Latin AmericanPolitics and Development

sEvEN'fH rDtrtott

Edired bl,

Howard J. Wiarda, (lniaersity oJ- GeorgiaHarvey E Kline, (lniaersity of4labama

lltstvtIyrPITSS

A Xlcrrrber oitlic l)crsr:u, lltxr[s (]y.11111

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p. (m.Includcs hibliographical rclircnces and index.ISIIN 978-O-tll33-4459- I (alk. papcr)

1. L.ntin Anrcrica-Politics and govcrnment. I. Wiarda, llowardJ., 1939- II. Kline,flan'c1'Ii'.

F1.110.L39 20ll980--1c22201 0003 r 36

1098765.1321

Contents

List oJ'Tubhs tnd MupsList oJ'AcranymsPreface ta tbe Seventh Elition

Part I The Latin American Tratlition andProcess of Dcvelopment

HorttrlJ. tr.Viunla un,l Hurr:ty ti Ktint1 The Corrrexr olL,atin Amcrican l)

1@

The Context ofLatin American Politics

rofound social, econornic, cultural, and political transfbrmarions irrcr sweeping through Latin America, affecti,g an instituri

ll,lrr'.rnu.f . \\'r,rHt;r ^ND Ilr\RvE\' ['-' Kt'li'lt: 1: Tb Coth,xt a./- l,utin inrcricun l)olitits 5

modernizarion in Larin America lus rePrcse'red a tascinati.g l-rlcnr.l of tr.S.,Eumpean, and historic Lrrin Arnerican ways of tloing tl.,i,rsr.

A Quick SnapshotFor the purposcs of this book, Latin .\rncrica c,'sisrs of'cigrrrecn Spa'ish-speaking countries, one Portugr,rcse-speaking counrry (llrazil), ir,rd ,rn"French or.parois-speaking country (r"rairi). rncluding s..th Arncri.:a, ccn-tral Anrerica, lVlexico, and the caribbcan islantrs, it en.or,-,prrscs g mi[i,-,nsquare miles (21 million square kil.rrcrers), which is abr:ut onc fifth of theworld's total land area. Its population is ab.ur 5.50 rnilli.n, alnrosr rwicc thatof the unitcd stares. J'hc fbrmcr Dutch and British colo.ies in rhc lrea arealso interesti'g and worthl' of srudr,, and arthough thc.l' arc part .f'the .r,o-grapbic region.f l-atin America, the'are not culturrrrr,, -.c,ciril1i rciisiousl.r; r,rpoliticallv'Latin- Arnerican. Flrr rhis rcasor), th.v ,.c ,,,, iir.r",rlJi,, tnr*book.

Thc sociril and racial c.rnp.sirion of Lati, Arncrica is ex.:cctiinglv tlivcrseand complicated. At the tirne .f Colur,bus'.s'disc.r,cry" oiArncri.lr'ir-t 1192,some areas (Mexico, llarts of Central Arncrica, the western arca ,rf SouthAmerica) had large numbrrs of i.digcnous pc.plc, whercas .rrrer arcas triclnot' Even today the assimilation and integrati.n ,;t'i.digcn,rus

Pcrruption, and vlst social Problerns' Globdization

aftct:ts L,irtin Arnericir in all aica. .f litc, such rs culture (m'vies and televi-siorr), societv (trehavior:rl nornrs), politits (den-rocracY)' and' abovc -all'

cco-

n.nrics. I-ati. Amcrica is n.w 1r,,ri ,rt'rr qlobal mtrkct economv. ]t hns litle

choicc but t() ()pcll its markets to gl,rbal tradc and invcstment. with thc cold

wrrr over antl thc wilr on rcrrorisnr conccntrxtcd elscwhere, there is little tbr-

eigrr aitl, anti l.atin Amcrica c:In n() longcr plaY the supcrpowers et{ainst each

other. Irrstead it tnust havc privlrc invcsttnent ,rrrd bcconrc giobally conrpcti.

tive or clsc it will sink. lt a cc,untn' tleviittcs fiom thc path of democraty or

ficc markcts, thrt all-importirnt itrvcstmtnt will simply go clseu4rere' All po-

liticui leirders arr(l .c,rn,,rr-ric sectors ir-r L,rrt'rr"r Amcrica now rccognize thcse

hardflrcts,evcntlrtlughthcl,ntat.stillrail:rgllinsttherrrinpopulisttishionorstill disrrgrcc on the prccisc birlan.:e benvcen xuthoritl'and denlocracy,

statism

and o1.,en nrarkcts. and untetrercd capitalisrn tnd sociirl justice. The Latin

Anrerican countrics vlrv gre rrtlf in how thcv nratrate dcvelopment policy, but

thcv nt> longcr havc ,nt,cl' cht'icc about thc basic model to fbllow'

As l-rrtin Anrcricit hls t'ect'nrc tnorc denrocratic and its economies more

()Pct1, it h'.rs, in its ()wl1 w'n)" belilnce

Ilowanu J. Wr,lno,r rNl o [{,\Rvtv F. KI-rNr:

(white and Indian) elernent in thc mainland countries of thc Spanish empireemerged, with cndless gra.lations based .rn color, hair, and facial f-eatures. Al-though there is raci'al prejudice, bccause of these many variations and grada-tions, Latin Arncricans tcnd not to tvpccast people as "black," "white," or'lndian" based solely on color as North A.rnericans do. Indeed, in many of theCentr'.rl American rnd Andean countrics of South America, ,rne is an indio or

indigeno only if he or she dresscs like a native American and speaks a lan-guage other thln Spanish. Moving to a ciry wearing Western clothes, becom-ing educated and spcaking Spanish probahlv means that the person would nolonger be called an "lndian," regardless that there h,rs of course been nochanse of ethnic backgrour.rd.

