L A W S 3 0 2 – C O N S T I T U T I O N A L

L A W

E X A M I N A T I O N S U M M A R Y B O O K

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Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................8

Fundamental Concepts in Australian Constitutional Law ...................................................8 Parliamentary Sovereignty ....................................................................................................... 8 The rule of law ......................................................................................................................... 9 Constitutional conventions..................................................................................................... 10 Bicameralism ......................................................................................................................... 11 Representative government ................................................................................................... 11 Responsible government ........................................................................................................ 11 Parliamentary control of supply ............................................................................................. 12 Separation of powers ............................................................................................................. 12 Federalism ............................................................................................................................. 12

From Colonisation to Federation ..................................................................................... 13 Colonisation of Australia: First Settlement .............................................................................. 13 From dictatorship to responsible government ........................................................................ 14 Limits of the powers of colonial Parliaments ........................................................................... 14 The advent of the Constitution ............................................................................................... 14

Overview of the Constitution .......................................................................................... 15 The Parliament ...................................................................................................................... 15 The House of Representatives ................................................................................................ 15 The Senate ............................................................................................................................. 15 Relative powers of each House of Parliament ......................................................................... 15 Powers of the Commonwealth Parliament .............................................................................. 17 Chapter II: The executive ........................................................................................................ 17 Chapter III: The Judiciary ........................................................................................................ 17 Chapter IV: Finance and Trade ................................................................................................ 17 Chapter V: The transformation of the colonies into states ....................................................... 17 Chapter VI: New States and the Territories ............................................................................. 18 Chapter VII: ........................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter VIII: Amendment of the Constitution ......................................................................... 18 Appraisal of the Constitution .................................................................................................. 19

Cutting the apron strings: from federation to the Australia Acts ...................................... 19 Statute of Westminster .......................................................................................................... 19 The Australia Acts .................................................................................................................. 19 An Australian republic in waiting? .......................................................................................... 20

Judicial Review ............................................................................................................... 20 The High Court of Australia .................................................................................................... 20 Constitutional interpretation.................................................................................................. 21

Case Study: The Territorial Senators case.....................................................................................21 Text and Context ...........................................................................................................................22 Originalist arguments ....................................................................................................................22 Comparative arguments ...............................................................................................................23 Policy arguments ...........................................................................................................................23 Other interpretive techniques ......................................................................................................23

The Consequences of invalidity .............................................................................................. 24

Chapter 2: Characterisation of Commonwealth Laws ....................................................... 25

Reserved Powers Doctrine: R v Barger ............................................................................ 25

Explosion of the Reserved Powers Doctrine: The Engineer’s Case .................................... 26

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The Modern approach to Direct Characterisation ............................................................ 27

Incidental Characterisation ............................................................................................. 28 Section 51(i) and incidental power ......................................................................................... 29 Section 51(ii) and incidental power......................................................................................... 30 Conclusion on incidental power .............................................................................................. 31

The relevance of proportionality in characterisation ....................................................... 31 Purposive powers .................................................................................................................. 32 Proportionality and incidental power ..................................................................................... 34

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 34

Chapter 3: The Corporations Power ................................................................................ 35

From Huddart Parker to the Concrete Pipes case ............................................................. 35

Constitutional corporations ............................................................................................ 37 Foreign corporations .............................................................................................................. 37 Trading corporations .............................................................................................................. 37 Financial corporations ............................................................................................................ 38 Inactive corporations ............................................................................................................. 38 Conclusion on the definition of constitutional corporations .................................................... 38

Scope of the corporations power .................................................................................... 38 The development of the broad and narrow views ................................................................... 39 The Work Choices case ........................................................................................................... 40 The incidental scope of the corporations power ...................................................................... 40 The corporations power and natural persons .......................................................................... 42 Regulation of the creation of corporations.............................................................................. 42

Chapter 5: The Commonwealth Executive ....................................................................... 43

