latinlanguagehis00linduoft[1]
TRANSCRIPT
5
o
THE LATIN LANGUAGEW.
M.
LINDSAY
Bonbon
HENRY FROWDEOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE
AMEN CORNER, E.C
MACMILLAN
&
CO., 66
FIFTH AVENUE
THE
LATIN
LANGUAGE
AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
LATIN SOUNDS, STEMS, AND FLEXIONS
BY
W. M.
LINDSAY,
M.A.
FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS1894
- 6 1946
PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESSBY HORACE HART. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
TO
PROFESSOR ROBINSON ELLIS
PREFACESINCE Corssen's great work (last edition, Leipzig, 1868-70), no book devoted to a separate investigationdeclensions, its conjugations, its formation of the various
there has been
by Comparative Philological methods of the Latin Language,its
parts of speech,
and the changes
of its pronunciation
and
except the short summary (last edition, written by Professor Stolz for the Iwan Nordlingen, 1889) Miiller Series of Handbooks of Classical Antiquity. And yet
orthography,
if
we
time have been very great.of Comparative
the additions to our knowledge of the subject since Corssen's Not only has the whole Science
Philology been,
by the help of men,
like
Johannes Schmidt, OsthofF, and Brugmann 1 set on a sounder basis, but a vast amount has been added to our knowledge ofthe Early Latin authors, especially Plautus, of the Umbrian, Oscan, and other dialects of ancient Italy, of Romance, andof the Celtic family of languages, a family closely united with the Italic group. The time has surely come for a new treatment of the subject, such as I venture to offer in
above
all
the ten chapters of this volume. I should have liked to have added to
them a
fuller dis-
cussion of the relation of Latin to the other languages ofItaly.
But
I
had already exceeded the generousof ac-
limits
1
I take this opportunityto
.
Grammatik in chaps,chap.ii.
iv-viii,
and
to
knowledgingpossible
the fullestder
extent
Seelmann, Aussprache
des
Latein
in
my
indebtedness to BrugVergleichenden
mann,
Grundriss
viii
PREFACE.
that
allowed by the Delegates of the Press, and it seemed to me until more evidence is forthcoming in the shape of It is dialectal inscriptions certainty can hardly be attained.
much
to be desired that
some of the money which
is
being
raised every year for excavations should be devoted to thisfield of research.
The records
of peoples like the Samnites.for the rule of Italy,
who fought
so gallantly with
Rome
and
whose religion and manners so greatly influenced the rulingrace, should not be allowed to lie neglected.
And
yet, while
the Latin, Greek, and Etruscan inscriptions of Italy are carefully sought after year by year, there has been practically no
organized search for the remains of Oscan, Umbrian, Pelignian, and the rest. I trust that some step may be taken ere longin this direction.It
remains forI
help whichin this
acknowledge with gratitude the kind have had from numerous correspondents, bothto
me
country and abroad, as well as from my Oxford friends, such as my colleague, Mr. E. R. Wharton. My special thanks are due to Mr. Sweet for looking throughthe proof-sheets of my chapter on Latin Pronunciation, and to Professors Mommsen. Bormann, Huelsen, and Dressel for
giving me access to the advance-sheets of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. My friend, Mr. J. A. Smith, Fellow ofBalliol College, has been
good enough to go over the whole
book in
proof,
and
to give
me many
especially on
one of the most
difficult
valuable suggestions, problems of the
language, the formation of the Perfect Tense.OXFORD, August, 1894.
TABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
........CHAPTERI.
PAGE xxvi
THE ALPHABET.SEC.1.
2. 3.
The Alphabet The Alphabet The letter F
i
of twenty-one letters
5 5
45-
XZThe Guttural-symbols Y- and W-soundsDouble Consonant Signs for long vowelsgg for ng
6.7.
8.9.
......... .......... .........Sounds.
5
5 67
8 9 1011
10.11.
New
Letters for Greek
12.
Influence of Greek Orthography
.
.
.
.
.
.1212
13. Syllabic
Writing
CHAPTER1.
II.
PRONUNCIATION.
ADescription of the A-sound by Latin phoneticians
2.
3.4.
5.
Interchange of a and e Interchange of a and o Anomalies in Romance
6.7.
Ei i'
......... ......... ..........
1317
.
.
17 17
1818
Descriptions of the E-sound by Latin phoneticians, &c.for
....
2021
8.9.
unaccented e. ..
for e in hiatus
.
-
.
.
.
.
.
10.
Rusticfor
'
e for
i
in hiatus
.
.21 .2222 23 2323
11. I for e
12. 13.1415.1 6.
i
unaccented e
a for e I
..............
Descriptions of the I-sound by Latin phoneticians
.
.
.
by Grammarians
25 25
XSEC.17.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.Interchange ofii
and
e
293
18. 19.
in hiatus
Anomalies in Romance
20.
O
21. Descriptions of the O-sound by Latin phoneticians 22. Close for open o in accented syllables before certain consonant-
....
30 30 323233
23.24.
u u
for
groups unaccented 6
for 6
............U-sound by Latin phoneticians.
3334 34
25. 26.
Other changes of 6 and 6
U,
Y
27. Descriptions of the 28. Greek v in Latin 29. o for 30. 6 for31.ii
....
35
3637
32. 33.34.
u Other changes of u and u Diphthongs Grammarians' account of diphthongs Ter. Maurus on an.
......
3737
37
35.36.
au in Romance
u
for accented
37. o
and au
38. a for
39.40.
au Greek transcriptions of au ae for au
41. e for ae
42. ai for ae
43.
Greek
t
44. oe
45. oe in46.
and e Romancecu
........... ........ ............ ............ ............-44au41.