The racial sirurrtion in l.atin Anrerica is generally ntore fluid and perme-ablc than it is in the United States: Fligher education, weilth, the cl:thes onewcars, irnd comportment tend to makc one "whiter." Because being viewed as

wl'ritcr is pragmaticirlly scen bv most Latin Americans as being easier and/orbetter, it has long been hard to launch Indian or bltck rights or Power move-ments, although this is changing as well. Endlessly fiscinating, the raciaVsocial relations in Latin Anrerica rre very diflerent tiom those in the UnitedStates.

Richard C. Williamson, in Ldtin Amrican Societies in Transition, suggeststhat in broad ethnic tcrms the countries of Latin America could be classifiedinto tour major groups (.rlthough manv countries had regional variations):

1. Countrics in which :r rnestizo population dominates;2. Countries ovcrwhelmingh' Iiuropean in chirracter;3. Countries with conspicuttus Indian groupings, generallv inhabiting the

highlands; and4. Countries donrinated by Africrrn admixtttres.r

Thc first group of countrics includcs thc South American countrics ofVcnezuela and Colombia, irs wcll as Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, andPanama in Ccntrai Amcricn and l\Icxico. The predominantly Europeancourl'tries arc Argentina, Chile, Uruguav, and Costir Rica, and the countries

witli large Inditn groups arc Guatctnala, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, andPurErar,. Finallv, thc countries dominatecl by African admixtures are Braziland the Caribbcan countries ot-Cuba, the l)ominican Republic, and Haiti.

The economies oithe arca rrc similarly diverse. A few countries-namelyArgcntina, IJrazil, Urugua'li \rcnczuela-h:rve vrst, rich agricultural landscompar:rble to the American Midwest, whilc in most of thc others subsis-tence atr;riculturc has predominatcd. Because of climate, few countries cangrow the kind of grains grown in morc temPtrate climetes; hence sugar, cof-

fee, cacao belns, and l'ruits hrrve predorninated. Illexico irnd the larger South

'f/:,' Co n t,:x t o /' I.t t i rt,4 nt rta r t I to /i I i c.,

Amcrican countries havc c.nsidcrablc rrri,crll wcalrh aucl sourc ha'c oil, butothers have lbr.v ,aturel rcs()urrcs .rrrl arc likcrv t. rc.rai. yr.r, rcgardless ot'whcther thcy c:rll rhcmsch'es crpitrrJist ()r \()eixlisr. B,rre,l i,,r thcir rcsources,some countrics-gcncrallv the biugcr oncs rvith lirgc internal nrarkets, suchas Argentina, Brazil, Chilc,.rnd Nlc,.xic()-arc -rnaking ir" in thc gkrbal ccon-omy and bec.mir-rg cor.petiti'c u'ith thc ur.sr ctficic.t countrics. Anothergroup of Latin Americrn c.unrrics is d.irg .roderarcll, wcll cco,onricallvand improving thcir c.rrditit>rr. r\ h.rrrJrirl .r countrics, r,,,rr..u"r,.rrch a-. B,,llivia, Paraguay, Ecuad.r, Hliti, I*:nduras, Nicaragua, arc n()t til>ing wcll atall and are mirccl at the l.rver end or rhc ranking. rvith tlrr u".,.ld', [...,,rrestnati()ns.

The Latin Arncrica, c..r,trics dificr not .rrh, i. Pe.plc a.tl cc()non)rcs,but also in terms ol gco{araphr: lhe ct>nti,e nr c,nrains thc rvorld's sccondhighest mountain raugc (ovcr 20,000 fcct), thc Andcs, rvhich runs likc a ver-tic:rl spinc up and down rhe Paciric c.ast. l,atin Arncrica als. has some ()fthe world's largcst rivcr svstenrs-Anrrzon, Orinoco, plate-brrt fcw of thcscconnect major cities with agricultural arcirs ,r prt>vide tl"rc inte rnll transporta-tion networks fbrmcd bv the rivers antl creat l-akcs of North Arncrica. lnmany countries rnountains come right down to the scl, lcaving little coasta.lland for settler,cnr and agricultur.,rl dcvclopnre,t. .Nrluch ot thel intcrior landis similarly unsuitablc fcrr casl-r crops, rncl althor,rgh sornc ct>u.tries havc iroriore, few have co*I, rhcrcbl'nraking it difficult r. pr.tlucc srcel,,rne of thc kc.ys .to early inciustrial dcvclopmcnt. [lc,cc, alth

Ilow,rnu J. Wrnnu,r a:rD ll.qnvr:v F. Kr-ruu

villagcs) and making national integr'.rtion e.xtremclY ditficult. Only now, with

the rrdvcnt 9t'modern communicirticrns and tr'Jnsportation, have the Latin

American countrics begun t

10 lluu,rHrr J. \\'r.rtrrr .crn I{aRvrr lj. Kr.r:lr:

its obligations, anti rnirnl' countrics slipped into ncar bankruptcy. As it hadin the L930s, econonrie dowuturn asairr helped produce politic'al instabiliry inthe 1960s and 1970s.