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 43

Persons within the executive .......................................................................................... 43 The reserve powers ................................................................................................................ 44

Scope of the executive power ......................................................................................... 44 Execution and maintenance of the laws of the commonwealth ............................................... 44

Victorian Stevedoring and General Contracting Co v Dignan (1931) 46 CLR 73 ...........................44 Execution of the constitution ................................................................................................. 45 Maintenance of the constitution ............................................................................................ 46 Inherent executive powers: the common law ......................................................................... 46

Prerogative Power.........................................................................................................................46 Other Common law Executive powers .........................................................................................47 The power to enter contracts and spend money .........................................................................47 The relationship between s 61 and common law executive powers ...........................................48

The nationhood power ........................................................................................................... 49 Nationhood and expenditure........................................................................................................49 Coercive Nationhood power .........................................................................................................51 Commonwealth/State Co-operation ............................................................................................52 Conclusion on nationhood power .................................................................................................52

Crown immunity .................................................................................................................... 52 Bropho v Western Australia (1990) 171 CLR 1..............................................................................53

Privatisation and executive power .......................................................................................... 53

Chapter 6: The Judiciary and the Separation of Powers ................................................... 54

Judicial Power ................................................................................................................ 54

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Enforceability ........................................................................................................................ 55 Binding and conclusive decisions ............................................................................................ 55 Need for a controversy ........................................................................................................... 55 Breadth or nature of discretion to be exercised ...................................................................... 55 Decisions regarding existing rights and duties ......................................................................... 56 Historical considerations ........................................................................................................ 56

Judicial power of the Commonwealth ............................................................................. 56

Separation of judicial powers – Commonwealth .............................................................. 57 Principle 1: Judicial power may only be exercised by Chapter III courts .................................... 57 Principle 2: Federal courts may not exercise non-judicial power .............................................. 58

Wakim: Extension of the Boilermakers doctrine ..........................................................................59

Exceptions to the two principles ..................................................................................... 59 Exceptions to principle 1 ........................................................................................................ 59

Delegation of judicial power .........................................................................................................59 Discrete exceptions .......................................................................................................................60

Exceptions to principle 2 ........................................................................................................ 60 Incidental powers ..........................................................................................................................60 Persona designata exception ........................................................................................................61

Separation of Judicial Powers – State .............................................................................. 62 The Kable principle and its subsequent application ................................................................. 63 Persona designata and State judges........................................................................................ 66 Required characteristics of State courts .................................................................................. 66 The investiture of judicial power in non-judicial bodies at the State level ................................ 67 Summary of the separation of powers doctrine at the State level ............................................ 67

Chapter III as a source of individual rights ....................................................................... 67 The broader scope of the incompatibility doctrine .................................................................. 67 Legislative usurpation of judicial power .................................................................................. 67 Powers to detain .................................................................................................................... 68 Powers of sentencing ............................................................................................................. 68 Retrospective criminal laws .................................................................................................... 68 Implied right of legal equality ................................................................................................. 69 Right to a fair trial .................................................................................................................. 69

Separation of judicial power in the territories ................................................................. 69

Lecture Slides- Legislative Branch, Democracy and Legislative Powers Part 1 ................... 70 Democracy............................................................................................................................. 70

Proportional Representation ........................................................................................................70 Suffrage .........................................................................................................................................71 Race Relations ...............................................................................................................................71

Right to Vote ......................................................................................................................... 71 Section 41? ....................................................................................................................................72

Implied Right to Vote? ........................................................................................................... 72 Legislature ............................................................................................................................. 72 Parliamentary Term ............................................................................................................... 73

Double Dissolution & Joint Sitting ................................................................................................73 s 57 – “Fail to Pass”? .....................................................................................................................74

Commonwealth Legislative Powers ........................................................................................ 74 Peace Order and Good Government ....................................................................................... 75 Characterisation .................................................................................................................... 75 Corporations .......................................................................................................................... 76

