leader acceptance & effectiveness leadership decline leader emergence typical leadership process...
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Leader Acceptance
& Effectiveness
Leadership
Decline
Leader
Emergence
Typical Leadership ProcessRole of demographic variables, cognitive
ability (verbal), Big 5 personality factors such
as Extraversion and Consciensciousness,
Self-monitoring
Self-Monitoring (Form of Social Intelligence)
• Awareness of how one is being received by others (cognitive, perceptual process)
• Ability to alter one’s behavior (if necessary) depending on how one thinks they are being received (adaptability)
1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. 2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like. 4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. 5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information. 6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people. 7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues. 8. I would probably make a good actor. 9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music. 10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am. 11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone. 12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention. 13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons. 14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me. 15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time. 16. I'm not always the person I appear to be. 17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. 18. I have considered being an entertainer. 19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. 20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting. 21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. 22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going. 23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should. 24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end). 25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.
Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974)
~ Some Leadership Traits ~
Traits associated with leader effectiveness
• Consciensciousness
• Extraversion
Leader skills related to effectiveness
• Technical skills
• Conceptual skills
• Interpersonal skills
Types of Power
• Reward [Based on the ability to administer rewards and benefits e.g., raises, promotions, positive performance evaluations]
• Coercive [Based on the ability to administer punishments to subordinates]
• Legitimate [Authority based on one’s official title or position e.g., CEO, General, Police Officer]
• Expert [Possession of a given body of knowledge and/or skills. Can often be rather limited in scope]
• Referent [Identification, attraction, or respect for someone. Common for Charismatic leaders]
Referent Expert Legitimate Reward Coercive
Unlikely
Possible
Likely
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Typical Reactions to Power
Leadership Behaviors
Consideration Style (expressing warmth,
caring concern for workers)
Structured Style(organized, planned,
use of deadlines)
Factors
• Ability level of employees
• Number of subordinates
• Difficulty of job
• Best for a leader to use both styles when appropriate
Consideration:
• Is easy to get along with _____.• Explains actions to group members• Usually treats everyone in the same manner• Let's followers know of changes in advance• Puts group ideas into operation
Structure:
• Informs subordinates about what is expected• Clarifies roles among group members• Makes decisions regarding work methods• Advocates the use of standardized procedures• Sets specific goals and monitors performance
Measurement of Leader’s Behaviors
(Based on the Leader Behavior Descriptive Questionnaire; LBDQ)
_______ I encourage my team to participate when it comes decision making time and I try to implement their ideas and suggestions. _______ Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task. _______ I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time. _______ I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures. _______ The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it. _______ I encourage my employees to be creative about their job. _______ When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for. _______ I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time. _______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership, and psychology; and then putting what I have read into action. _______ When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships. _______ I manage my time very efficiently. _______ I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees. _______ Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me. _______ Nothing is more important than building a great team. _______ I enjoy analyzing problems. _______ I honor other people's boundaries. _______ Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me. _______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession; and then
implementing the new procedures I have learned.
Leadership Questionnaire(From the perspective of leaders)
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model[A Model of Decision Making]
Autocratic
A1: Use available information; makes sole decision
A2: Get employee to acquire some information; makes sole decision
ConsultativeC1: Leader gets individual input regarding a decision; makes sole decision
C2: Leader get group input regarding a decision; makes sole decision
Group G2: Total group decision-making; leader is an equal member in the group
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)
General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy
A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)
B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision required)
C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)
Participative Decision-Making
Pros:
• Increases cooperation and communication
• Enhances employee identification & acceptance of decisions
• Can lead to better quality decisions
• Gives employees better understanding of decision complexity and issues
Cons:
• Takes more time to make decisions
• Who to involve in decision-making (e.g., employee knowledge & motivation issues)
• What decisions to involve employees in making (all, some) and who decides
• Incentives for employees (increased costs?)
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)
Leader
Subordinates
Evaluation of subordinates on:
• Ability
• Trust
• Responsibility
In-Group
[e.g., better job duties, greater rewards, more visibility, treated with warmth and caring by the leader, greater access to information]
Perceived similarity
Gender
High Quality of Leader-Member
Exchange
~ Employee Outcomes ~
High
SatisfactionPerformance ratingsOrganizational commimtmentRole clarity
Low
Role conflictTurnover intentions
~ LMX Outcomes ~
Rate traits of typical males
Rate traits of typical females
Rate traits of typical of leaders
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
~ Female Traits and Leadership ~
• 12 Fortune 500 companies are run by women (2011)
Source: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2011/womenceos/
Female Representation in Business
• In 2007, 23% of university presidents are female, more than double the 9.5% in 1986, but only 2% more than 2001
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United States
Female Representation in Academics
Women in the US Senate (N = 20; 2013)
Barbara Mikilski
Dianne Feinstein
Barbara Boxer
Debbie Stabenow
Maria Cantwell
Parry Murray Susan Collins
Mary Landrieu
Lisa Murkowski
Amy Klobuchar
Jeanne Shaheen
Kirsten Gillibrand
Kelly Ayotte
Claire McCaskill
Kay Hagan
Tammy Bladwin
Deb Fischer Heidi Heitkamp
Mazie Hirono Elizabeth Warren
Country Leader
Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel
Liberia President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf
India President Pratibha Patil
Argentina President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchne
Bangledesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed
Iceland Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir
Lithuania President Dalia Grybauskaite
Costa Rica President Laura Chinchilla
Trinidad and Tobago Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Australia Prime Minister Julia Gillard
Slovakia Prime Minister Iveta Radicová
Brazil President Dilma Rousseff
Mali Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé
Kosovo President Atifete Jahjaga
Thailand Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra (recently removed from office)
Denmark Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt
Switzerland President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
Jamaica Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller
South Korea Park Geun-hyeSource: http://www.filibustercartoons.com/charts_rest_female-leaders.php
Current Female Heads of State Worldwide
Gender
Female Male
Regular Fast Regular Fast
Unattractive
Attractive
Rated on various factors (e.g., ability, integrity, likeability)
• Key is perception of levels of femininity. If highly feminine, not seen as very capable.