In thc 1990s and cuqht like the old clite, intcrmarried with it, and adoptcd thesamc lristocratic, haughtv cthos. Sinril';rrlv, as a lrrr{e middle class of shop()wners! srnall busincsspeoplc, g()vcrnmcnt rvorkcrs, and professionals began

Table l.l Indices of Modemization in l,atin Anrerica,200g

1: Thc Canh'xt o.f'l.uIin rlm,,ritttt polirits 1l

Countryi:*::: Poputut.ion Givt pu GDt, trtltuion. r.tl" tnliuttn mrlltorrs groutlt cultitu ,grcutlt (xf.ttunt!* mortulityu

ralc. rill?.

Argentina

Bolivia

Ilrazil

Chile

Colonr$ia

Costa Rica

Cuba

DominicanRepublic

Ecuador

El Salrador

Guatemaln

Haiti

Honduras

l\Iexicr>

N.icaragua

P:rnirrna

Paraguay

Peru

Uruguay

Venezuela

Latin America

39.88 19.68 2

791 .97 11b.76 I4{.-53 14.i3 I

11.25 09.1i4 1

13..18 16.i3 0

13.68 29.78 27.24 2

106.35 1.5.68 13.39 26.t3 2

28.84 13.33 0

27.94 2565.29 I

.1.390 5

.l,l).10 7"1,-180 .'j2.690 .t

66() 1I,ti(x) -19,9!ll) 21,0ri0 J6,1130 92,1tt0 b:1,990 I ()8,26r) 9e,230 56.780 6

2() 75 16l() (r(r 57r) 7]* )2o7,f9,\ ;.i 20

l: ;,) 1l.. 7ll 7

l() 72 3ti

875226 71.' tl9 7t\ :i996176

l() 7n 2.1, .i.,

17 73 ls9 76 l.l; 71 l,r

1 7,1* 209 7(t 14

.r1 71 19lt 73 26

7,20o

1,,160

7,:i50

9,..1()( )

-t,6tr0

6,0(r()

t)

I3

I

Soarrr- World U"nt . "ir.r,,,t,\;-,*l,llr",k:91{1"1{{.tt*tprts/VicwSharcdRcp.,t?Rt:I,t'lR.l. lt)=ql-17d.t{F(ILliSl.-f.\,pf:=VfijW,lftIANCED, I)ecember 15, 2009

' Annual per.enta{rc.t* 2008 data.* Lil'e expcctlnll, ar birth in .years (20(.)7).o** Mortiliry rate, under Grc, per onc rhousrrrri livr trirrir, (2r)07).

to emerge in the 1930s and thereafier, it trxr rrctluircrr conscrvilrivc lrrirudes,disdained manual labor, and ofien allictr with a repressivc nrilitarv t() preventleft-wing and lower-class movcmenrs li,m acquiri.g prowcr. li,ri"rgirg ..*social movements were co-opted bv the clircs, un,t rt

" rl,o-crass ,,r..i."ar. *-".

generally preserved.During the 1930s as industrialization bcgan, ir rvorking class also tlcvcl_

oped in Latin America; by,thc 195()s and 196t), 1rc"sa,,r sroul)s werc ltcingmobilized; and in the 1970s and thercaficr w()rncn, indi(cn()us clcurcnts,

r2 llow,rnu J. Wr.'rno,r llo Ilrrnvav F. Kl,rur: l:Tfu Conttxt oJ lttitr,4utriturt I)o/ititt 1-l

provides a composite vicw of a socictv\ bclief.s as rcprescrrrcd by its rcligio.sorientation, historical expericncc, arrd standard opcrirting proccrlurcs. Politi-cal culnrre can bc deternrined an.l analvzcd using literature, rnusit:, othcr vari-ables that shirpc thc gcncrirl culturc, antl, rnughrto be barelv hurnan. Aficr a long dcbltc, rhc l{onran Llarholic Lll'rurch clc-cided that lndians had souls; as a rcsult thev rverc givcn ro Spanish .:on-querors rn enrcmiendus, rhrourh r.r.hich thcy would work firr thc Sp:rnish,'who had the duty of "civiliz.ing" rrnd "Christianizing" thc lcss-firrtunate Indi-ans.'lhe Church firthers initidlv dccided, on the orher hand, rhar Ati'icirnsdid not have souls and could thercfirrc he cnslaved, having no righrs at all. Itis obvious that this hicr:.rrchical c()nccpri()n is protirunrllv incgalitarian lntlunde mocratic.