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Chapter 8: Intergovernmental Immunities....................................................................... 77

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 77

Preliminary issue: crown immunity ................................................................................. 77

The early law: the doctrine of implied immunities ........................................................... 77

The engineers case: abandonment of implied immunities ............................................... 77

Commonwealth legislative power over the states ........................................................... 78 The state banking case ........................................................................................................... 78 Discriminatory laws ............................................................................................................... 78

Indirect Discrimination ..................................................................................................................79 “Rational Discrimination” .............................................................................................................80

Prohibition on the impairment or curtailment of a state’s capacity to function as a government.............................................................................................................................................. 81 Austin v Commonwealth: a reformulation of the test for state immunity? ............................... 82

State legislative power over the commonwealth ............................................................. 84 Reciprocity............................................................................................................................. 84 The folly of cigamatic: reciprocity abandoned ......................................................................... 84 The “affected by” doctrine ..................................................................................................... 85 Section 64 of the Judiciary Act ................................................................................................ 85 The criminal law exception ..................................................................................................... 86 A reformation of cigamatic: the residential tenancies tribunal case ......................................... 86

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 87

Chapter 9: Excise Duties .................................................................................................. 88

Definition of a “Tax” ....................................................................................................... 88

The Broad and Narrow Definitions of “Excise” ................................................................. 90 The differing views regarding the purpose of s 90 ................................................................... 90 History of the definition of “excise”: From Peterswald to Parton ............................................. 91 Exception to the broad view ................................................................................................... 92

The “Criterion of liability” approach .............................................................................................92 Consumption Taxes .......................................................................................................................92

The Modern Cases .......................................................................................................... 93 The demise of the criterion of liability and the triumph of the broad view ............................... 93

Hematite Petroleum .....................................................................................................................93 Philip Morris ..................................................................................................................................93 Capital Duplicators ........................................................................................................................94 Ngo Ngo Ha ...................................................................................................................................95

The minority: reviving the narrow view of excise .................................................................... 95

Conclusions: The Future for S 90 ..................................................................................... 95

Chapter 10: Spending Government Revenue – The Grants and Appropriation Powers ...... 96

Section 96 grants ............................................................................................................ 96 Background to section 96 ....................................................................................................... 96 Types of grants ...................................................................................................................... 96 The scope of the grants power ............................................................................................... 97

The Uniform Tax cases ..................................................................................................................98 Are there any limits to section 96? ....................................................................................... 100

Appropriation and expenditure..................................................................................... 101 Appropriations power .......................................................................................................... 102

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Power to spend appropriated moneys .................................................................................. 103

Loans under the Constitution ........................................................................................ 105 Sections 105 and 105A ......................................................................................................... 105

The 1927 Agreement ..................................................................................................................106 The 1994 Agreement ..................................................................................................................107

Limits on borrowing powers ................................................................................................. 107

Chapter 11: Freedom of Interstate Trade, Commerce and Intercourse ........................... 108

A brief history of section 92 .......................................................................................... 108 “Trade and commerce” ........................................................................................................ 108 Early interpretations of section 92 ........................................................................................ 108 The “individual rights” approach and consequent confusion ................................................. 108

A fresh start for section 92 ............................................................................................ 109 The triumph of the “free trade” theory ................................................................................. 109 What is “discrimination”? .................................................................................................... 110 What is “protectionism”? ..................................................................................................... 110 Export restriction and section 92 .......................................................................................... 111 Proportionate regulation as an exception ............................................................................. 112 A new direction for section 92? Betfair 1 .............................................................................. 113 Betfair 2: Discrimination against who or what? ..................................................................... 114

Freedom of interstate intercourse ................................................................................ 115

Section 92 and the Territories ....................................................................................... 115

Chapter 12: Express Rights ............................................................................................ 117

