement showed that, what matters is not how one
manages the school but whether the way in which the school is managed leads
to improved results or not. The bulk of the respondents did not distance
themselves to the expressed statement. This is to imply that the statement
was satisfactorily supported. Seven out of nine HODs responded in favour of
the statement. Therefore the statement enjoyed 77.8% of support as against
22.2%. The overwhelming majority of the respondents distanced themselves
to the pronouncement that the adoption of a nonchalant attitude empowers
the subordinates. Only one HOD out of nine aligned himself with the
statement.This indicates that the expressed pronouncement had 11.1%
support. The percentage of HODs who rejected the pronouncement amounted
to 89.9%. In support of this rejection Senge et al (1994: 64) notes that one
can always feel the presence or absence of leadership when one comes to the
organization for the first time.
Mixed responses were obtained to the pronouncement that an HOD should
not pester teachers if she wants to avoid conflict and rivalry. Four of the
HODs agreed with the statement with five HODs rejecting the statement.
This means that the statement attracted 44.4% support as against 55.6%
which was forfeited. This vividly demonstrates that the bulk of the HODs
accept that avoiding conflict and rivalry in schools is no solution for addressing
the problem of underperformance.
4.4.7 Collegiality stresses a sense of belonging The bulk of the respondents identified themselves with the statement that to
run the department or school along the collegial style of leadership can
enhance and empower both teachers and learners. Six out of nine HODs
responded positively to the statement as against only three HODs who
indicated their disagreement with the pronouncement. This means there was
66.7% in favour of the pronouncement as against 33.3% in its disfavour.
56
The bulk of the respondents again agreed with the pronouncement stating that
as an attempt to minimize a spirit of animosity between teachers, learners and
school managers, the creation of a sense of community in a school is an ideal
thing. Out of nine HODs, eight were in favour of the statement and only one
HOD disagreed with the statement. This suggests that the statement had
88.9% support as against 11.1%.
The bulk of the respondents identified themselves with the pronouncement
articulating that the collegial style of leadership reduces the school pressure
from the headteachers and HODs to all members in the school. Out of nine
HODs, seven supported the statement while two HODs disagreed with the
pronouncement. This signifies that there was 77.8% support for the
pronouncement as against 22.2%.
Divergent responses were obtained to the pronouncement arguing that a
school which is run along the collegial leadership style promotes collective
learning over individual learning. Six of the nine HODs agreed with the
statement with only three respondents disagreeing with the statement. The
percentages amounted to 67.7% as against 33.3%. In support of this finding,
Senge et al (1990: 245) notes that collegiality as a style of leadership consists
of members of an organization regarding each other as colleagues in mutual
quest for deeper insight and clarity. Sergiovanni and Starrat (1993: 103)
support the finding by arguing that collegiality refers to the existence of high
levels of collaboration among teachers and between teachers and principals and
is characterized by mutual respect, hard work, shared values, cooperation and
specific conversations about teaching and learning.
The presented and analysed findings are contained in Table 2 on page 58.
TABLE 2
HODS' RESPONSES
QUESTIONNAIRE A SA D SD TOTAL TOTAL % ITEMS A D A D
4.4.1 1 2 3 3 3 6 33,3 67,7
57
4.4.2 (i) 2 5 1 1 7 2 77,8 22,2
(ii) 5 0 4 0 5 4 55.6 44,4
4.4.3 1 3 3 2 4 5 44,4 55,6
4.4.4 (i) 2 5 2 0 7 2 77,8 22,2
(ii) 2 6 1 0 8 1 88,9 11,1
4.4.5 (i) 4 5 0 0 9 0 100 0
(ii) 4 2 3 0 6 3 66,7 33,3
(iii) 5 1 3 0 6 3 66,7 33,3
4.4.6 (i) 4 3 2 0 7 2 77,8 22,2
(ii) 1 0 5 3 1 8 11,1 88,9
(iii) 3 1 4 1 4 5 44,4 55,6
4.4.7 (i) 3 2 3 0 6 3 66,7 33,3
(ii) 4 4 1 0 8 1 88.9 11,1
(iii) 5 2 2 0 7 2 77,8 22,2
(vi) 5 1 2 1 6 3 66,7 33,3
CODES:
A= Agree
Sa= Strongly agree
D= Disagree
Sd = Strongly Disagree
%= Average percentage
4.5 Data collected through headteachers' questionnaires
Questionnaires were given to six headteachers of the three selected secondary schools.
This implies that two headteachers in each school formed part of the research sample.
All the questionnaire items focused on the participative, the collegial, the directive
and the permissive leadership styles together with the impact of those styles of
leadership on change management. Headteachers responded to the statements in the
58
questionnaires by indicating if they agree, strongly agree, disagree or strongly disagree.
A brief discussion of each of the findings is given below 4.5.1 Identification with the directive leadership style
The bulk of the headteachers respondend in favour of the pronouncement arguing that for teachers to honour their lessons and for learners to reasonably remain in their classrooms the presence of a headteacher on a school terrain was significant. Out of six respondents, four agreed with the statement with only two respondents answering negatively. The response percentages are 66.7% as against 33.3%.
The overwhelming majority of the respondents supported the pronouncement arguing that the headteacher derives job satisfaction when he is acknowledged as an authority figure in the school. Out of six headteachers five responded positively to the statement. Only one headteacher disagreed with the statement. The response percentages are 83.3% in support of the statement as against 16.7% in the pronouncement's disfavour. This finding is supported by Harding (1987: 30) when contending that in circumstances where the manager is extremely competent, possessing a wealth of knowledge and experience in comparison with those below him or her then his desire to be recognised as an authority figure can be justifiable to a certain extent.
The bulk of the respondents responded in favour of the pronouncement which argues that to enhance performance at one's school, the headteacher can recommend that teacher training programmes emphasize that teachers should subject themselves under authority in school. Five out of six headteachers identified themselves with the statement. Only one HOD disagreed with the statement. The response percentages are 83.3% as against 16.7%.