Ar-rothcr feature of Latin Anrcrican political culture irnd instirtrtions is c,rr-poratism, or the organization of the nrtion's intcrest qroup lit'e trrrcicr statcrcgulatiot-r rlnd control rather thiru ()n thc l)asis of'frccdonr of rrssr is orga-

nizing; persi{nts are rnobilizing ancl sometinres marchitrg on private lands;

ncru neighb,trhood and conrmurrity groups irrc iirrming; Protestantism is

gr.xting, especiallV cvangelical grouPs; and rvomcn's organizations, racial and

.th,,i.'er,rups, and nrany nongovcrnnrcnt:rl organizations (NGOs) are be-

coming more activc. At grassroots levels rnany of rhese grouPs have organized

to get things done, olien bvpassing rhe tratlitional political Parties' bureau-

[ratic ilgcncics, and patronalil: systcms. ln m:rnv countrits' howcver' there are

riualrici betwec. thesc newer, rn.re pl'rllistic civil societv qroups and thc

trirclitionirl, piltronxge-dominltcd ones. wc must also rcmembcr thrrt L:rtin

Arncrica's piuralisrn is still nrore limired than is tl're chaotic hurly-burlv of

ll.s. interest group pluralism, aDcl it is rrlso still more stirtc-controlled andthcrctbre l.rr-pr.ri.ip*tory and democratic. The rrurnber of plural groups is

smitll, the elites trnc{/or thc state still trv to co-oPt irnd control them' and in-

teresr group lobhving as seen in thc u.s. svstcrn is oticn absent. Ncvertheless,

I-,rtin ,Ar,-re rica is sufficicntly pluralist that it is hardcr now to govern dictato-

riulh', and that mc'.rns a stronger basc firr dc'trtocrucv's survival'

Changing Political Culture

Political culture-the basic valucs and ideas that donrin:rte in ll societv-

r.arics fiom counrry to country and fronr region to rcgion. Rrliticll culture

14 l{o",r'..rnu J. \\'r,rnlr.r, ,rNo fl,rnvnv F. Kr_rNr:

fbrces; the lan.lccl and busincss elites; .a.d, nrorc recently, the trade u.ionmovcrnetlt, peitsants, worncn, and indigenr>us elcntt:nts. Corporatism, whichis lrrrgclv unlur.w' in Ll.S. p.lirics, is a r'ar,of both .rgrnizine and control-linq irrterest Hroup acrivit\'. Coryroratisnr is thus olien associlred wirh author-itarianisrn lnd rrn illibcral s()cictli ,rnd it rciniorces the other undenrocrirtictraits prcvi

16 llorv,q,xo J. Wr,rno,l ,rNtr llanvtv F. Kr.rrvr

rnd now glohalizarion*are brcakinpl down the historic barricrs ancl alteringthe k>undatins of traditional Latin Amcrican socierv. Latin Arnerica is thuscxperienL:ing mtny of the sante revolutionary transtbrmations that the UnitedStates, Western Europc, and Japan went through in earlier timcs. AlthoughLetin Amcrica hirs commcnced thc pr()cess, thcre the time period is muchmore telescoped and the outcome is still likely to be a g;reat variery of political

systems rathcr than some pale inritation of the United Stirtes. To us that ishealthx invigorating, challenging, lnd intercsting.

Although the changcs have been immense and often inspiring, manvproblems still rcmain. Povertv, malnutrition, and malnutrition-related disease

are still endemic in n.rany areas. "lixr rnanY people aie ill-housed, ill-f'ed, ill-eclucated, and iust plain ill. lVrrges arc too low, the economies and democra-cies rrc otten fragile, and the gap berweert the rich and the poor is greaterthan in rny other area in the world. The political svstems are often corruPtand ir.refl'ective; the standards of livins of the rural and urban Poor are woe-

fullv inadequate; and crime, violence, drug activiry and general personal inse-

curiry are increasing. Frequentlv, sociirl and cconomic change occurs fester

thrn political systems can hirndle them, irnd thus fiagmentation, ungovern-abiliry and collapsc ire still lurking"

Three reccnt changes 'also command special attention. The 6rst is the dra-

mrrtic shifi to denrocracy in all but one countrY (Cuba) of the area.The sec-ond is the new conscnsus on econolnic policy emphasizing free markets,retbrrn of the state, export-lcd flrowth, and integration. Some of these eco-nomic refirrms ilrc still wc:rk atrtl linrited, tnd in somc countries where de-lnocmcy is tiagile and h'ls not bcen consolidirted, they coultl still be reversed.

Ncverthelcss, the degree of progress vcr thc prcvious two decades is olienbreathtaking.

Thc third protbund change is the inrpact of gkrbalization on Latin Amer-icrr in all its dinrensions (cultural, political, ecotrgmic), which has brokendown its tradidonal isolation and forced all countries t6 become inteerated

into the modern world' Although this has mostlv been fbr gtxrd, it has beendamaging to marginal grouPs such irs small trrrmers.

'fherc is, overall, strong ccon()mic, social, tnd political reform; a growingrcalization that Latin America must takc charge of its owtr future; and a greatergcrnrss to cntcr thc moclcrn global comttruniry* of devekrped nations. Later

chapters detail whiclr countries havc rnade this gretrt lcap tbrward; cxamine

horv thcv have dope s6; and c6lsicler tfie successes, f]ilures, itnd futureprospects of all thc Latin American nrrtions.