39 40 40 40 4042
42 42
43 43 4444 44 4447
Greek
47. ui of cui
48. J,49.
V
50.
51.52.53.
Testimony of grammarians j and v in early Latin in late Latin and Romance v confused with b in late Latin and Romance Intervocalic v droppedv dropped vowel..
.48. .
*
.
54. Postconsonantal55. ai, ei before a56.
.....
H
49 49 52 52 53
..
.
Testimony of grammarians 58. h between vowels 59. h in Old Latin 60. Greek aspirates in Latin57. 61. 62.63.
\
.
.53 .5557 57 57
.
M,NPhonetic descriptions of normal m, n
6065 65 65 67
64. 65. Final
The Agma m, n before consonant
m
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.
xiPAGE
66.
ns
67. 68. 69-
nx
mn
gn 7- net 71- nd72. Parasitic
69 69 69 7o 7o?0
vowel in Greek loanwords
7071.
73.74.
Tenues and mediae
75. 76.
77.78.79.
Greek tenues in loanwords Confusion of mediae and tenues in Latin words Mediae and tenues at end of word Mediae and tenues in the Dialects. ..
....
.
.
.
74
.
.
.
-7576
.
.
.
B, P Phonetic descriptions of
-777878
b,
p
.
80. bs, bt 81. ps, pt 82.83.
79
84.85. 86.
bm, mb b and dialectal b and m
D, T Phonetic descriptions of 87. d and 1 88. d and r :.
............f
.... .......d, t
.8080 80 80 82 82 8283 83 84 86 86
79
89. tl
90. Assibilation of ty, 91.
K, C, G, QU, 92. Phonetic descriptions of the Gutturals gu..
GU
dy
93. qu,
94.
c,
g before narrow vowels
87
95- ct, tt
L, 97. Phonetic descriptions of96.
B
89 891....
.
.
.
.
91
98. of r99.
.
.
-9192 92 92
The grammarians on the pronunciationInterchange of r and vowel withr's.
100. of rtor.
102. Parasitic103.
Avoidance of two
104. rs
105. r-n 106. 1-n107.1
before consonant
108. rl
109. r before no. final r
in. Metathesis112. ly
.........-93 ............ .......... ............. .......... ............1,
... ..... ... ...of1
1
.
.
r
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
95 96 96 96 96
97
consonants
9797
.
97.
.
.
.'
.-
";
.
.
.
.
.
98-.
"3- ry "4- F115. Descriptions of the
98
sound of
f
98 100
xiiSKC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.mf..
116.
PAGE 100
117. S, X, Z 118. Phonetic descriptions of1
.101.
s,
x
.
.
.
.
.
.
103103 104105105
19.
Latin
s
in,
Romance
Greek Latin z 121. Old Roman z 122. Old Roman s (z), later r 123. Prosthetic vowel with st, &c. 124. s before a consonant 125. x120.126. Final s 127. 128.
........ .......... . . .
.
.
.
.105107
107 108
Double consonants Testimony of the grammariansReduction of11
108. . ..
.
.
129.
to
1,
ss to
s,
after a
diphthong or long vowelLatin. . ..
.
.no .no.
130. Confusion of single 131.
and double.
letter in.
.
113
Double consonants in Italian 132. Double consonant (not 1, s) after long vowel 133. Final double consonant 134. Final consonants 135. 'Sandhi' in Latin 136. Latin 'Doublets' 137. Dropping of final consonant in Latin..
.
.
.
.118118.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
19
.
.
119121
122
138.J 39.
Dropping
of final consonants in
Romance.
...... . ..
122124125 126
Syllable-Division
.124.
140.141.
Testimony Quantity'
of
grammarians
.
.
.
Position 142. 143. Shortening of long144.145.146.
''...... . . .
147. 148.
vowel before another vowel Change in quantity of vowel before certain consonant-groups r with consonant s with consonant n with single consonant 1 with consonant. . .
......
129131
133
....... ...&c. .. .
140141
.141142 142
149. Crasis of vowels, Synizesis,
150. Vowel-contraction in compounds in the early dramatists 151. Synizesis in Late and Vulgar Latin152.
143144 144 144
Other examples of vowel-contraction
.
.
'...
153. Elision
154. Parasitic
vowels
.
.
.
145
CHAPTER1.
III.
ACCENTUATION.Nature of the Latin Accent Testimony of the grammarians, Accentthe circumflex accent Accentuation of Greek loanwords(2)
148(i)
2.
On
the Nature of the Latin154154
On
3.4.
155
Romance Accentuation
156
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.5.
xiii
6.7.
The Earlier Law of Accentuation Traces of I.-Eur. accentuation in LatinSecondary and main accent
8. 9.
The Paenultima Law
10. 11.
Testimony of the grammarians Exceptions to the Paenultima Law
Vulgar- Latin Accentuation 12. Accentuation of the Sentence i2. Latin Sentence-Enclitics13.
SyncopeSyncope Syncope Syncope Syncope(2)
14. 15. 16.17.
in the Pi-aenestine Dialect of Latin
under the Old Accentof Final Syllable
under the Paenultima Accent Law.
Post-tonic
18.
Change of Unaccented VowelsOther Examples.I.
Syllables long by position 20. II. Short Syllables (i) in -r 21. (2) in -1 or Labial19..
The22.
Parasitic
in other short syllables 2 3' (3) Diphthongs, ai, ae
au24. (4)
Diphthongs in Hiatus
25. (5) je and ve 26. (6) Later change of o to u, u to ii, i 2 7- (?) Greek words with Vowel-change 28. (8) 29.