4.5.2 The directive style of leadership promotes docility
Mixed responses were received regarding the statement contending that staff members need to be constantly reminded of their responsibilities by someone who is senior to them. Out of six headteachers, four agreed with the pronouncement and two respondents rejected the pronouncement. The percentage responses are 66.7% in favour of the statement as against 33.3%
59
in the statement's disfavour. This finding demonstrates the point that some
headteachers are convinced there is definitely a distinction between themselves
and those below them in rank. This is not what the collegial leadership style
teaches (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993: 100).
The bulk of the respondents disagreed with the pronouncement arguing that
in schools where teachers have been managed for a long time along the
autocratic leadership style, any other style is likely to fail to appeal to them.
Four out of six headteachers responded negatively to the statement with only
two respondents identifying themselves with the statement. The response
percentages are 66.7% in disfavour of the pronouncement and 33.3% in favour
of the statement.
4.5.3 Democracy belongs to politics and not to education
On the question of democracy, not functioning properly in education, mixed
responses were obtained. Out of six headteachers, four supported the
statement with only two respondents disagreeing with the pronouncement.
The response percentages were 66.7% in favour of the statement as against
33.3% in disfavour of the pronouncement. The support this statement
received is an indication of what Gluek (1991: 103) is asserting that in
education, the participative leadership style is talked about much more than
it is practised.
The bulk of the headteachers agreed with the pronouncement contending that
the democratic way of running the school is time-consuming and burdensome
to the school principal. Four out of six headtechers agreed with the statement
and the other two refuted the pronouncement. The percentage responses are
66.7% in support of the statement as against 33.3% in disfavour of the
statement. Parsey (1981: 41) notes that headteachers who are convinced that
the democratic way of running the school is time-consuming and burdensome
are the victims of the top-down practice instead of a bottom-up strategy.
An overwhelming support was received for the pronouncement arguing that
given a lack of sufficient exposure to the democratic way of managing schools,
teachers tend to equate democracy with absolute freedom to do as they please
in schools. All the six headteachers agreed with the statement. This implies
60
that there was 100% support for the pronouncement.
The bulk of the headteachers amazingly responded in favour of the statement arguing that attempting to manage a public secondary school along the democratic leadership style ,only a short -lived pocket of success will ensue. Four out of six headteachers agreed with statement with only two respondents disagreeing. The response percentages amounted to 66,7% in support of the pronouncement as against 33,3% in disfavour of the statement.
4.5.4 Resorting to a nonchalant attitude
Mixed responses were received regarding the pronouncement contending that the level of lawlessness in public secondary schools on the part of teachers and learners can tempt the school principal to leave them to do as they please. Three of the headteachers were for the statement and the other three responded in disfavour of the pronouncement. The response percentages were 50% in agreement and disagreement to the statement respectively. The half support this finding obtained proves the point that it is better to manage the school along the directive leadership style other than leaving HODs, teachers and learners to do as they please.
Positive responses were received with regard to the pronouncement arguing that in a school where the headteacher cares less about how teachers and learners handle their responsibilities, learners and teachers quickly learn to be independent. Out of six headteachers, four agreed with the statement and only two headteachers disagreed. The response percentages were 66.7% in support of the pronouncement as against 33.3% in disfavour of the statement.
4.5.5 Situational factors and the practised leadership style
Satisfactory responses in favour of the statement to the effect that the realities obtaining in a school partly dictate and determine to the headteachers never to constantly be after learners and teachers, were obtained. Out of six headteachers, four of them aligned themselves with the statement. The other two respondents distanced themselves to the pronouncement. This implies that 66.7% of the respondents were for the statement and the other 33.3% responded in disfavour of the statement.
61
The bulk of the respondents identified themselves with the statement
contending that in a school what matters is not how one manages the school,
but whether the way in which the school is managed leads to improved results
or not. All the six headteachers aligned themselves with this statement. Once
again, the pronouncement obtained a 100% support.
4.5.6 Collegiality demands commitment There were overwhelming support for the pronouncement arguing that the
collegial way of running a school is possible where the level of commitment to
learning and teaching by learners and teachers is very high. Out of six
headteachers, five headteachers responded in favour of the statement. Only
one headteacher disagreed with the statement. In terms of percentage it will
be 83,3% in support of the pronouncement and 16,7% in disfavour of the
statement.
The marjority of the respondents agreed with the pronouncement contending
that teamwork in our schools is threatened and stifled by the tradition of
comprehending individualism and collectivism as being mutually exclusive.
Out of six headteachers, four aligned themselves with the statement and only
two headteachers refuted the pronouncement. The response percentages were
66,7% in support of the statement as against 33,3% in disfavour of the
pronouncement. Collegiality results in comfort and trust and it allows each
member of a group to feel safe individually and as part of the collective whole.
Contrary to the misconception spread, in collegiality, individualism and
collectivism coexist harmoniously.
The bulk of the headteachers agreed with the statement arguing that the
collegial leadership style encourages that the individual teacher ceases his or
her individuality to become a group teacher. Out of six respondents, four
agreed with the pronouncement. The other two respondents refuted the
expressed statement. The response percentages were 66,7% in favour of the
statement as against 33,3% in the pronouncement's disfavour.
4.5.7 Mandating the management of change There were an overwhelming support for the pronouncement contending that
when the headteacher is committed to something else the management of
62
change can be mandated to any other competent teacher. All the six
headteachers identified themselves with the articulated statement. This
implies that the statement obtained a 100% support.
A large number of respondents responded positively to the statement arguing
that the success of any change introduced in the school hinges upon rallying
the support of all staff members behind that change. Five out of six
headteachers agreed with the statement. Only one headteacher disagreed with
the statement. The response percentages are 16,7% in disfavour of the
statement as against 83,3 % in support of the statement. The satisfactory
support which this finding received, evinces and proves what Tannenbaum and
Schmidt (1991: 26) are contending. They argue that the accurate index of the
amount of value attached to nonmanagers is seen when their needs, concerns
and ideas are considered when change is to be introduced.