The Pattern of

Historical Development

\/[pereas the Unitcd Srares was tbrrndct] during rirr sel'cnrcerrtir errdV V eightecrrth tcnturics, r,r'hcn rn.r.lcrrrizrrtit,rr wu: lrt.(irurirrq ((.;rPitrli\nl,

liberalism, pluralisnr, thc Enlightcnmenr. rhc lntlustrial Rcvolurion), LatinAmerica was founded in an carlier tirne r.vhcn teurial antl rnrtlicr,:rl practiccsand instirutir)ns still held srva1,. If the tJnitcd Statcs rvls "lrtirrr ticc," l-irrinArnerica wirs'born f-eudal," rnd thcse hesic tlitlcrcrrccs still :rcc()unt firr rriunrof thc contrasts berween the nvo arcls. '[ir a dcgrcc un]f Clibralrrrfrom North Afiica and conquercd nrosr o1'prcscrrr-tlrrv Spairr rnd P()rtrrsal.In the tbllowing cenrurics the Christian iorccs ot-Spain :rnt{ l)ortugal hrclgraduallv retaken thesc ronqucrcd lands, urlril rhc l.rsr of thc Islarnic N'ftrors

2@)

,!

I

l

17

542 l)',vrcsl Wrr-soru

Suggestions fbr Furthcr ReadinglJrcn' Rrxlcrick- Soial Mot"'rnc'ntt. lnli.qtncus Polittes, tn,l L)cntacntirution in Guuttnula, tgg5-1996,

Boston: llrill,2U)ti.('ullather, Nick. Sirrer flittory.'l'h ct,4\ clu:tr/itd,{ttounr ol itt opcratiots in Guokmalu, 1952-1954,

2nd cd. Stanfbrd. CA: Srlntirrd Unir.crsiry Irrcss,2006.crrrrrtl-Burrrcn, Virginia. Protltantiln in ()u,rtLrtala: Lit,irg in rk Ntr,lcrz.ralrpr. Ausrin: flniver

siry oil'qas [)rcss, 1998_(irarrdin, crcg. '!'tse Bhtad cJ'ouuttnuh. il l:!istor1, o1'Rut un,l Narion. Durhanr, NC: Dukc univcrsiry

Prcss,20()0.'lirr,lciru, R,rhcrt ll. (iuuemtfun I'oliti,.:.'l"ht poTukr srrugqr,,lir Dcnotraiy.lloultler, co: Lynm

Ricnrtcr, I 99.1.

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Nlost ordinarv Hontlurans had, h.t'rliis tirnc, irlrcldv tirund rlcmocratic goycr-nance to bc I grett disirppointrncnt. Ncolibcrrl cc.rnontic rclirrrns rcquired bvintcrnational financial institutions hlvc onlv nrodcstll, reducc.l lrovcrt_y irr acountry wherc morc thln half of the popul:rrir:n still livcs bclorv the pove rtvlinc. N'loreovcr, u'idesprc:rd cmbczzler.nent and bribcrv havc cliscrc.lircd o.cdemocrritically choscn governn)crnt alicr unothcr. Iilcctcd leii.lcrs also haveprovcn unable to stcrrt the expansion of orgunizcd crimc rnd gang violcncc thirtplaccs all flonclurans at risk. Becatrse of'these t:riiurcs, thtr tlonduran cicrle-cratic systcm has bcen rrnable to earn broad, uncondirional rrrass strpport.

History and Political Culture

Honduras is a mountrrinous, I'enns1,lva.iil-siz.ecl ctru.try ()t ()vcr scvcrr mil-lion people. Its capital Tcgucigalpa is located high in rhe sourhcrn nr.unririns,but its econornic ccntcr is the cornn.rercial-industrial city ot'Srur l)cdro Sulaon thc tropical nr-rrth c()ast. Thc majoritl, of t-londurarrs iivc in nrrill rrcrswhere illiteracv is conrrr.ron (24 pcrcent ot- Flondurirn adults arc illiterarc).Nearly 90 percent of tlre pripularion is m*tiza, but thcrc arc significrnrAfrican Honduran cor)centrirrions on thc north coast and lla-1' lslrrnds as wcllas some rernaining irtdigenous cotntnunitics. NIost f{ondurens are ]{ornalCatholics, ilthough evangclical [)rotestrrrrts hlvc nraclc iurp()rt'Jnt inroarls.With a per cirpita GDP ol U5$4,400 at prrrclrrrsing porvcr parin,, [-lorrriurrs isone of L'.rtin America's po()rest countrics. lts cconornv dcpcntls on re urir,tances fi.m over orc rnilli.n }l,ndurans ra.orking in thc Llnitcd States (tJSs2.5billion in 2007) an.t ()n rhe export oi'ban,rnrs, r:'flce, irrrd sirnplc rr.ranuf,rc-tured protlucts rrsscrnhlcd in nrtguil,ulora t:rctr>rics.

I{ondurts has bcelt rult:d bt'ruthoritxriar) {ovcrnntcnts firr rrrost ot'its lris-tory. I-Irwever, l{ondtrran rulers and politicrrl clitcs wcre lcss reprcssivc t-ripopulilr scct()r grotips and morc willing to instinrte rn()derltc rcfornrs thrntheir more violent counrcrp:rrts irr ncighboring E,l Srrlvador, (iurrennll, orNicaragua. Onc of rhe rersotts tirr this icss corrfrontirtional stvlc of clitc-rn:rssrelations rnav lic in the tlct rhirr no coticc oligarchv cvcr glincd dorrinlncc inHonduras. While man't'powcrfirl flrrnilies in rrther Cerrtral Arrrcric:rn crlun-trics mldc their fi>rtuncs in coftec, I{ondtrritn clites of the l:rte niucrccnth andearly rwenticth celtturies focuscd on snrall-scrle cattlc rant:hin.q, silvcr rnininqvenrures, or small banan:r-export cntcrpriscs.l Norrc of thcsc activitics posed irthreat to the peasantrv in an underpopulirtcd c()untry wlrcre rrgricultrrral lan,.lrvas rvidelv availablc rvell into the 1930s. I.-ittcr, whcn cr:tlcc