Vowel unchanged,ii.
in Greek loanwords
30. (9)31. (10)
Long vowels
Recomposition and Analogy
32. (ii) Pretonic
33. (12) Assimilation, Dissimilation,34.
35.
and False Analogy (13) Shortening of Syllables long by position Change and Shortening of Vowel in Unaccented Final Syllable I. Loss or Syncope of Short Vowel..
36. Loss of -e 37. II.
38.
Change of Vowel Change of final short vowel
39. Alternation of final e 40. III.41.
Shortening of Long Syllable
Final long vowel in Hiatus 42. Breves Breviantes
Shortening Shortening 45. Shortening 46. Shortening 47. Shortening 48. Shortening 49. Shortening43. 44.
of final -a of final -eof final of final -o-i
....... ...... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ..... ......... ........... ....... .... .......... ......... ......... ...... ..... ..... ... .......... ........... ..... ....... .......... ....... .......... ......... ..........
PAGE157
159159 160162 163
164165 166
.170177181
Law
.
.
.
.
.
.
.178183 184 185191
(i)
Pretonic
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
192 192 193194 195
Vowel
.
.
196 196
196 196197
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
i.
in Latin
words
198 198
199
.
199
200201 201
.
.
to e
'
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
with internal
i
203 203 204 205 206 206207 209 210 210
.
.
.211212 213 213 213 213
.
of final -u
~. ...
.
.'.i.
of final diphthong of long vowel before final Consonant
....
xivSEC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.PAGE
50. Shortening of Final Syllable long
by
position.-
.
Shortening of Monosyllables 52. Loss of Final Syllable with -m51.
.
.
.
.
.... ....
.
.
214 215 216
CHAPTER1.
IV.
THE LATIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN SOUNDS.
ALatin a for I.-Eur. a
219221
2.3.
Aa
221
4. I.-Eur.56.
223
BLat. e for I.-Eur. efor 6
.223224 225. .
7. I
8.9.
ELatin e for I.-Eur. e.
225 226
10. 6 for e11.i
with
w and
1.
226
for (accented) e
12. I 13.
229 230i
I
14.15.
Other examples of Lat. ie, not ii
for I.-Eur.
I
231 232
232 232 233 234235
16.
OLatin 6 for I.-Eur. 6 Latin a for I.-Eur. 6, under influence of v.
i?-01819.
20.21. 22.23-
ii
for 6
UtJr
Other examples of Lat.
Latin u for I.-Eur. u 25. Latin ii and Latin 624.
............ ...........
.
.
:
.
235237 237237
u, I.-Eur.
u
.
.
.
26.
The DiphthongsLatin ae
.
238 239 239241
27. AI 28. I.-Eur. ai,
...(ai). :
.
242
29. AI,30. 31. 32-
AE
AUBI
on Inscriptions.
.
.
.
.
Other examples.
242 242 243244 244245 246
.
.
.
.243
33.34.
Other examples of I.-Eur.
ei
.
.'
.
.
.
3536.
EI and BITOU,
I in Inscriptions,
&c
Other examples of I.-Eur. eu
37.38.
U in
Inscriptions
01
246 246247;
39. Other examples of I.-Eur. oi 40. 01, OE, U on Inscriptions 41.
ou
247 248
42.
Other examples of I.-Eur. ou
249
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.
XVPAGE
43.44.4546.
u
for older ovi, ove
.
The spurious diphthong ou
250 250251
AI
AUElBIT
4748.49-
252 252 252 252
OIOTJVariation (Ablaut) of Vowels I.-Eur. and Latin e and 6.
50.51. 52.
53.
anda-oei
6
54. o-a, e-a5556. a57.
58.
and a and e and 1
59. 6 60. u
and oand u and a
61. e62.
6u-au
63. 64. I.-Eur. initial y 65. I.-Eur. y preceded66. I.-Eur.67.
Y
by a consonant y between vowels
............ ....... ... .......... ............ ............ ............ ............ ............ ........... .... ...........
.
.
.
.
.
.
253 253 258 258 258 259 259 260 260 260
.
.
260261
261
262 264264 265 265
.
Latin
68.
W
j
69. I.-Eur. initial70.
71.
72.73.
w w (and Latin v) between I.-Eur. w after a consonant I.-Eur. w before a consonantI.-Eur.
M,
Nm;
M
74. I.-Eur.
75.
n
for
mms
other examples
76. I.-Eur. 77. I.-Eur.
mr, ml
78.79.
NI.-Eur.
n
;
other examples
80.
mn
81.82.83.
The M- and N-Sonants
Other examples of the Nasal Sonants Other examples of am, an, ma, naL,
84.
B
...... ........ ........ ........ ............ ......... ........ ...... .......vowels.
265 266267
267 268 268
269 270 270 270 270271
272 272
273274 274
85-
L1. ;
275 275other examples'
86. I.-Eur.87.
.
R
.
w
-
.
\
88. I.-Eur. r
;
89. ss for rs before 90. rr for rs before91.
other examples consonant
..........;.
'
276 276 277277
.
_"
.
.
.
.
.
.
vowel
.
:
.
.
n
for r
277 278
xviSEC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.PAGE
92.
The L- and B- Sonants
Other examples of the liquid Sonants 94. Other examples of al, ar, la, ra 95. Tenues, Mediae, and Aspirates 96. Media or aspirata assimilated to unvoiced consonant in Latin 97. Tenuis assimilated to voiced consonant in Latin93.98.
.....
278 279 279 279 281281281
P B
.
99. 100.101.102.
Other examples of I.-Eur. p
Other examples of I.-Eur. b
mn
for
bn bh;
103.