A considerable number of respondents agreed with the statement contending
that if there is to be a reculturing process in one's school, those introducing
that change process should be seen to be changing before expecting change
from others. Out of six headteachers, five identified themselves with the
pronouncement while only one headteacher disagreed. The response
percentages are 83.3% in support of the pronouncement as against 16.7% in
disagreement with the pronouncement. The support this finding got serves to
indicate the point that genuine change begins one rung below the reformer
(Anon, 1995: 17).
The presented and analysed findings are contained in table 3 on page 63 and
64.
TABLE 3
Head teacher's responses
QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
A SA D SD TOTAL A
TOTAL D
% A
% D
4.5.1 (i) 2 2 1 1 4 2 66,7 33,3
(ii) 3 2 1 0 5 1 83,3 16,7
(iii) 2 3 1 0 5 1 83,3 16,7
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4.5.2 (i) 2 2 1 1 4 2 66,7 33,3
(ii) 1 3 . 1 1 4 2 66,7 33,3
4.5.3 (i) 2 2 2 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
(ii) 3 3 0 0 6 0 100 0
(iii) 2 0 1 1 2 4 33,3 66,7
(iv) 2 2 0 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
4.5.4 (i) 3 0 0 0 3 3 50 50
(ii) 1 3 0 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
4.5.5 (i) 3 1 0 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
(ii) 4 2 0 0 6 0 100 0
4.5.6 (i) 2 3 0 0 5 1 83,3 16,7
(ii) 2 2 0 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
(iii) 4 0 0 0 4 2 66,7 33,3
4.5.7(i) 6 0 0 0 6 0 100 0
(ii) 3 2 0 0 5 1 83,3 16,7
(iii) 4 1 0 0 5 1 83,3 16,7
CODES:
A= Agree
Sa= Strongly agree
D= Disagree
Sd= Strongly Disagree
%= Average percentage
2.6 Researchers observational protocol of one of the three selected secondary schools
One of the three selected secondary schools was put under observation with regard
to the collegial, the participative, the directive and the permissive leadership styles
used by school principals in manageing their own schools. Under each leadership
style attention was focused on particular aspects. Presented together, the aspects
64
focused on were interaction amongst the staff members, a sense of community, handling of conflict, the bottom-up strategy, people centredness; multi-directional communication, usage of fear as a form of motivation, task centredness, dependence on the individual in charge, appraising and regulating the course of events, the school running itself, and commitment to change.
The following is a representation of the events observed and the researchers views, opinions and prejudices with regard to the events observed.
EVENTS
4.6.1. Interaction amongst staff
members in the school
Interaction amongst staff members was observed to be based on hierarchy. Headteachers were observed to be admiring more recognition as senior authority figures. HODS demanded the same from teachers and learners alike.
4.6.2. A Sense of community
Staff members were observed to be defining themselves in terms of their positions in school. In relation to that, there were capricious and inconsistent use of power over the less powerful members. Conformity to the norms and standards decided upon by headteachers and HODs were expected from the teachers and learners
RESEARCHERS VIEWS AND
ANALYSIS
Headteachers demanded to be respected in terms of the legitimate positions they held. Little did they know that respect is earned not expected in a vacuum. All demonstrated vividly that interaction was based on positional power each member had, not on the spirit of professionalism.
Members of staff were not drawing upon each other for support and advice. Again there was no open discussion and consensus reached by all staff members as professionals. Headteachers and HODs evinced little confidence in those below them in rank. Little attention was shown to the inputs made by teachers and learners.
65
4.6.3. Handling of conflict
Conflict was approached as something Given the lack of the collegial leadership
too unique and deserving to be style, conflict was seen as a threat capable
attended to by headteachers and at of bringing the school to a standstill.
least HODs only. It was only when Conflict was hardly seen and responded
the conflict showed signs of being too to as an opportunity for creating a shared
complex to be unpacked by the visioning. Instead of conflict encouraging
selected few that teachers were also collective learning by all staff members, it
drawn in. Conflict was observed to be tossed the headteachers and HODs
viewed as a deadly threat to the school around.
by headteachers and HODs.
4.6.4. The bottom-up strategy
In the school observed, the top-down Believing on the rigidity of the hierachy
strategy was the order of the day. The of the school, was an attributable factor
bottom-up strategy was seen as to the usage of a top-down strategy.
leaders' abdication of their legitimate Little did the headteachers and HODs
responsibilities. The usage of top- recognize the fact that they stood to learn
down strategy led to a situation where a great deal from both the teachers and
any final decision taken did not reflect learners in using a bottom-up strategy to
the concerns, ideas, and needs of the manage the affairs of the school.
entire members in the school.
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4.6.5. People centredness
The school observed was seen to be
caring less about the satisfaction of its
staff members. This was vindicated by
the emphasis on performance to the
total disregard of the staff members'
satisfaction at the bottom of the
hierachy.
There was clear evidence that the
headteachers and HODS were convinced
that they owned the school and
everything in the school. This was vividly
demonstrated by little attention to the
concerns and dissatisfactions of teachers.
In short, the school observed was not
people or employee-centred.
4.6.6.Multi-directional
communication
At least, the lines of communication
on the observed school were partly
opened.
This appeared to be beneffiting the
school in the sense that at some stages
teachers could directly share their
suggestions directly with headteachers.
Though the tendency of bypassing
HODs was not appreciated, it did take
place at times.
It was evident that teachers themselves
pushed for the opening up of the multi-
directional communication channels.
Teachers did that by contravening the
school policy which accentuated the
significance of protocol. The teacher's
contravention appeared to be more
beneficial to the school than the stifling
protocol stressed by the school policy.
4.6.7 Usage of fear as a form of
motivation
Having observed that protocol was a
divine thing to be respected, it came
as no astonishment about how those
at the bottom of the hierachy were
motivated. Threats were used by
headteachers and HODs as a way of
inspiring them to pull their weight.
The most common threats were those
of recording their misbehaviours in
their personal files or dismissing them.
Little did the headteachers and HODs
realize that such a way of motivating
teachers was not sustainable. Though it
appeared that out of threats and fears,
teachers' performance seemed to be
soaring, that was but just a shortlived
pocket of success. In the ultimate end
such a way of motivating teachers was
going to elicit resistance.