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 117

Acquisition of property on just terms – section 51(xxxi) ................................................ 117 “Property” for the purpose of section 51 (xxxi) ..................................................................... 117 “Acquistition of property”: a compound conception ............................................................. 117

Acquisition v deprivation: what needs to be acquired? .............................................................118 Common Law choses in action ....................................................................................................118 Statutory proprietary rights ........................................................................................................119

Exceptions to s 51 (xxxi) within the territories ...................................................................... 120 Just Terms ........................................................................................................................... 120 Acquisition for the purpose of the Commonwealth ............................................................... 121 Application of Section 51 (xxxi) within the Territories ........................................................... 122 Conclusions on section 51 (xxxi) ........................................................................................... 122

The right to trial by jury – section 80 ............................................................................. 122

Freedom of religion – section 116 ................................................................................. 123 Definition of “religion” ......................................................................................................... 123 Establishment of a religion ................................................................................................... 124 Laws “for” prohibiting the free exercise of any religion ......................................................... 124 Requirement for religious tests a qualification for any office or public trust under the commonwealth .................................................................................................................... 125

Discrimination on the basis of interstate residence – section 117 .................................. 125 Exceptions to section 117 ..................................................................................................... 126

No express right to vote ................................................................................................ 126

Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 127

Chapter 13: Implied Political Rights and Freedoms ........................................................ 128

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Introduction ................................................................................................................. 128

The communist party case ............................................................................................ 128

Freedom of political communication ............................................................................. 129 The source of the freedom ................................................................................................... 129 The scope of the freedom..................................................................................................... 131

The first stage of the Lange test: What is “political communication” ........................................131 The Second stage of the Lange test: Limits to the implied freedom ..........................................132

Operation of the freedom .................................................................................................... 134 The nature of the freedom ................................................................................................... 135

Freedom of movement, association and participation ................................................... 136

Voting equality and voting rights .................................................................................. 136 Voting equality .................................................................................................................... 137 Voting rights ........................................................................................................................ 137

Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 139

Chapter 14: General Themes in Federal Constitutional Law ........................................... 140

Indigenous People and the Constitution ........................................................................ 140 Sovereignty Issues ............................................................................................................... 140 Constitutional provision regarding indigenous people at Federation ..................................... 141 The 1967 Referendum .......................................................................................................... 142 The race power today .......................................................................................................... 142 Future directions for reconciliations ..................................................................................... 144

Constitutional Prohibitions on Discrimination ............................................................... 145 Direct and Indirect Discrimination ........................................................................................ 146 “Reasonable” Discrimination ................................................................................................ 149 The limited nature on Constitutional prohibitions on discrimination ..................................... 150

Proportionality ............................................................................................................. 151 Parsing the proportionality inquiry ....................................................................................... 151 Proportionality in the High Court .......................................................................................... 151

Proportionality and characterisation ..........................................................................................152 Proportionality and Constitutional guarantees ..........................................................................152 Judicial deference to the legislature ...........................................................................................153

State Constitution……………………………..………………………………………………………………………….155

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LAWS 302 – Constitutional Law

Chapter 1: Introduction

Fundamental Concepts in Australian Constitutional Law • Constitutional law can be described as the ranch of law that regulates the three arms

of government: legislature, the executive and the judiciary • The legislatures aim function is to enact laws • The function of the executive or the administrative arm of government is to administer

laws or put them into practice, and deal with the general details of legal and policy administration

• The judiciary’s function is to interpret and apply the law • In Australia, constitutional law also governs the relationship between Federal and

State powers • The Australian constitution evolved from the constitutional law of the UK, therefore it

has some fundamental doctrines and assumptions about government which find their origin in British legal tradition

Parliamentary Sovereignty • Parliamentary sovereignty represents one of the twin pillars of British Constitutional

law, along with the rule of law • In British Constitutional Law, the parliament is absolute sovereign, this means they

have the power to make or unmake any law ever • Unlike the UK Australian Parliament is not absolutely sovereign • The powers of all Australian Legislatures are constrained by the constitution

o Eg 292 states that all trade commerce and intercourse between states shall be absolutely free and therefore no parliamentary law can impede that