BHT
104. I.-Eur.105. 106.
other examplest
Other examples of I.-Eur.
........... ........of I.-Eur. d, Latin d. . .
282 282 282 282 282
283 283 284284 284 284 285 286287 289
107. I.-Eur. tl jo8. I.-Eur. tt109.
D
no. Other instances in. Latin 1 for d 112. Latin r ford113. tr for
dr
.
114.
DHOther examples of I. -Eur. dh The Gutturals x for Guttural with s ct for Guttural with t
115. 116.117. 118.
.........GH
119. gn,
gm
for en,
cm
289 289 290 293 293 293294294 295 295
120. Latin
121.T
22.
h dropped between vowels Dialectal f for h The Palatal Gutturals: K, G, KH,Other examples of I.-Eur. k
123.
124. I.-Eur.
kw
125. 126. 127. 128. 129.
GOther examples of I.-Eur. g
GHOther examples of I.-Eur. gh The Gutturals Proper K, G,:
....GH,
KH
.
.
.
.-*.'..
K130. I.-Eur.
k
;
other examples
131.132.
GOther examples of I.-Eur. g
.... ....-
..
.
/"
.
133134. I.-Eur.
GH
gh
;
other examples
135. Velar Gutturals with Labialisation : Q,H 136. I.-Eur. q3, Latin qu ; other examples137. c for138.139."g'A,
296 296 296 296 297 297 297 298 298 298 298 298 299 300
qu
300301
Latin qu of other originLatin v;
.301other examples301
140. I.-Eur.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.
XVllPAGE
141. Dialectal b 142. g for L-Eur. g 143-
H
........... ..........;
144. I.-Eur.
gh in Latin:
other examples
145.146.
The S, Z
Sibilants
S,
Z
147. I.-Eur. s, Latin s ; other examples 148. Latin r for intervocalic sibilant
149. Initial sibilant before150.
consonant. .
O^Latin
stJ, si, scl
.
151. Sibilant before voiced consonant in 152. Sibilant before r in middle of word153.
154. Assimilation of 155. Latin ss for tt
Assimilation of sibilant to preceding r, 1 preceding dental to the sibilant
.... ............
...... ........ .... ....... ...... ...... . ..
.
.
.
.
middle of word
.
.
.
156.157.158. 159.1 60.
Other groups with a sibilant Loss of Consonant in Group Other examples Assimilation of Consonants
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
302 302 302 302 302 303 305 305 306 307 307 308 308 309 309 309 309311
.
.
.
.310.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Assimilation in Preposition compounded with Verb 161. Other examples of Assimilation162.
.........
.
313 314315
Lengthening by CompensationAssimilation of Syllables.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.314.
163.
.
.
.
.
.
CHAPTEKSTEM-SUFFIXES.
V.
FORMATION OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE STEMS.1.
I.
316.. .
2.
3.4.
ending in -6, -a (Nouns and Adjectives of the First and Second Declension). -O-, -A.316 Latin 0- and A-suffixes other examples .318 .318 -IO-, -IA-, (-YO-, -YA-)Suffixes..
;
.....
.
.
.
.
5.
-TJO-,
6.7.
I.-Eur.
-UAStems in -wo-
8.
Latin Verbal Adjectives in -uus, -NO-, -NAI.-Eur. NO-suffix
......... .....-Ivus, -tivus
-
322
9.
10.IT.
12.13. 14.
Latin -nus Latin -Inus Latin -anus
.... .... ..... ...... ............
-MENO-, -MENA-M6-, -MAOther examples
..........and,
322 323 324 326 326
.
15.
16. -B.6-,
-KAof I.-Eur. -tero.
17.1 8.
Other examples of the EO-suffix
Examples
19. I.-Eur. -tro-
..........-ero- in
.... ........Latin
20. I.-Eur. 21.
-dhro-
.
.
-L6-, -LA-
326 326 327 328 328 328 330 330 330 331 331
b
xviiiSEC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.PAGEi.
Adjectives formed by the LO-suffix 23. Nouns denoting the Agent or the Instrument22.
.
.
.
.
24. 25. 26.
Diminutives Neuters formed with the.
suffix -tlo-
........
332 332 333 333 334
The
suffix -dhlo-
27. -T6-, -TA28. Participles in -tus29.
....-ta (-sa)
-334.. .
Abstract Nouns in
30.
Neuters in -mentum
......
......
'
.
.
335 336
731. -KO-,
-KAwith the KO-suffix.
.
.
.
.
.
32. Adjectives
33. Adjectives in -icius 34. Suffixes ending in i35.
(Nouns and Adjectives of third Declension) Other examples of I-stems 36. Adjective I-stems from O-stems 37- -NI38. Other examples of Latin -ni39- -MI-
:
-I-
336 336 337 337 338 338 338 339 339
.......
.339. .
40. -BI-, -LI41.
-339-li-,
Other examples of Latin
-ri-
42. -TI-
43.44. 45.46.
Other examples of the suffix -ti- in Latin Examples of Latin -tionAdjectival -ti- for -to- in Latin Other examples of Latin -tat(i)-, -tiit(i), -tudin.
.......
340 340341 341
47. Suffixes
ending in -u (Nouns of fourth Decl.). Other examples of U-stems in Latin 49. Interchange of U- with O-stems 50. Other examples of TU-stems 51. The Suffixes -YE- (Nouns of fifth Decl.) and -I 52. Other examples of Latin Ferns, in -I, -Ic, &c48.53. -ye-
-IT-
........
.... ....in -E.
342 342
.
The Stems
and
-I-
342 343 343 344 344 347 347348
54. Suffixes
ending in -n (Nouns of third
Decl.).