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4.6.8. Task - centredness
It emerged to be a laughable In the observed school, headteachers
and HODs were stopping at nothing contradiction that the headteachers and
to preach performance. An irony was HODs themselves failed to live to the
that, they themselves were observed expectations of that which they were
not to be living what they were expecting from teachers. Again, those
articulating to others. To the headteachers and HODs were themselves
headteachers and HODs; task under-performing because of certain
performance was more important than things dissatisfying them.
employee-satisfaction. Notwithstanding that, they expected
teachers to perform far above the average
to the disrgard of their dissatisfctions and
concerns. That was impossible.
4.6.9 Dependence on the individual
in charge
The observed school was Both the headteachers and his immediate
conspicuously depending on one associates did not realize the danger they
autocrat. All the other co- were doing to the school in managing the
superordinates were embracing his school as if it was their own personal
dictations and translating them into property and not a public asset. The
actions to the dissatisfaction of danger was that when the main person in
teachers and learners. Those co- charge was away everything in the school
superordinates were so immersed in came to a standstill. Those implementing
the implementation of the dictations the dictations were not resourceful
such that they saw nothing wrong in enough like their dictator to address the
that type of leadership style. needs of a situation in the absence of
their dictator.
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4.6.10 Appraising and
regulating the course of
events
In the school were observation was conducted, there were some areas leastly appraised and regulated. For instance, the behaviour of learners during the school outings were least attended to despite the repeated calls for something to be done about the learners' misbehaviours.
Fearing to make themselves unpopular to the learners, both the headteachers and the HODs demonstrated little interst in addressing head-on problems of misbehaving by learners. What was mostly done, was chastising the misbehaviour only collectively, without calling the culprits one by one and talk to them strongly. Teachers were seen as soft targets to be tormented and tortured even when it was not necessary.
Since as regards planning there was serious leadership vacuum, this appeared to be attributable to the fact that by and large both the headteachers and many HODs did not occupy those positions through the right channels. To protect themselves against criticisms mainly from teachers they resorted to a directive leadership style. To the learners they bought favour by not pestering them that much. The inconsistency shown in dealing with some teachers proved that their leadership style was in a chronic state of disarray.
4.6.11 The school running itself
In the observed school, there were some events which when thoughtfully scrutinized led to a conclusion that to a certain extent the school was leaderless and visionless. For instance, planning the list of invigilators timeously was something unknown. Demanding explanation for abscence to class lessons by some teachers was never done. Adapting the school policy to the requirements of the new SA Schools Act no 84 of 1996 was a luxury for the school
69
4.6.12 Commitment to change
To the school were observation was The exclusivistic approach used to the conducted, whenever there were management of change was one of the changes to be introduced, those causes for the failures of many changes changes were confined to headteachers the school observed, attempted to and HODs only. Teachers were by and operationalize. Since the bulk of the staff large only drawn in to implement members were not included in charting those changes. Expectedly, teachers and introducing the change processes just operationalized those changes their failures were predictable. with little commitment to them. Headteachers and HODs appeared not to
be fast learning valuable lesson about the significance of including all relavant and immediate stakeholders to the change processes being charted.
4.7 Conclusion
In this chapter attention was focused on the presentation and analysis of data collected. Presentation and analysis were done under the guidance of Interpretivism. Interpretivism is the theoretical perspective which undergirds this research study. All the data collected through the questionnaires were presented in the form of figures. Analysis of data was done in the form of discussing each finding. The data gathered through observation of one of the selected secondary schools were reduced by describing events under the broad categories of the participative, the collegial, the permissive and the directive leadership styles. The other category was change management. The presentation and analysis of data was done through an observational protocol. This included pages divided in the middle with a line. On one side of the page events as observed were discussed and on the other side of the page the investigator gave his own value - laden information with regard to the events observed.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction .
The main purpose of this study is to examine the participative, the collegial, the permissive, and the directive leadership styles of school principals in the three selected secondary schools in the Northern Province. The discussion in this chapter centres around sharing the findings and recommendations about the articulated leadership styles. Findings and recommendations were shared under the guidance of Interpretivism which is the theoretical perspective undergirding this study. For instance, Interpretivism accentuates the point that to understand and explain why a particular leadership style is used in a specific school, the investigator needs to comprehend the way of life in that society and the ways of doing things in that school. Furthermore, Interpretivism reminds the researcher to learn the purposes of the individual actors and the social meanings that they share with others (Feinberg Sz. Soltis, 1985:102).
Remarking about the significance of taking into cognizance the context in which a leadership style is practised, Grobler (1993:5) contends that there are no motivation strategies, organization structures, decision- making patterns, communication techniques, change approaches or leadership styles that will fit all situations. In support of the expressed assertion Jablonski (1994:43) notes that an effective leadership style creates a positive school climate, communication channels and feedback.
5.2 Summary
Chapter one of this study focused attention on the statement of the problem and its significance. Aims which this study has formulated to achieve together with the questions and assumptions guiding the study were expressed. How data were going to be collected, that is methodology together with the limitations of this study were also discussed. The investigator concluded chapter one by defining important concepts .
Chapter two of this study was about literature review. Attention was placed on the collegial, the participative, the permissive and the directive leadership styles of the
71
school principals in the three selected secondary schools in the Northern Province. Since Interpretivism undergirds this study, literature were reviewed under the auspices of the articulated conceptual framework. In short, the literature reviewed copiously indicated the point that the popular leadership style for one school may not be the most appropriate leadership style for another school at a given time with a given members of personnel (Hevesi, 1996:2). In addition, literature surveyed proved that underperfomance by many secondary schools resulted from the leadership styles that have failed to instil vision, a sense of meaning, and trust in members within the school. The articulated point signifies that in a school setting, underperformance tells us much about the school principal than about the teachers, HODs and learners (Charlton, 1993:7).