• Even though Australian Parliaments are only partly sovereign it still plays a critical role in constitutional interpretation

• Judges will only strike down statutes in Australia if there is constitutional authority, they won’t simply strike them down because they perceive them to be unjust or immoral – Union Steamship Co of Australia Pty Ltd v King (1988) 166 CLR 1 at 10

o in the above case the High Court confronted an argument that the power of NSW legislature under the new NSW constitution to make laws for “peace order and good government” was restricted to laws which facilitate the general welfare of the people of NSW

• the rule of parliamentary sovereignty was finally enshrined in British law in 1689 with the ascent of William and Mary to the throne, and the subsequent passage of the Bill of Rights 1689 which confirmed that the Parliament was the supreme legal power over

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and above both the monarchy and the judiciary -Judgment of Sir Edward Coke in Dr Bonham’s Case (1610) 8 Co Rep 113b; 77 ER 638

• parliament is the only arm of government that is elected by the people • never the less absolute parliamentary sovereignty may be criticized for its failure to

incorporate checks and balances upon the legislature to prevent the passage of oppressive statutes

The rule of law • According to Dicey, the rule of law has three main facets

1. the rule of law meant “the absolute supremacy of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power, and excludes the existence of arbitrariness, of prerogative, or even of wide discretionary authority on the part of the government – A V Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1st ed, 1885; 10th ed, MacMillan, 1964), p202 ▪ implicit in this first facet is that the law should be clear, easily

accessible, comprehensible, prospective rather than retrospective and relatively stable.

▪ However, since Dicey’s day the complexities of modern government have seen a necessary growth in the amount of discretion available delegated to the executive, resulting perhaps in some erosion in the rule of law

▪ Dicey clearly linked the rule of law with parliamentary sovereignty, distinguishing the law-making power of parliament form the arbitrary excess which characterised unrestrained executive power before 1689

▪ It is arguable that the rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty are at one level fundamentally inconsistent with each other

• “if parliament can legislate anything it cannot be bound by the rule of law, and thus can exercise power arbitrarily” – G Williams, S Brennan and A Lynch, Blackshield and Williams’ Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials (6th ed, Federation Press, Annadale, 2014) p 63-71

2. There should be “equity before the law” as between he governors and the governed - A V Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1st ed, 1885; 10th ed, MacMillan, 1964), p202-203 ▪ Officials were to be subject to the same law in the same courts as

private citizens ▪ This ensures that the government officials don’t act outside the law ▪ Since Dicey’s day there has been a growth in administrative tribunals

and un administrative law in the UK and Australia but the basic concept remains true

3. The bottom up nature of the British constitution – there is an natural unwavering respect for the rights of the individuals had evolved and this was on the absence of a binding bill of rights ▪ This is questionable as in certain cased common law has bluntly failed

to protect certain fundamental rights – Duncan v Jones [1936] 1 KB 249; Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner [1979] Ch 344

• a modern meaning of the rule of law is: “that all persons and authorities within the state, whether public or private, should be bound by and entitled to the benefit of the laws publicly made, taking effect (generally) in the future and publicly administered in

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the courts” – T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p8 per Lord Bingham

• the above statement expanded on the Diceyan explanation 1. the law must be “accessible and so far, as possible intelligible, clear ad

predictable” and a caution against judicial activism - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p37

2. a caution against arbitrariness: “questions of legal right and liability should ordinarily be resolved by application of the law and not exercise of discretion” - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p48

3. equality before the law is fundamental - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p55