-EN-, -YEN-.
-WEN-,..
-MEN55. Masc.
EN-stems in Latin-r
56. Suffixes
57.58.
ending in Neuter R-stems -EH- and -TEH.
(Nouns of third
Decl.J. -R-
....Decl.).. .
59. Nouns of relationship 60. Latin Nomina Agentis
.........-T..
61. Suffixes62.63.
ending in -t (Nouns and Adjectives of third Other examples of Latin T-stems..
349 349 349 350 350 350 350351
-NT-
.
.
.
.
... .... .
.
.352.
64. 65. 66.
Other examples of Latin -ent-
.
.
-WENT-
353 353 354 69. Suffixes ending in a Guttural (Nouns and Adjectives of third Decl.), 354 70. Other examples 35567. Suffixes ending in -d 68. Other examples.
Other examples of Latin -osus (Nouns of third Decl.
........ ..... ............
......
.
.
.
.
352
.352
TABLE OF CONTENTS.71. Suffixes72.
xix.
73.74. 75.
ending in -s (Nouns and Adjectives of third Decl.). -ESNeuter ES- stems in Latin Adjective ES-stems Masc. (and Fern.) ES-stems Other S stems
76.
-YESForms
77. Suffixless
78. Suffixless79.
stems at end of Compounds in Latin Latin Independent Suffixless stems
80. II.81. 82.
COMPOSITION
Eeduplicated Nouns and Adjectives in Latin
83. 84.
A-stems O-stemsI-stems
85. 86.87.
88.
U-stems N-stems R-stems Dental and Guttural StemsS-stemsStem-suffixes
89.90.
............ ............ ............ ........ ... ........ ............ .....and Compositionin
..... ...........
......... ........ ........... ........... ..... .......
355 355
356 356357
357 357 358
358 358 363 363 364 364 364 364365 365 365
Romance
365
CHAPTERADJECTIVES.1.
VI.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
COMPARISON OF
NUMERALS..
I.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVESSing.I.
.
2.
Nom.
3.4.
Nona. Sing, of A-stems in Latin
5. 6.7.8.
RO-stems YO-stemsI-stems
S-stems
N-stems
9.
10.11.
Diphthong stems Nom., Ace. Sing.O-stemsI-stems
12.
13.14.
U-stemsS-stems
....... ............ ..... ... ............ ........ ............Masc., Fein...
.
.
.
.
.
.366 -371373 374 375 375
.
.
.
,
376 376377
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
-377378 378 378 378 379 379 379381
II.
Neut.
.
15.
R-stemsin
16. -S
Nom.
Sg. Neut. of Adjectives
........
17.18.19.
Gen. Sing A-stemsFifth Decl. Stems. .. __
.
.
.
.
.
.382383 384 384 385
20. 21.22.
O-stems and I0-stems U-stems Consonant stemsDat. Sing
.
.
-"
..........'..
23.
b
2
XXSEC.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.PAGE
24.
A-stems
386
25. Fifth Decl. 26. O-stems 27. 28. 29. 30.
Stems
.
.386387 387387 387 388
31.32. 33.
U-stems Consonant-stems Ace. Sing. The endings -im and -em Voc. Sing. Other examples.
.
Abl. Sing Latin Abl. with -d 35. I-stem and Cons.-stem34. 0. 36. Instr.
.
'
Abl.' in
-i
and
-e
.
.
.
.
.
.
37.
Sing Locative Sing.-I
38. Locatives in
and
-e
in Latin
.........
39. A-stems, 40.41.42. 43.
&cI.
Nona. Plur. A-stems O-stemsI-stems.
Masc., Fern.
44. Cons.-stems45.46.
47.
Nom., Ace. Plur. II. Neut. Gen. Plur. -um and -orum in O-stems
48. Dat., Abl., Loc., Instr. 49.
50.51.
A- and O-stems Other stemsAce. Plur..
........... ........ ......... ........... ...........Plural.
388 389 390 391 392 392 395 396 397 397 398 398 399 399 399 401 402 402403 404 404 404 406 407 407 408 409 410 410412 412413 414 414
52. II.53.54.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVESand Superlatives
The Comparative Suffixes The Superlative Suffixes
55.
SomeOne Unus
irregular Comparatives
....
56. III. 57.
NUMERALS
58. 59. 60. 61. 62.
TwoDuoThree Tres. . ..
.411
.
.
.
.
63.64.
Four.
Quattuor 65. Five66.
Quinque.
.
.
.
414
67- Six 68. Seven69.70.7172.
.
.
...............
..
.
.
..
.
Eight
.
.
.
......
.
.
415 415 415415 416 416 417
Nine Ten Eleven
.
to
Nineteen
.
73. 0.
Latin duovicesimus
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.74.
XXIPAGE417
Twenty
to
Ninety
75. Viginti, &c.
76. 77.78.79.
The Hundreds Centum, &c. The ThousandsMille
........... ...Romance. ..
418 418 419 419 420 420
80.
The Numerals
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
CHAPTEKI.
VII.
THE PRONOUNS.1.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THE REFLEXIVE,
2.
Declension of ego2 Sing.ReflexivePlur.
3.4.
Declension of tu
5. 6.7.
Declension of suii
..... ..... ............ ........ ..... ..........i
Sing.
421
422
.
423 423424 424
.
8.9.
10.11.
Declension of nos 2 Plur Declension of vosII.
........... ..............'
.
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNSDEMONSTRATIVESparticle -ce
12.
Their formsLatin so-
13. III. 14. 0.
15.!6.
The Hie
.......... ........... .....Sg..
.....