Female Attractiveness and Corporate Success
X
Females as CEOs --- increase in stock price
But, it depends on industry
Price goes up higher if female CEO is head of female-dominated business, otherwise small decrease in stock price (Cooke & Glass, 2011)
Survey of over 60,000 direct reports
No gender preference for one’s own boss
“Ideal” boss:
54% -- No Preference
13% -- Female Preference
33% -- Male Preference
Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings
• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex bosses• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct, forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever, 2011)
More Recent Findings
Analyzed 99 data sets from 58 journal publications, 30 unpublished dissertations or theses, five books and six other sources (e.g., white papers)
86% of the samples from studies conducted in the United States or Canada
Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S. & David J. Woehr, D. J. (2014) Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology
Basic Results ---
• Ratings by others indicated that women were perceived as more effective leaders than men in middle management, business and education organizations
• Women were viewed as more effective in senior-level management positions
• Men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves
Israeli Army Study
Low Expectatio
n Label
High Expectatio
n Label
Training
Overall Performance
Ratings of leaders by subordinates
• Leadership as a limited resource; allocated to those who will lead to best results
Path-Goal Theory
Leader is seen as important in providing a path for employees to attain desired goals
• Directive [leader tells subordinates how to perform tasks; provides guidelines and structure]
• Supportive [leader shows caring and concern for subordinates’ well- being]
• Participative [leader involves subordinates in decision-making]
• Achievement-oriented [leader sets specific and challenging goals; promotes high work-related aspirations and goal attainment]
Leadership Behaviors (must be able to use all four types when necessary. Use varies with such factors as employee ability, work environment, group size)
Path Goal (cont.)
What can leaders do to help employees attain goals?
1) Remove obstacles/problems to gain attainment
2) Provide valued incentives to employees
3) Clarify paths to goals (e.g., use of feedback)
Job Rewards Satisfaction
Leader Rewards Acceptance of Leader
Effort Performance
Performance RewardsMotivation
~ Implicit Leadership Theory ~
Key: The perception of leader behaviors and prototype matching process
Prototype of effective leadership
Intelligent High Verbal SkillsFairGood interpersonal skills
Observed Leadership Behaviors
Intelligent High Verbal SkillsFair
Prototype matching
Leader Evaluatio
n
My boss is a good leaderRating Behaviors (using global impressions)
Question: Does your bosss have good social skills?Answer: Yes, he’s a good leader so he must have good social skills
~ Transformational Leadership ~
Basic Dimensions
Idealized Influence (charasmatic, establishing visions, role-modeling)
Inspirational Motivation (providing challanges, goal sharing, go beyond self-interests)
Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem solving, critical thinking, flexible)
Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support, empowerment)
Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice perceptions, high trust, more organizational citizenship behaviors
Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader
~ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership Approaches ~
Transformational Transactional
Behaviors Inspirational, empowering
Use of reinforcements (e.g., rewarding
desired behaviors)
Goals Group/organizational interests
Employee self interest
Desired change
Major, innovative Regular, routine
Combination of both styles is common (or needed)
~ Impact of Culture on Leadership ~
Are there cultural difference in such things as leader expectations, acceptable leader behaviors and/or traits, leader’s use of incentives (e.g., leadership prototypes)?
Are some leadership styles, behaviors universally accepted and effective?
Japanese Sample Prototype
DisciplinedIntelligentTrustworthyEducatedResponsible
U.S. Sample Prototype
PersistentIndustriousHigh Verbal SkillsGoal-OrientedDetermined
No single trait emerged in the Top 5 of the eight countries surveyed.
Eastern
Western
“... the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more followers.” --- Ralph Nader
~ Interdependence of Leaders and Followers ~
Some Basic Points
• Leadership is a process, not a person
• Process is dynamic and reciprocal (not top down)
• Situational context is crucial (e.g., demands, resources)
• Importance of follower characteristics (needs, expectation, perceptions) and their responses
• Flexibility in leader behavior (style must match the requirements of a given situation such as time frame, group acceptance, decision quality)
• Know their subordinates and provide incentives that match their needs and desires
• Treat subordinates fairly
• Set realistic and challenging goals
• Leaders need to be perceived as important in order for employees to get rewards
• Guarantee that employee job performance leads to getting desired rewards
Summary of Some Key Leadership Factors