4. Bingham incorporates the principle of judicial review of government action: “ministers and public officials at all levels must exercise the powers conferred on them in good faith, fairly, for the purpose for which the powers were conferred, without exceeding the limits of such powers and not unreasonably” - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p60 ▪ In Australia this principle underpins the category of law we call

administrative law 5. Human rights: “the law must afford adequate protection of fundamental

human rights” - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p66 6. Access to justice: the state must provide a way of “resolving, without

prohibitive costs or inordinate delay, bona fide civil disputes which the parties themselves are unable to resolve” - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p85

7. Access to justice: “adjudicative procedures provided by the state should be fair” - T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p90

8. “compliance by the state with its obligations in international law as well as national law” T Bingham, The Rule of Law (Penguin, London, 2011), p110

• Bingham’s re-articulation is grounded in English legal context but several points resonate in Australian Constitutional Law despite us having a written constitution

• “the Australian Constitution is framed upon the assumption of the rule of law” – Plaintiff s157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 492 per Gleeson CJ

Constitutional conventions • Constitutional conventions are part of the broader definition of constitutional law • Constitutional “laws” are enforceable in a court of law • Constitutional “Conventions” are customs or practices that are habitually followed by

governments, who are under a moral or political obligation to continue following them o Their breach does not attract any legal sanction o They are however a very important aspect of Anglo-Australian constitutional

law • Some of the most important rules in Australian constitutional law are ‘mere’

conventions and may prove more intolerable than breaches of the ‘law’ • Example: the constitution gives the governor-general enormous power; it is only a

convention that they act on advice from the government of the day o Their powers include:

▪ May dissolve the lower hose as they see fit – s 5 ▪ May disallow legislation or refuse his or her ascent – s 58 ▪ May sack individual ministers or a whole government – s 64

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o this convention has only been breached once when governor-general Kerr sacked the Whitlam Government in 1975

• there is no distinctive list of conventions • why are certain constitutional practices protected by convention and not law?

o Proper functioning of the government has always necessitated the conferral of discretionary powers on various persons within the government

o Conventions allow for some flexibility to permit gradual, evolutionary shifts in power – J Clarke, P Keyzer and J Stellios, Hanks’ Australian Constitutional Law: Materials and Commentary (8th ed, Butterworths, Chatswood, 2009) p1061

Bicameralism • Most Westminster-style parliaments have a bicameral system in which there are 2

houses of parliament • The lower house is popularly elected house, and generally has the most power • This power is legitimized by its democratic link to the people • Most Australian parliaments are bicameral except for QLD where the upper house was

abolished in 1922 and the Parliaments of NT and ACT • In Australia the lower house is known as the house of representative, the original

upper house is the senate • The senate is one of the stronger upper houses to have developed in the Westminster

system o This is partly because it is elected so it has democratic credentials

Representative government • This doctrine refers to the make-up of the lower house of parliament, and basically

means that the lower house is democratically elected – commonwealth constitution s 24

• In the UK the lower house “house of commons” is elected by a first past the post system where the person with the most votes within the constituency wins that seat regardless of whether there is a majority or not

• In Australia at the federal level, a preferential voting system determines the composition of the house of reps

• In accordance with the doctrine of representative government all lower houses in the Australian states and at federal level are democratically elected

• Democratic elections also determine the compositions of all upper houses and unicameral parliaments

Responsible government • Under this doctrine the executive is responsible to the legislature • By convention, the Crown acts on the advice of its Ministers therefore the ministers

can only stay in government while that have the confidence of the House • the same principle does not apply to the senate • the government need not command the support of a majority of senators • our book describes the doctrine of collective responsibility • ministers are also individually responsible to Parliament for the activities of the

administrative departments that they head by, for example, answering questions in Parliament about work of those departments

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• in this way, public service accountability is ensured: public servants are responsible to their Minister who is responsible to Parliament

• the doctrine of responsible government links to the executive government to the Australian People

• the executive government is responsible to the lower house, which is responsible to the electorate via the doctrine of representative government

• given strict party discipline, it is rare for lower house majorities to truly hold the executive to account