424 425 425 426 426427
17- Iste
429 432 432 433 435437
18. Ille19- Is
20. Ip&e 21. Idem22.
............. .............AND INTERROGATIVE
.436440441
The Pronominal Gen. and Dat.
442
23. IV.
RELATIVE, INDEFINITE,
PRO443444 445
NOUNS24.
Stems qi- and qSoCase-forms
25.
26.27.
The stem qSuThe Possessive cujusOther DerivativesV.
28.29.
THE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES
........... ........ ...........
446447
447 449 452
30.
The Pronouns in Romance
CHAPTER1.
VIII.
THE VERB.I.
THE CONJUGATIONS
.....
,
.,
/
,
.
.
453455
2.
Traces of the Athematic Conjugation in Latin
.
.
.
.
xxiiSEC.3.4.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.PAGE
II.'
THE TENSE-STEMS'
5.6.7.
Strong Aorist Old Latin forms with -ss- (-s-) A. Present, (i) With E-grade of root and Thematic Vowel Other examples.
(Strong Aorist and S-formations forms in Latin
.
.
.
.
8.
Weak(2)
9.
10. (3)11.12.1
With With
grade of root reduplicated rootroot nasalized,i.
........nasal infix,ii.
459 464 465 466 467 467 468
With
With
nasal affix
.
469471471
3.
14.
15.1
6.
Other examples of nasal infix Retention of Nasal throughout the Tenses Other examples of nasal affix Other Verb-stems with n (4) With suffix -Y(V, -lYOi in the third Conjugation Presents with Y(J-suffix
472
17.18. 19.
20.21. 22.
Other examples of E-grade roots Of weak grade roots Alternative forms in -o and -eo Of roots with -a, -e, -o In ceptives, and other Verb-stems..
Inceptives in -sko- (-sko-) 23. Causatives and Intensives in -eyo24. Latin Desideratives in -turio(5).
.... ....... ........ ....... .........
472 472475 475
.
.
.
.
.
476 476 476
476477
477
.
.
.
.
.
.
25. 26.
Latin Iteratives or Frequentatives in -*tayoOther Derivative Verbs with the YC-suffix 27. Other suffixes 28 Other examples of Latin Inceptives 29. Of Latin Causatives, &c. 30. Of Latin Desideratives 31. Of Latin Iteratives 32. Of Latin Derivative verbs with YO-suffix. .. .
....'
.
.
.
.
.
......
478 478 478 478 479482 482
.
.
.
.
.
.481
33.
Of other Verb-suffixes 33a. The Conjugations in Romance 34. B. Imperfect35.36. C.
...... ......... .......
483 486 488 4 89491
Fourth Conj. Impft. in -Ibam Future, 37. Fourth Conj. Fut. in -Ibo 38. Third Conj. Fut. in -ebo 39. D. Perfect forms 40. Other examples of Reduplicated41.42.
49 1 493 493 494 501 501 502 503 503 504 504 505 506 508 508
43.44. 45.
Unreduplicated Form of Reduplication Assimilation of Reduplication- vowel to Stem-vowel Loss of Reduplication and Unreduplicated forms Co-existent Reduplicated
.
.
.
.! '
.
.
.
.
46. S-Preterite 47. Origin of the Perfect in -vi (-ui) -vi 48. Shortened forms of the Perfect in49.
50. O.51.
Shortened forms of the Perfect in Latin Perfects in -u(v)i
-si
Some
Irregular Perfects
.........
509
TABLE OF CONTENTS.SEC.
xxillPAGE
52. E.
Pluperfect 53. F. Future-Perfect54. G. Tenses 55. III.
509. .
formed with A uxiliary Verbs.A.Subjunctive.
THE MOODS.
56.
Some
Optative Mood in Latin.) O. Latin Subj. and Opt. forms
57. B.58.
59. 60.
Imperative Other examples of 2 Sg. Im per. with bare stem Other examples of Imper. in -tod Imper. Pass. 2, 3 Sg. in -mino. ..
..... ........ ...... ............ .. .
.
.
.
.510510511
(Relics
of
the I.-Enr.
514 516517
.........
.
.
519
.
.
.
.
61. 3 PI. 62. 63. 64.
Imperat.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.519 .519519.
IV.
THE VOICES. ..
Impersonal use of Latin Passive Active and Middle.. .
.
.
.
521
.
.
.
.
.
.
.521522524525
65. V. 66.67(i)
THE PEPtSON-ENDINGSActive,i
Sg
2
68.
Sg AthematicSg
Sg. of fero, volo
69. 370. 71.72.
The 3i
Sg. Pft. in Latin Plur.
..................
2 Plur
73. 3 Plur-
526 526 527 529 529 529531531
3 PI. Pres. in -nunt 75. 3 PI. Perf.74.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7ev/j.a, AUTO'S), hr. rh, (e.g. a 'his' prefixed to sruth, 'stream,' is pronounced a rhoo), I.-Eur. sic- when preceded by a vowel became /, e. g. a fiur, 'his sister' (I.-Eur. *esyo swesor\ which points to a connexion between It must however be added that I.-Eur. w- in hie (wJi), and the /-sound.Irish regularly better analogy
the
nil-
A still e.g. faith, 'a prophet' (cf. Lat. vdtes). furnished by the Aberdeenshire dialect of Scotch, where or /t>-sound of Scotch 'what,' 'when,' &c., appears as /, 'fat,' 'fan.'becomes/,is
4.
X.
x,
the last letter of the alphabet (Quint,
(litterarum) ultima,
waspoet
also written xs
i. 4. 9 'x nostrarum qua tarn carere potuimus quam psi non quaerimus), from early times (e. g. EXSTKAD for extra, on the S. C.:
de Bacchanalibus, 186
B. c. C. I. L.
i.