-5-16 .f.,\l;rnx l{urrr.

spoils of otlicc rathcr thrn public policv. Tho' prornoted rr clicntelistic politi-crrl trrrdition in rvhich constitutional or electoral rules wcrc rcgulirrly violated,

At thc beginninu of the rwcnricrh t:enrurv thc ljnitcd Fruit Companv and.ther American baruna cntcrpriscs establishcd large plantationi on thesparsely populated north coast. Hondurtns who r.vent to work for the bananagilrlts cventualh' fornred thc strongest trade union movement in CentralArncrica. Althoueh thc banl,a c.,rpanics exercised considcrable leverageovcr l-londur2ln l{()r,ernnlents, rhcv could not alrvays rclv

5^{8 J. \l,rnx l{rr rrr.

tiom power rhc rnilitrrry noncthclcss continucd to nraint:rin its supretruct'ovcr civilian authorities throughout the rcst of the 1980s. Corruption withintl'rc irrnrcd firrccs rcache.l new extrerncs- Floncluras had bv then become animportant trunsshipment point irr thc intcrnetion'.rl narcotics trade; solne sen-ior officers becrrme rich by protecting drtrg tratficking.

Civilian presitlcnt Suazo (1982-1986) also provecl to be a threat to democ-ratization. [,ikc rnost othcr Honduran politicirrns, thc ibrnrer countrv doctorl.rana pirsscd the prcsidential sash to hisficclv-electcd Nrrtional P'lrw successor R'.rfirel Crrllcjas. This cerernonvlnarkcd the lirst dem,.,cratic turnovcr of Porvcr between c:()mPetillg Hontluran

politicrrl pirrties in nelrly sixtt' vertrs. I)urinu thcr rcst of the decade, the clec-torirl process bccame institutionalizcd with regul:rr presidcntitl and legislativerlcctions cve rv four vears. Yet, in spitc of its trec electiorts and expanded civiland political liberties, l{ondurls could not be consiclcrecl a genuitle dernoc-r:lcv as long as thc military continucd to he the strongcst politicd actor'

With the end of the Colcl Wirr 'ancl thc Ccntral ArncriciLn civil wars, theUnitcd States no longer nee.lcd the [-louduran militan'as an rllv agrinstL:()rnnlurlisrn.r Insterd, U.S. policvrn:rkers begln to see the rnilitary xs an un-

sccess'.rrv obstacle to demr>cratiz.irtion. Bv 1993 Antericrrn rnilitrrrv aid hadbccn cut to almost nothing, irnd the [J.S. embassv had become a stridcnt critic

of thc arnred fbrce s. Encouraged bv this drlmatic re','e rsal in U.S. ptrliclI Iont{urtn hurnln rights organizations, stuLlent grottps! unions, the CltholicChurch, rrnrl evcn many htrsincss group. joinetl for.:es in an rttack on thc mil-

J): I lottluru: 5.r9

itary's power and prerogatives.The unusual srrcni{th ;rncl brcadth of'this irnti-militarv movcrnent persuadcd Hondur;rn l.olitieal partl' lca,lcrs ro chrllenucthe miiitarv ()n a range of issues. 1\lountinc intern:rl :rnd extcrnal pressurcsforced conservative President CaLlc'.jas (1990-1994) to take action. ln 1.1)92hc appointed the nation's lirst hurnan rights cornrrrissiorrer, wh,r issued l re -port implicating the armed fbrccs in the disapyre:lrlnccs ot'thc 1980s'tlirtr*wu. Callejas also appointed an Ail Hoc Cornnrission firr Institr.rtinal Rc-form headed hv Archbishop Oscrr Andrcs Rodrigucz thrrt rcronrrncnclcdthat the cornrpt invcstigritive arnr of thc rnilitrrry-controllcd national policcbe replaced bv a civilian unit. f'hcsc dcveloirrncnts rrs u,cll as alr avahnchc o1:press revelations about ruilitnrl,corruptior) antl othcr crinrinal aetiviry placeclthe once-unassailrrblc armcd tbrces on thc defcnsivc.

The political declinc of the nrilitirrv lcccle rated urrdtr Litrcrals LlerlosRoberto Reina (1994-1998) and Carlos l-klrcs licu.sc (1e9ti-2(X)2). I{cin.rinstituted the Ad Hoc Cornnrission\ rcconrnrendations antl passcd constiru-tional reforms that ended oblieutorv rnilittrrv scrvicc antl striPprcd thc irrrnctlforces entirelr.'of controi ()vcr thc national policc. l-lc uls,r trirnrrre

550 J. X[,rnr ll.trrrr

to encl thc ha, t-r. prcsidcnrirl rcclection and stal.in Porvcr beyoncl the con-clusi.. .f his tcrrn i.2010 (,r rcrurn to,ffice in 201-l).'l-he National cssession ,i rcfirrendunr nrateriirrs storcd thclc. The Suprerne court,which had quickly rcinstated (ie'cr*r visquez, orderecl him to arresr thepresidc't. ]\lilitarl'u'irs dcposed zel,.yit on rhc day rhe referenclum was totake place (Junc 28) and tbrced hinr ro lcavc thc counrn. National congressPresidcnr l,iberal R,bcrto lUichcletti became acring president with nearlyunrnirnous congressional support xs the international community clamoredfbr Zelava's reinsratcrncnt. By earlv 2010 ner.v clecti.ns had been hcld and de-rn()cmcv rcstorcd.