In conclusion, literature reviewed accentuated the point that the significance of an appropriate leadership style can never be stressed adequately. Rennis and Manus (1985, 20) for example, note that a business short on capital can borrow money, and one with a poor location can move, but a business short of leadership has little chances of survival. The expressed analogy is fully applicable to schools. The very last point the literature surveyed stressed is that there is no best style of leadership in view of the fact that not all people can function well under the same single leadership style (Hueryager & Heckman, 1990:68).
Chapter three centred around methodology. In collecting data, the investigator used three categories of questionnaires. One category was for the teachers, the other for HODs, and the third one for headteachers. Literature search was also one of the research methods through which a wealth of data were accessed. Lastly, the investigator collected data through the observational protocol. Bodgan and Biklen (1992) as quoted by Creswell (1994:152) state that a researcher should design an advance protocol for collecting information. As the above assertion advises, for the purpose of this study, the researcher used the observational protocol to augment the data collected.
Chapter three would have been said to be incomplete without mentioning the validity of the entire research design. Distinctions are commonly drawn between internal validity and external validity. Internal validity is the extent to which specific observations and measurements are authentic representations of some reality. External validity is the degree to which such representations may be compared
72
legitimately across groups (Lecompte & Preissle, 1993:334). Smith (1990)as quoted by Lecompte and Preissle (1993:324) suggests that the criterion for the goodness or validity of a study depends on the paradigm of the researcher. For instance, for the critical theorists a valid study demonstrates emancipation, it reveals the distortions and limitations of ideologies, communication patterns, and social structures underlying every day life. Lecompte and Preissle (1993:326) proceed to reveal that the theoretical and conceptual perspectives framing a study or emerging from it relate to how validity is defined.
Chapter four focused on the presentation and analysis of data. Interpretation of data was part of presentation and analysis. Unequalled emphasis was placed on data collected through the questionnaires based on teachers' responses, HODs' responses and responses from headteachers. It was on the basis of the excellent responses obtained from all the respondents that the investigator was able to write a research report. Deserving to be accentuated is the fact that analysis and interpretation of the collected data was handled in due regard of the theoritical perspective undergirding this research study, namely, the Interprevist perspective. Pieces of data accessed during the review of literature were taken into cognizance in the course of presenting and analysing data collected through the questionnaires. That assisted the investigator much in triangulating the findings the investigator emerged with. Since findings have been shared in the previous chapter, the investigator presents recommendations based on those findings.
5.4 Recommendations
In view of the findings of this study, the recommedations can therefore be shared as follows: 5.4.1 Behaviours believed to be part of effective leadership style
In full consideration of the previous findings it can be argued that an effective leadership style is the one depicting amongst others the following features:
autonomy, flexibility, and responsiveness, a participatory school environment, collaboration and collegiality among staff, and a heightened sense of personal efficacy for school principals and teachers.
The findings for this research indicate that merging the participative and
73
collegiality are something many respondents when answering the questionnaire
items envinced to be longing for. That was part of behaviours believed to be
related and attributable to effective leadership style.
Taking into account the findings reached and what the literature reviewed
contained, the researcher recommends that school principals should motivate
and support members of personnel in a school to work for the transcendental
goals and to perform beyond their expectations. Working for transcendental
goals assists in stopping to focus on immediate self-interests. Again
transcendental goals foster the achievements of self-actualization in lieu of
safety and security (Hunt et al, 1984:6). The investigator further recommends
that school principals need to be guided to assist their schools to develop a
vision of what their schools can be. Such a step will be part of committing
everyone in a school, learners include into action, converting everyone in a
school into a leader and changing those who are leaders into agents advocating
a paradigm breakthrough regarding how schools are managed and how
members act within the school (Rennis & Manus, 1985:3).
5.3.2 Awareness about other styles of leadership
The literature reviewd explicitly revealed that there is no best management
style along which to run the school. This implies that it is up to school
managers to make the best out of the situation. Since the findings indicated
that, school principals eschew certain types of leadership styles such as the
participative and collegiality, the investigator recommends that school
principals be encouraged to experiment with such leadership styles which are
thought to be bordering on anarchy. Experimenting with the said leadership
style will enable school principals to notice that those styles of leadership are
not as obnoxious as they believe.
5.3.3 The prominence of a leadership style
In relation to the finding reached, the investigator recommends that
headteachers be guided and persuaded slowly but surely to gradually attempt
to outlive the habit and tradition of inheriting the unworkable leadership
styles to new situations. Equally significant for the school principals, is that
they should attempt their level best to dis-embrace the habit of having a
predominant or core leadership style (Glueck,1991:100). This dangerous
74
culture of exercising a leadership style which school principals feel they are
most comfortable with, fail many schools. Such a bad practice disregards the
fact that conditions in any school are dynamic, complex and above all unique.
5.3.4 The power of a visionary and open-minded leadership style In support of the finding that any style of leadership that instils vision, a sense
of meaning, and trust in members of the school stands a chance of bettering
the image of the school, the investigator recommends the following: School
principals should have an extraordinary visions and debate those visions with
members of personnel in their schools including learners. That will be a step
towards having an all - inclusive school vision (Hunt et al, 1984:6). An all
inclusive vision is likely to lift the school to extraordinary heights. The
investigator further recommends that the question of having shared values,
shared vision, shared decision -making be taken seriously by school principals.
This can assists in transmuting the image of the school from negative to
positive. An additional recommendation is to have all members in a school
being encouraged to be broad - minded especially when dealing with issues of
visions, meanings, purposes, values, and trust which directly affect the
operation of the school.
Actually, a visionary and an open-minded leadership style acknowledges the
fact that conditions in each school are dissimilar and keep on undergoing some
mutations. Above all, the leadership style entailing vision and encouraging
open-mindedness acknowledges the point that school principals need to be
alert to the fact that much of the problems experienced in schools cannot be
solved at the level of thinking at which they were created (Senge et al,
1994:31).