196), especially at the period of
the
SAXSVM on an epitaph of one of the PKOXSVMEIS for proximis, EXSIGITO, LEXS on the Lex Scipios, c. 130 B.C., i. 34 Bantina, bet. 133 and 118 B.C., i. 197), and is common in the Augustan age and in plebeian inscriptions of a later epoch (for examples, see Index to and for instances in C. I. L. viii. &c. exsemplo Comm. Lud. Saec. A. 26 Virgil MSS., see Ribbeck, Ind. p. 445). Terentius Scaurus, second cent. A. D., condemns the spelling nuxs,' 'truxs,' 'feroxs' as an unnecessary repetition The guttural element is repeated of the sibilant element of the x-sound. in the spelling ex, e. g. VCXOR for uxor (a misspelling which has led to the
and grammarian, Accius;
(e. g.
;
;
'
corruption roxor in MSS. of Plautus, Class. Bev. v. 293), VICXIT (C. I. L. v. 5735). also find xc, (For examples in Virgil MSS., see Kibbeck, Ind. p. 391). e. g. IVXCTA (C. I. L. vi. 14614), and sx, e. g. VISXIT (viii. 67), all various ways of expressing the same sound (a c-sound followed by an s-sound), for which
We
we also find a more accurate expression, namely cs, e. g. VICSIT (vii. 5723). This last combination was used to express the sound in the Etruscan alphabet, the symbol X being retained only as a numerical symbol, for the number 10.5. Z.
If
we
are to believe Velius Longus;
(7.
51 K), this symbol
was
found in the Carmen Sail are though whether the mysterious jumble of letters which the MSS. of Varro, L. L. vii. 26, offer as a fragment from this hymn, coseidodorieso, &c., can be fairly quoted as an instance of Old Latin s is doubtful, for the reading suggests eeu (Greek & ZeS) more than anything else and Varro quotes the passage as exemplifying the old use of s;
6(nots)
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.for laterr.
[Chap.
I.
It is letter
273
B. c.),
where the
found on coins of Cosa [C. I. L. i. 14 COZANO (after should have the ordinary z-form and not the form;
printed in the Corpus (see Kitschl. Opusc. iv. 721 wl]. The dzenoine of the Dvenos inscription is too doubtful to quote for the letters may read not only dze noiiie. on the ninth day/ but also die noine, or even Dvenoi ne. This old Latinl
seems to have expressed the sound of soft or voiced s (but see ch. ii. 121 the sound in our verb 'to use' while our noun 'use' has the hard or unvoiced s. Between vowels in Latin s had once this soft sound, and was presumably written 2; but this sound passed at an early time into the r-sound (c. 350 B.C., to judge from the remark of Cicero, Fam. ix. 21. 2, that L. Papirius Crassus.2,
;
dictator 415 A. u.
c.
(
= 339
B.C.),;
was the:
first
of his family to change the
in the Digests (i. 2. 2. 36) Appius Claudius Papisius to Papirius is mentioned as the author of the change litteram invenit ut pro Valesiis
name from
R
Valerii essent, et pro Fusiis Furii).
Martianus Capella tells us that the letter was removed from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, the famous censor of 312 B.C., adding the curious reason that in pi-onouncing it the teetli:
assumed the appearance of the teeth of a grinning skull (Mart. Cap. iii. 261 z vero idcirco Appius Claudius detestatur, quod dentes mortui, dum expriIn the Oscan language this soft s sound was retained mitur, imitatur). The native Oscan alphabet (derived from the without passing into r. Etruscan), expresses it by the letters, which is also used for the hard s-sound,are written in Latin characters, z
symbol denotes the fe-sound but in the later inscriptions, whicli is used (e.g. eizazunc egmazum (in Latin, earum rerum), on the Bantia tablet, c. 1308.0.). (On the question whetherwhile thes;'
the z Latin character) of Osc. zicolo-, dieculus,' represents the soft s-sound or the fe-sound of the letter written in the Oscan alphabet like a capital I withtop and bottom strokes prolonged, and in the Umbrian alphabet with the same strokes slanting instead of horizontal, and on the occasional use of the native letter for the s-sound, e.g.Unibr. Dial. p. 71.)
Umbr.
'
zefef,
sedens/ see von Planta,
Osk.-
A special symbol for the #-sound, made by6. The Guttural-symbols. adding a small stroke to the symbol C, is said by Plutarch (Quaest Rom. 54 and 59 cf. Ter. Scaur. 7. 15 K.) to have been the invention of Sp. Carvilius Ruga c. 293 B.C., presumably because he was the first to write his name Ruga with the new symbol, as L. Papirius Crassus, dictator 339 B.C., was the first to conform the spelling of the family-name Papisius to the new pronunciation Papirius. The remark, however, of Martianus Capella about tne action of the censor of 312 B.C., Appius Claudius Caecus, with regard to the letter Z, whose position in the Latin alphabet was occupied by the new symbol G, suggests;
C and G symbols was the work rather of that The exclusive use of the symbol C for the /c-sound led to the disuse of the symbol K, which however, thanks to the conservative instinct of the Roman nation, was still retained as abbreviation for the proper name Kaeso, and in a few words before the vowel a, e.g. Kalendae, a commonthat the differentiation of the
many-sided reformer.
spelling on inscriptions (see C. I. L. i.. Index, p. 583), interkalaris, kaput, kalumnia. Terentius Scaurus, second cent. A. D. (p. 15 K.) tells us that the letter
K was called ka, while the name of C washad been before his time usednames,speaks of some
ce,
and that these
letters
themselves
to indicate the syllables represented
by
their
e.g. krus (for ka-rus\ era (for cera}.