Parliamentary control of supply • Supply the budget for the ordinary annual services of government • Supply must be authorized by Parliament • The requirement of legislative authority for the appropriation of moneys is enshrined

in ss 81 and 83 of the Commonwealth Constitution • The only constitutional restriction on Senate power regarding money bills arise from

s 53 of the constitution, which requires that such bills originate in the House of representatives, and denies the Senate powers to amend such bills

• Therefore, the only potential constitutional restriction on Senate rejections or delay of money bills arises from convention

• Uncertainty regarding the constitutional role of the Senate in passing money bills, and the conventional role of the government if such bills should fail to pass through the Senate

Separation of powers • The ‘pure’ doctrine of the separation of powers prescribes that the functions of the

three arms of government be clearly and institutionally separated • One justification of this is to prevent the concentration of too much power in, and

consequent abuse of power, by a single arm of government • The separation of powers ensures that the 3 arms of government check each other

and keep them in balance so that it can’t unduly harm the governed • Sometimes the distinction between the executive and the legislature has become

increasingly blurred • Commonwealth Ministers are simultaneously members of the executive and the

legislature as is required by s 64 of the constitution

Federalism • Australia is a federal state so constitutional power is shared between two levels of

government. • There are 7 autonomous governments: the federal government operating from

Canberra; 6 state governments • The constitution presupposes the continues independent existence of all 7

governments • In contrast the NT and the ACT are not autonomous

o They remain under the thumb of the federal parliament which could legally abolish them and can override any of the Territorial legislation under s 122 which confers plenary power on the commonwealth in regards to territories

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• Since the enactment of Territories Self-Government Legislation Amendment Act 2011 (Cth) laws that are enacted by the territories can no longer be overturned by the federal executive, but the federal parliament retains its power to do so

• The federal nature of the Australian Constitution is a fundamental characteristic that does not stem from British colonization

• Much of Australian Constitutional law has been concerned with the demarcation of power between the Commonwealth and the States

• The Constitution specifies the powers vested in the Commonwealth: the commonwealth can pass no law without specific constitutional authority for that law

• The specific authorizations for federal power are known as “heads of power” • The commonwealth and states have a number of concurrent powers in s 51 of the

constitution • The states retain their residual powers, those which are not expressly or implicitly

conferred on the Commonwealth • The prevailing interpretations of the tax power (s 51(ii)) the grants power (s96) and

the prohibition of states powers to impose exercise duties in s 90 have left financial resources and powers disproportionally in the hands of the commonwealth

• Board interpretations of powers such as the corporations power (s51(xx), the external affairs power (s51(xxix)) and the grants power (s96) have allowed the commonwealth to exercise legislative authority in areas which were traditionally seen as the states domain

• The prevailing interpretation of s109, which dictates that Commonwealth laws prevail over state laws in case of inconsistency, arguable makes it too easy, via the “cover the field test” for the Commonwealth to oust the States from areas of supposed concurrent power

From Colonisation to Federation

Colonisation of Australia: First Settlement • European settlement dates from 1788 when Governor Arthur Philip arrived in Sydney

with the first fleet. • At the time Philip imported English law into the territory • As of 1788, the colony of NSW “received” all of the suitable law in force in England in

1788 • The alleged moral and legal basis upon which this law was imported as to be in law in

Australia was that Australia was an empty land before English settlement: it was terra nullius

• If that had been the case, no indigenous legal system would have existed, so English law would have filled a complete legal and political vacuum

• The land was inhabited however, but the term terra nullius was not legally rejected until the HC decision in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1

• Before 1828 the notion of the importation of English Law only • The Australian Courts Act 1828 (Imp) asserted that English law was received by the

eastern colonies in 1828 that removing any uncertainty over the issue • The Australian Courts Act 1828 had the status of a UK act of Parliament • According to the principle of parliamentary sovereignty, the Act was therefore

unquestionably the law of the UK and its colonies, regardless of any detrimental impact on Indigenous Australians