5.3.5 The leadership style and situational factors In support of the finding regarding the above expressed point, the researcher
recommends that the selection of any style of leadership should be after
thorough consideration of the situational factors within which that leadership
style is going to be exercised. Such factors amongst others include traits of the
leader, characteristics of the task, characteristics of the organization, and
characteristics of the external environment. The significance of paying
attention to those factors rests on the fact that they facilitate the success or
75
failure of the selected leadership style (Lippit,1989:87). It is further recommended that when the expressed unique factors and circumstances within the total environmental context do change, the leadership style also has to undergo some mutations. In short, school principals need to be exhorted to keep it in mind that the appropriateness of the style of leadership is dependent very much on mainly the situation, the maturity, and needs of those on whom the style of leadership is going to be exercised (Charlton, 1993:30).
5.3.6 Devising a management strategy for school principals
One of the findings reached was that the designing of a management tool to assist school principals in coping with the leadership challenges was long overdue. In the light of the expressed finding, the investigator recommends that the total quality management be used to create a work environment in schools in which all members can develop problem -solving skills and interpersonal skills that allow them to work as part of a team. In addition to that a sense of collegiality needs to be developed by creating cross faculty and cross functional teams involving both management and teachers. That will assist in promoting faculty camaraderie and input into decision-making. Such teams will then increase teacher involvement and help to focus on continuous enhancement of the entire school.
Furthermore, as part of designing a management tool for headteachers to cope with leadership challenges, the investigator recommends that school principals should undergo special training courses to expose them to the various modern management styles and techniques. Above all, training in total quality management can help improve the school efficiency and effective utilisation of the human resource potential of the school. Such a course designed for school principals needs to assist them to comprehend the organisational, social and ideological forces that might impede their efforts to empower themselves and teachers. Lastly, the researcher recommends that there be management consultants in the various areas of school management. Such consultants are likely to play a cardinal role in advising school principals as regards the efficacious and up to date styles of leadership to be used to get the secondary schools up and running.
76
5.3.7 Examining the leadership styles commonly practised
The findings revealed that in most schools the directive leadership style was more in use than any other leadership style. The reasons for such a state of affairs were not hard to came by. In view of the fact that other new styles of leadership such as the participative and collegiality were largely unknown, the school principals saw little sense in attempting something they are unfamiliar to, when there was the directive leadership style which many headteachers were familiar and comfortable with. In the light of the expressed discussion, the investigator recommends that school principals should undergo some special training to familiarise them to the contemporary leadership styles such as collegiality and the participative. Furthermore, school principals need to be assisted to make a serious break of being content with what they know. They need to be persuaded slowly but surely to get out of their comfort zones for the sake of the schools for which they are in charge.
It is again strongly recommended that school principals be encouraged to register for post graduate degrees in the line of educational management. That will stand them in good stead as regards sufficient exposure to the distinct styles of leadership likely to assist them in getting their schools up and running(Hevesi, 1996:68). Lastly, the investigator recommends that in future before one is appointed as a school principal in secondary schools as a prerequisite the job applicant should be having a masters degree in educational management from an accredited university.
5.3.8 Facilitating the occurrence of quality teaching and learning.
The finding regarding the above expressed point vividly showed that by and large the leadership styles exercised in the selected secondary schools in the Northern Province did not facilitate the occurrence of quality teaching and learning. In the light of the expressed finding, the investigator recommends that school principals need to attempt their level best to use more of the participative and the collegial styles of leadership. The reason for such a recommendation is the fact that the finding blatantly showed that in the selected secondary schools teachers and HODs were not part of a selection of a leadership style along which their schools were being managed. Headteachers, as the response to the questionnaire items demonstrated were found to be having a tendency of centralizing the management of schools to
77
themselves and some selected few only. In spite of the fact that such a practice was not worth countenancing, worse still was the practice not done meticulously.
The habit of centralizing the school management to a selected few can lead to a situation where teachers and HODs do not feel they are part of the school. Worse still, such a centralized way of managing the school is evidently not facilitating the occurrence of quality teaching and learning which is mainly what schools exist for (Charlton,1993:26). Another recommendation is that school principals need to be encouraged and supported to attend special educational management skills, heighten their self - esteem and boost their knowledge matter in the area of educational management. Besides empowering the school principals in order to execute their duties far much better, attending conferences can enable them to keep on improving their knowledge in line with the total management philosophy (Murgatroyd & Morgan, 1993:37).
5.3.9 Difficulty in choosing a leadership style
The findings revealed that in the three selected secondary schools there was definitely crises as regards the chosen leadership styles along which those schools were managed. It is a known fact that there is no one best style of leadership. Any leadership style that can be said to be best is the one which takes into account the situational factors on the one hand and which fosters the occurrence of quality teaching and learning on the other (Charlton, 1993:27). In commensurate with the discovered findings, the researcher recommends that school principals need to be motivated and supported to select the leadership styles that prickle the school to prefer change to stability. Those are the leadership styles germane and relevant to modern day school settings (Hevesi, 1996: 16). It is again strongly recommended that school principals be sensitised and conscientised to value and work towards change in themselves before they expect change in others. Where stability is preferred to change in the form of using the directive leadership style in lieu of the participative and collegiality, stagnation is likely to result in a school to the school's detriment (Armstrong, 1995:41).
5.3.10 The style of leadership and the feelings of teachers and learners
78
Basing everything on the findings, it is recommended that school principals consider very earnestly and seriously the idea of running their schools along the collegial leadership style. The reason for such a recommendation stems from the fact that collegiality as a leadership style is a closeness that grows out of an understanding and caring for one another, resulting in group members getting to know one another, being interested in one another's values, and perhaps most importantly wanting to be together (Cunningham & Gresso, 1993:99). Another recommendation worth making in relation to the expressed finding is that headteachers need to be advised and persuaded to make a paradigm breakthrough with the more bureaucratic and paternalistic styles of management to the more collaborative management styles discussed in this study.
5.3.11 Dissatisfaction regarding the practiced leadership styles.
The recommendation to the finding of the majority respondents being dissatisfied about the practised leadership styles in their schools can better be expressed in Sagor and Barnett (1994:68)'s words. They argue that there's a leadership style which enables teachers, HODs and headteachers to talk and debate precisely about teaching and learning based on the following; observing one another, visiting other schools, jointly developing and executing managerial tasks, and participation in collaborative action research projects. That style of leadership is none other than collegiality. In short, the researcher identifies himself with what Sagor and Barnett (1994:68) are arguing in recommending for the application of the collegial style of leadership in schools.