Velius Longus, first cent. A. D., sticklers for old usages in his own age, who in their corre-
6, 7.]
THE ALPHABET.
7
spondence always spelt karissime with k not c p. 53 K.) see also Quint, i. 7. 10 Diom. 424. 29 K. Cledonius 28. 5K. Maximus Victorinus Prise, i. 12. 5 H. Probus 10. 23 K. Serv. in Don. p. 422 K. Donatus, p. 368 K. 195. 19 K. For spellings with ka in Virgil MSS., see Eibbeck, Index, p. 429 and for;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
similar spellings elsewhere, Georges, Lex. Lat. Wortf.&c.,its
s.
and Brambach,;
Lat. Orth. p. 208.)
The symbol C
vv. Carthago, capnt, earns, was similarly retained in
old use for the g-sound in the abbreviations of proper names, C. for Gaius, seems to be Cn. for Gnaeus just as an old five-stroked form of the symbol
M
the original of the abbreviation for the name Manius, later written with apostrophe. That it persisted in other words also to the beginning of the literary period, we see from the fact that a large number of archaic words,
M
quoted by the grammarians from the early literature, are spelt with c not ,
on a denarius of Claudius Pulcher (C. I. L. (0. Engl. antefn from Gk avTHpuvrj For Greek to be written with th, anthem.'B.C.
as
'antem
'
'
and for -,5/5-, the older spelling was r, >T, e.g. Regium, Burrus (the invariable form of the name Tlvfipos in Ennius, according to Cic. Orat. xlviii. 1 60 The use of rh for initial was not approved by Varro, who preferred to.
>
write
'
Rodus,'
l
retor
'
(Varro, L. L.
iii. fr.
57. p. 182
Wilm.).
In Oscan inscriptions similarly Greek aspirates are usually expressed bytenues, e.g. Arkiia (for 'Apx"")? Meeilikiieis (for MfiXix'tov Gen.), and so' Pelignian Perseponas, Proserpinae,' Gen., but we have also Osc. thesavrei, 'in'
thesauro/ Loc., &c.
Influence of Greek Orthography. The use of y for the guttural without success by Accius (see above), was clearly borrowed from the Greeks. The spelling ei for the long i sound, and the employment of double consonants, may possibly, as we have seen, have come from the same source. But however natural it may appear for the Romans to have adopted Greek spelling along with Greek terminology in matters of Grammar and Phonetics, there is hardly a single instance of the practice that can be12.
nasal, advocated
established by proof (see Zarncke's attempt in Comm. Rilbech; 1888}.
The remark of Ter. Scaurus (p. 15 K., quoted 13. Syllabic Writing. above, that k had been employed to denote the syllable fra, c the syllable ce, suggests (unless indeed he is merely alluding to the common practice of abbreviating words by writing only the initial letter of each syllable), thatspellings on early inscriptions like LVBS for lubeji)s on a Marso-Latin inscription (C. /. L. i. 183), may be not really evidences of syncopated pronunciation,
The but rather traces of an old custom of syllabic writing (see ch. iii. 14). syllabaries found on Etruscan inscriptions (e. g. Fabretti 2403 and 450), as well as the use of a dot (like the Sanscrit virama), to indicate those consonants which are not followed by a vowel, in the inscriptions of the Veneti, an Illyrian tribe of N.E. Italy, are perhaps other indications that syllabic writingprevailed at an early period in the Italian peninsula.
CHAPTEKPRONUNCIATION1.
II.
1.
A. Ix the words
'
man/
'
father/ the vowels which''
we
are
' roughly as short a and long / are really very different from each other, and would be phonetically In Sweet's Handbook of expressed by two distinct symbols.
in the habit of classing
1
Phonetics, while the second
is
written
a,
the
first is
denoted by
se, a symbol which that the vowel has something of the nature of an E-sound. implies If we compare our pronunciation of the words ' man/ ' hat/ \vith
a combination
of the letters a
and
e, viz.
theis
German
of
;
Mann/
'
er
hat/ we see that the German vowel'
' the same as the a of English father or German ' while we might say that our man/ hat/ bat/ have' ' f (
Vater/in
them
something of the sound of men/ bet/ Seelmann, who classifies the varieties of A as normal a,' ' a inclined to an E-sound,' and''
being something not quite so definitely an O-sound as the vowel of our words 'all/ awe '), is of opinion that the Latin a had a leaning to e rather than to 0,(this last1
a inclined to an
O-sound
'
'
and goes so far as to give to Latin a of the Imperial age the ^-sound of English f maii.' This however is not the sound of
modern Italian
a, e.g.
padre, which Sweet'
now judges
to be
identical in quality1
with the a of English
father/ though,is
owing
Seelmann, Aussprache des Latein, Heilbronn, 1885, Latin Pronunciation.
the chief book on
14
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.'
[Chap. II.
to our smaller use of lip-action in utterance, the
vowel has withthe evidence at
us what he terms a more
'
muffled
sound.
And
our disposal is not at all strong enough to allow us to determine with precision under which class of A-sounds Latin a should beplaced, nor yet
how
farit,
its
which accompanied
nor even whether
quality was altered by the consonants it had to some extent
a different quality as a long and as a short vowel. point indeed we have some evidence of weight.that Latin a anddiffer soa, if
On
this last
We
can be sure
they differed at
all in
quality, did not,
criticizing the proposal of the poet and Accius to write a single vowel for a short, a double grammarian for a long vowel (thus a for a, aa for a), says that the vowel a
Lucilius
markedly in (ix. fr. 4 M),
as Latin e
and