Political Parties and ElectionsRchti'clv fcrv Fl.ntlurilns go i,r, politics ro serve the public interest. Thetraditional Libcra-l (PLl{) and Nrrtiond (PNI-I) purties

".e both notlprogram-

matic, patrrin-client poli_tical machi.es primarily orgrnizccl to compete forstatc.j.bs and resources. Each parw is di,ided into competing p"..o,-,,.lirt trc-tions. Both partics choose their prcsidenti:rl cantlidirte-in a i.,oti,r.ral primarl.clecti'n that pits factionzLl contenders against one irnother.'rhe Nationals andthc Liberals are centrist, multiclass parties that tmditionrrlly bencfited fiomrvidespread, hercditary parw arfiliatir>n. Tirdav, however, about half of FIon-durirns ;uc lxrlirical indcpendenrs. Thrce mi,or political parties, the ccntristInnt,varion rrnd Nationd Uniry- ptr$.(lrINU), the centcr-lcft Christian Dcrn_ocrats (Pl)cH), and thc socialisr l)e,r.cratic unification parw (puD), alsoparticip:rtc in Ilnyiqt:i1glv t' fightpovert)-' and corruption. Zelava'-s carnpnign also rcp

552 J. NIanx Rtr rrr

was a kev pl'rvcr in ncgotiatiorrs to prcvent thc 2009 coup and to deal with itsconscqucnces. ln adclitiorr, U.S. cconornic levcrage hls he$ecl internation'alfinanci'al institutions pcrsuade [-lrganizirtiors, au.-l in-digcnorrs groups hitve incrcasir.rgly resorted to direct tction (roed blockages,protcst m;trchcs orl thc capitd) to press thcir clemirnds lbr governrnentalassi stlrrce.

2): I loniiurrr 553

Government Institutions and Public Polic1'nrakirrg

The Honduran governmental svstern is highiy ccritraliz.cd rvith 1:orvcr trirdirtionrrlly concentrated in thc prcsitlencr,. il'he prcsitlcnt r.lircr,:ts tlrc arrivitics o1-executive branch agenr:ies and usu'allr, irrtrotluccs rnost legisl:rtiorr. It'the Pres-ident heads a majority coalition of'pilrq. tae rions in thc N-ation;rl L-t-rngrcss,his policy initiatives generdll'hccome hu,. I{,,rwr:ver:, public policl'rnakiug isoften not the presidents highest prioritr: -lhc ,:hiel cxccurivc tvpictllv spcndsmuch of his time protccting his personal p.lver brrsc by rlistribrrtirrg patron-age and other material payrfli ro sllpp()rrcrs in his own rnd lllicd parn. fuc-tions and by countering thc mclvcs o1'his p,-,litical cucurics.']'lie NttionllCongress historically did not plav a siuuilicant poliorrrakin{ r.rle; coul{rcs-sion'al seats tradition'Jly have bcen viewcd us rewirrLls firr tirt:tional lovrr-lr1' rathcrthan opporrunities for public service. H()wcvcr, ot'latc thc Narional Corrl4rcsshas become much morc impr>rtirnt in polie_vrriakirrg anrl exccutivc oversight.This has been true espcciill1, rvhcn thc rr\atiorrirl L'ongrcss lras brcn con-trolled bv party ft.ctiorls not rlfliliatc,,l r.r'irh thc prcsidcnr or rvhcn tl.rc prr-si-dent of the Natio.al Co'gress has harbored lnrbitit;.s t. bcc.rne chicl'executive. President Zel.aya never cnjoycd srr()n{ c()ngrcssiond supp,rrt; hewas always required to bargain rvith N:rtionirl Congrcss l)rcsitlent l,rberalRoberto l\'licheletti over legislation ancl aplninur)cnrs. Whcn thcir relation-ship collapsed in 2009 over Zelava's proposc,.i rctlrcndrrrn, Nliclrelcrri casilyrallied the legislativc bodv against thc r-rnpoprrlirr chie f cxccurive .

The National Congress appoints rhc hltcen .jusriccs of thc [{onrluranSuprenre Court fiom a list of fbrti--fir,e candidares irpprrovc,tl lrv a norninaringcommittee composed oi civil socictt, rel)rcscntirtivcs.'l'he Srrprernc Court.i us-tices thcn appoint the judgcs of thc kru,cr courts.'l'hc crrrrcnr high courr wasselected inJanuary 2009 and is cornposed otciglrt [,iberals iurd se'c, Natir>,-als. It played a decisivc role in the usrcr ol'Prcsidcnt 'Lclity.,t in 2009. 'IhcHonduran judiciary is highlv politicizecl, and.iuclici.rl corruprion and incom-Petence are widespread. Few high-ranking othcials or rurrjor rlnrg trtflickcrshave been prosecutcd successfulh..