5.3.12 A level of attendance by learners
In view of the findings reached and the literature reviewed, the investigator recommends that there be an application of a mixture of styles of leadership which are in line with the complexities of the situations in schools. As an attempt to unravel the problem of low attendance to school by learners, the researcher specifically recommends for the application of the directive, the collegial, and the participative leadership styles. In the course of operationalizing the said styles of leadership all the members of the school are exhorted to prudently and vigilantly observe the aftermath until when finally the most appropriate leadership style is focussed on to sustain the newly found solution to the worrying problem of low attendnce by learners (Hevesi,
79
1996:23).
5.3.13 A level of commitment by teachers
As an attempt to unravel the problem of low commitment by teachers to their
duties, the researcher recommends for the substitution of the directive
leadership style with the participative leadership style. The reason for such a
recommendation is contained in what Lankard (1992:92-125) notes in
contending that the participatory management style involves inputs not only
in decision-making, but also in problem - solving by all members of an
organisation including stakeholders. This type of leadership is being
recommended because where teachers see the final decision taken reflecting
their active inputs, their concerns, needs, and ideas that in itself is likely to
revive their level of commitment in favour of their duties. Involving teachers
in decision-making and problem-solving processes is part of the bottom-up
strategy which is known to be empowering everyone in the school (Paisey,
1981:41) .
5.3.14 Images of the school
The finding reached clearly showed that the images of the three selected
secondary schools focused on were not that scintillating in the communities
in which those schools are built. The researcher therefore recommends that
there be a process of participative school governance where both all the
teaching and the non-teaching staff within the school together with the
broader community including parents, the governing body, the local education
authority, churches, the business sectors, and educational institutions have a
true and visible stake in the governance of the school. Such a step is likely to
assist in bettering and enhancing the image of the school. In support of the
participative school governance, the investigator recommends both the
substitution in schools of the permissive and the directive leadership styles
with immediate effect in favour of the participative and the collegial styles of
leadership.
5.4 Conclusion
In this study, the researcher focused attention on examining the leadership
80
styles of school principals in the three selected secondary schools in the
Northern Province. The investigator concentrated on the participative, the
collegial, the permissive and the directive styles of leadership. As the findings
have shown, both the permissive and the directive leadership styles were found
to be rife in the three selected secondary schools. Such leadership styles were
rife for distinct reasons. It emerged as no astonishment that in all those three
schools there was blatant underperformance. That was evidenced when the
said articulated leadership styles were found to be dismally incapable of
facilitating the occurrence of quality teaching and learning. As such, it further
came as no surprise for the investigator to accentuate under recommendations,
the point that the participative and the collegial leadership styles needed to be
considered for application in the three selected secondary schools. Approproate
leadership styles just like a good principal make a difference in a school. In this
research study, the investigator focused only on the key findings and
recommendations.
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RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
RESPONDENTS
The purpose of this questionnaire is to solicit your opinions with regard to the research I am conducting for my M.ED studies in Educational Management at the Rand Afrikaans University.
The research is about the collegial and the participative leadership styles of management. I will appreciate your assistance in furnishing me with the relevant information by answering the questions honestly as they appear in the questionnaire. The information given will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Please keep the following in mind when completing the questionnaire:
Do not write your name on the questionnaire - it remains anonymous. There are no wrong or correct answers - your honest opinion is required and NOT that which you think the researcher wants.
ii. Please answer ALL the questions. If you would like to change an answer, do so by clearly crossing out the incorrect one. Please return this questionnaire to the person from whom it was received after having completed it. You are implored to append your signature on the completed questionnaire. (Only a signature will suffice, names are unnecessary because the questionnaire remains anonymous).
Thanking you once again for your assistance.
Supervisor's name : Prof K.P.Dzvimbo
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SECTION A
PLEASE COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING PERSONAL PARTICULARS (CIRCLE THE RELEVANT BLOCK)
Here is an example of how to answer each question:
Cattle normal walk on
one leg 1
two legs 2
three legs 3
four legs 4
1. Gender
Male
Female
Your professional affiliation (circle one only)
NAPTOSA
SADTU
Other
None
How old are you?
(E.g. fifty three years old ❑ ❑
Level of teaching post you presently occupy
A teacher
Head of Department
Deputy Principal
Principal
❑ ❑
83
Your highest educational qualifications
Std 10
Post School Diploma
B-degree
Post graduate qualification
Your religious commitment
Christian
Islam
Hindu
None
The principal in the school is a:
Male
Female
School where greater part of your teaching experience was gained is at the:
Primary school
Secondary school
Other (specify)
Which language do you regard as your mother tongue?
Sepedi (N.Sotho)
Tswana
South Sotho
English
Other (Specify)
84
How would you describe attendance of the pupils in your communit
Poor
Average
Excellent
How would you describe the entire staff members' level of commitment to their duties in the school?
Poor
Average
Excellent
How would you describe the image of your school in the community?
Poor
Average
Disturbing
Excellent
85
SECTION B A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
Answer the following questions by ticking the appropriate block
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
As
The
or
The
If
The
leadership a teachers I feel dehumanized to be managed along the
style. autocratic
terms of
managed
to clamp
of our
more have.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
knowledge autocratic leadership style creates the impression that in
the headteachers and HODs are above me.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Most of the contestations in our school result from how our school is led.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
down autocratic leadership style is used by less powerful school heads
on threatening teachers.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
problems my school was run along the democratic style of leadership many
would have been surmounted or would have not occurred.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
knowledge tradition of equating holding a top position in a school with having
than others robs many schools of the real talents they
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
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1.7 As a teacher I develop a sense of self-worth when I see our inputs being considered and implemented to unravel the existing roblems.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.8 To run the school along the democratic leadership style out of pressure not out of belief that it is the useful leadership style is worse than using an autocratic leadership style.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.9 As a teacher I do care about the leadership style used in our school together to the ettects ot that style ot leaaerstup.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.10 The permissive leadership style encourages or afford me an opportunity to be myself and learn to take relevant teaching decisions on my own.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.11 As a teacher I feel that any leadership style should be adjustable and be context sensitive.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.12 I see the solution to the low performance at my school as the adoption of a collegial leadership style which encourages teachers to work collaboratively.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
87
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.13 As part of improving performance in my school teachers need to develop a sense of ownership to the school which is what collegiality teaches.
1.14 My support of the collegial leadership style stems from the fact that this leadership style encourages the redistribution of power and authority within staff members.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree
Strongly Disagree
1.15 The true signs of the existence of a collegial leadership style is when there are multi-directional and flexible patterns of communication within all the staff members.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree
Strongly Disagree
1.16 To improve performance in my school the ideal thing is to merge the participative and the collegial leadership styles and use them concurrently.
1.17 The successful management of any change in our school hinges upon our involvement.
1.18 Where teachers end up resisting change, in most cases the style of leadership in that school can be the attributable factor.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
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A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HODs
Answer the following questions by ticking the appropriate block
1.1 If you were the principal or deputy principal would you run your school along the same leadership style used by our present senior?
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.2 Teachers and learners can only discharge their responsibilities in my school
1.3 To be appointed as an HOD means that one is more knowledgeable to those below him or her.
1.4 One of the best ways to demonstrate authority over the subordinates is to
1.5 Managing the subordinates tightly is one of the best ways to improve the
1.6 The democratic way of managing a school is easily articulated than lived and
when we constantly remind them of those responsibilities.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
inform them openly that at the moment I am their senior.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
school performance in terms of results.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
implemented.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.7 The inclusion of teachers in the school's decision making process could assist in improving results in a school and bettering the image of the school.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.8 The general trend prevalent in our schools is for teachers to clamour for democracy but abdicate the responsibilities that come with it.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.9 The success of the participative leadership style depends on its introduction in a slow creep form and not in a big bang manner.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.10 The participative style of leadership can misfire in producing the desired results because of teachers being used to different leadership style.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.11 Some teachers in my department perform satisfactorily when we least intervene in their responsibilities.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.12 In a school, what matters is not how one manages the school but whether the way in which the school is managed leads to improved results or not.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.13 An HOD who cares less about how teachers under his or her department discharges their responsibilities empowers those teachers to be independent.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
90
7
empower both teachers and learners
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.14 To avoid conflict with teachers, the HOD should accept that teachers are trained and they can execute their duties without being estered.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.15 To run the department and school in a collegial manner can enhance and
1.16 As an attempt to minimize a spirit of animosity between teachers and learners against the school head, the creation of a sense of community in a school is an ideal thing.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.17 The collegial style of leadership reduces the school pressure from the headteachers and HODs to all members in the school.
1.18 A school which is run along the collegial leadership style promotes collective learning over individual learning.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.19 For an HOD to expect any change in his or her department to proceed superbly without his or her involvement is to expect the impossible.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
91
000000000000000000000000000,0.00
00000000000000000000.00. 00
00 0000000
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.20 Since change is dynamic and complex, its management does not deserve inept person , an HOD is an ideal person to manage change in his or her department.
1.21 Educational change in a department or school has to be management through various leadership styles not only one.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.22 The most widely used leadership style in a school determines how any change introduced should be handled.
1.23 The management of change in a school is likely to succeed when it is managed collaboratively and in relation to the style of leadership most appealing to teachers and learners.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
92
Agree
ideal thing.
Disagree Strongly Agree
]
Strongly Disagree
A. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEADTEACHERS
Answer the following questions by ticking the appropriate block
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
For their
in
To
The to
teachers to honour their lessons and for learners to reasonably classrooms my presence on the school terrain is significant.
remain in
figure
teacher-to subject
by
remains an
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
I derive job satisfaction when I am acknowledged as a senior authority the school.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
training themselves
enhance performance at my school I may recommend that the programmes emphasize the significance of teachers
under authority in schools.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Staff someone
members need to be constantly reminded of their responsibilities who is senior to them.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
democratic way of running the school is time-consuming and burdensome the school principal.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Democracy could only function properly in politics, in education it
93
•-••-••••••••••••••••••••••-•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
1.7 Given a lack of sufficient exposure to the democratic way of managing schools, teachers tend to equate democracy with absolute freedom to do as they please in our school
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.8 In a school where teachers have been managed for a long time along the autocratic leadership style, any other style is likely to fail to appeal to them.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.9 Attempting to manage a public secondary school along the democratic leadership style, only a short-lived pocket of success would ensue.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.10 The level of lawlessness in public secondary schools on the part of teachers and learners can tempt the school principal to leave them to do as they please.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.11 In a school where the headteachers care less about how teachers and learners handle their responsibilities, learners and teachers quickly learn to be independent.
[Agree
1.12 The realities obtaining in our schools partly dictate and determine to the headteachers never to constantly be after learners and teachers.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
94
EEA
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.13 The fact that in most schools the authority of the headteacher is no longer fully acknowledged and accepted makes it difficult to manage the schools firmly.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.14 In a school what matters is not how one manages the school, but whether the way in which the school is managed leads to improved results or not.
1.15 The collegial way of running a school is possible where the level of commitment to learning and teaching by learners and teachers is very high.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.16 Since we live in a democratise era, attempting to protect and nurture minority
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.17 Teamwork in our school is threatened and stifled by the tradition of comprehending individualism and collectivism as being mutually exclusive g g
1.18 The collegial leadership style encourages that the individual teachers ceases his or her individuality to become a group teacher.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.19 When the headteacher is committed to something else the management of change could be mandated to any other competent teacher.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
95
op
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.20 The success of any change introduced in the school hinges upon rallying the sunnort of all staff members behind that change.
Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1.21 If there is to be a reculturing process in my school, those introducing that process should be seen to be changing before they could expect change from others.
96
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