Effective ptllicvmaking is ditticult in lkrn.lures. Rcsourccs irrc scxrcc, rhcstate bureaucracv is notoriouslv inefhcicrrt, urrlicv goals. Sonrc I-lon.lurrrrr Irrcsidcnt:, strch rrs Liberll re-former Carlos Rcina, corne into oflic* witlr clcar 1xilicv ol:icrctivcs. I lowever,the enactment of public policics tti address nati.nal pr.blcnrs rrr,rrc oftcu isdriven by external pressure or by rrr acute intcrrral crisis.'l'lre tirndlrncntalchanges in Honduran econonric polirv that lcd to thc udolrtion ol'rrcolilrcral-ism in the 1990s, tbr example, wcrc fbrccd hv urr intcrrratiorr:rl crcclir ho],grtrorchestrated bv international tinrncill instituti.ns arrd the [.1.S. go'crr-rrnent.

55-1 J. Nl..rnri Rurrr_

Prcsidcnt Ilatircl Callcjls bcgitn thc process of orthociox structural ec.r-nomic rcforni in 1990. I'"le cut thc sizc oirhc natit>n's chronically high tiscaldeficit trv shrinking the bureaucracl.and bv incrcasing tues. Flc .rlso libcralizedtraclc, dcvalued thc currcncr,, rnd pcrsuaded foreisn investors tt> est:rblish nervmirquilat{ora factorics. Thesc II\IF--nrrndatcil policies initiallv rcdrrced infla-tion anil rcsrored c-xrerntl financial supporr, ,rltliough Callc.ias iater l *e'liberrrl policy gpidelines. Gl)l) growth rhcn accelc'rated to over 6 per-ccnt in the last ,-ear of N,Iaduro's terr-u.

I)residcnt Zclaya's alliance with venczuelirn p.pulist lcrder Hug, Chivezhclpcd the Fkrntlurrln econorny with l.w-intcrest lo:rns, reduced .il-imporrcosts, an.l developmcnt assistance, :rlth.ugh it raiscd investors' suspicions.7-cl'.wir granted hciw rvage increrrscs to puhlic sector emplovecs and eenerallydcmonstrarcd less financial disciplinc than NIadur.. Inflation .or.- ,., ,u.,11 Percent. Nevcrtl.rclcss, basic neoliberal p.licies renrainec{ in place. TheHonclurrtn econoffl.y continucd t() I{row rt an ove r 6 pcrccnt rute in 2006 and2007, but it sbwcd to 4 pcrce.r G[)[) gr.wth in 20()g iirllowins thc onser ofthc global recession rnd then began to contract in 2009. ILcmittar.rces frt mthe []nite'd Statcs, exporrs, and invcstment ru dcclined sharplr,:'ltns of thou-sands of Hondurans wcre thrown out of work.

Although tlonduran presidcnts hwe wrn praise fr.rn inrernarionrll firxn-cial institutir:ns fbr thcir efli;rts to refi;rrn and expand the nation'.s economl.,rnost ordinarv Flondunrns have seen onlr. srn*ll irnpror.emcnts in thcir miscr-

2): I l,:,tttirra' )55

able living conclitior.rs. fhc pttvcrtv ratc,lid dccrcitse ti,rrtr 75 lrcrccrrt r() ():i

perccnt (; th. pup,.,latioD bcnvccn 1990 aucl 199ti, l:trr it lir. rertr:titretl rrtobo,rt th" ,urr',. irigh levcl over thc last decadc. Rctbrnrs t() c()nrl)'.rt trtx cvrsitttt

by the nation', *"ll-to-.l., minoriry might hrvc helped to bcttcr ttrnd social

progro*. ro reducc deep incclualitics, but fcw of those witir infltrcnce irr FIorr-

durl., politicr:rre interested in pavinu lllorc ta.xcs. A lrrourtrti of snlall it'tctxre

subsidies to poor familics has becn i. place sincc 2000, but this is .nlv bc-crure intcrnatiorul assistance nratlc it possiblc. l{cccnt l{overlllllellts, inclucl-

ing Zelayas, also hirvc nt revivcd tl're agrari:tn rcfirrtrr pr()grillll tlttt eatrlc to a

halt cluring the Callejas adrnit.tistration.

It is noitlifticr"rlt to understlnrl u,hv nrost [fundttratts hrtvc lrecrt criticrl oi

the ecor-ronric antl sociirl policics oithcir clce tctl lcltlcrs. l'l.,tt,iurrttrs hlvc alstr

been deeply,clisillusit-,ned by the higtr levcl ot'gndtrrar-r prcsidcnt h,rircd t,', rcr,rin

u.S. economic ,tssistmcc. Nl,tst othcr Ht,ndtrran politicirrrrs criticiz-cd thc

venezuelan connecti()n, but ZeltYii oflcrcd c111rttgh firrrrneirl ancl political in-

ducemelts necded in ortierr tg rvin congrcssiot]rll appr,v:rl 9f ,\l,llA- !'utr'tre

Hondurtn presidents crrn be expccted to r,:turn to tl-re ^t\rrreritan tirltl

5s6.f . Nl,r n r,i Rtirr L,

Future Prospects

Hortdttras nrtdc intportilnt dcnrocratic stridcs atier civililn rule was restqredin tlre 1980s. li