1 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

LATIN 3B WORD STUDY SET 2 Each review has 2 parts for you to complete:

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2 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

Group 1: review & evaluate

numbers 8-14

Group 2: review & evaluate

numbers 1-7 Ava, Emme, James, Josh, Kathlyn, Raj, Tyler, Elias, Grace, Leo, Margaret, Noah, Oliver., Sarah,

WORD STUDY 1

Of No Value Whatsoever

When a person responds to a question with a wildly ridiculous or manifestly false answer, the

natural reaction of that one who posed the question is “that’s nonsense!” or some variation to that effect.

The Latin word nuga perfectly captures this reaction, while at the same time aptly describing people or

statements which are frivolous or even deceitful. With translations of nuga varying from “trifle” to “fool,”

the root meaning of the word denotes something which has no serious value.

Catullus demonstrates this meaning when he describes a book of his masterful poems using the

word nuga. Corneli, tibi: namque tu solebas meas esse aliquid putare nugas. “Cornelius, to you: for you

were accustomed to think my little trifles were something” (Catullus, Carmina 1.3-4). As one of the

Neoteric poets, Catullus specialized in writing brilliant poetry about small and unimportant subjects, a stark

contrast to the epic poems of other great Roman poets. The frivolity of his poems is intentional, as he writes

about dead sparrows, composes sarcastic odes, and relates the ups and downs of his love life in pathetic

detail. With this being the case, nugas, translated as “trifles” is an appropriate word for his poems. Although

Catullus’ poems are perfect from every standpoint, their subject matter, being frivolous, contains little to

no value, as compared to the political indoctrination and agenda - centered narrative of the Aeneid, or the

theological compositions of Ovid’s Metamorphoses.

Another example of nuga being used to communicate “trifle” is in one of Cicero’s orations against

Marc Antony. Sed nimis multa de nugis: ad maiora veniamus. “But (we have said) too much about trifles.

Let us come to more important matters” (Cicero, Phil. 2.31.90-91). In this sentence, two types of discussion,

nugis and maiora are contrasted. The nugis refers to the opposite of maiora, which are the greater or more

important matters at hand. With this context, “trifles” or “pleasantries” are the best translation for nugis,

communicating the sense of conversation which is without much merit compared to the more important

topics to be discussed. Once more nuga describes something without much serious value.

Quas, malum, nugas? satin tu sanus es? “Curse such nonsense! Are you in your (right) senses?”

(Plautus, Amphitryon 2.1.62). In this dialogue between a master, Amphitryon, and his slave, Sosia, the slave

steadily maintains that he is in two places at once. Amphitryon very naturally expresses doubt at this

statement, pressing the slave for an explanation and very soon growing angry. When the slave refuses to

recede from his original position, Amphitryon calls the slave’s statements nugas. “Frivolities,” might be a

correct translation for this use of nugas, for Sosia’s statements certainly lack any value as concerning truth,

but the slave’s steadfast earnestness transcends the bounds of mere frivolity and escalates his statements to

the level of a falsehood. Nevertheless, because the slave’s “lie” is so ridiculous, nugas is weakened merely

to “nonsense.” A lie carries connotations of a reasonable falsehood, but an absurd contradiction that has no

meaning, like that of Sosia, is merely “nonsense.”

The English word “folly” denotes something which is void of all sense, prudence, or wisdom. Like

flattery or nonsense, folly also has no serious value. Cicero uses nuga in this way in a letter to his friend,

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Decimus Brutus. Te tamen, mi Brute, sic amo ut debeo, quod istud quicquid esset nugarum me scire voluisti.

“Nevertheless, my Brutus, I am thus as obliged to you as I ought, because you wished for me to know that

piece of folly, whatever it may come to” (Cicero, Familiares 11.21.1). In this letter, Cicero is railing against

a “scoundrel” named Segulius, and the “piece of folly” referred to is Segulius’ apparent sowing of enmity

by talking about Cicero’s position on a certain committee of which Brutus and another man are not

members. Because of Segulius’ seeming intent to do harm, “frivolity” and “trifling” are poor translations;

“folly” is more appropriate, being both a word with stronger moral connotations, and because Cicero is

trying to communicate that it would be foolish to take offense because of what the “scoundrel” said. Cicero

also seems to dismiss the quicquid nugarum by saying “whatever may come of it,” emphasizing that though

Sergulius has been doing something more serious than trifling, his actions are still within the unserious

range of nuga.

Nuga also frequently refers to “falseness,” a meaning which can easily be reconciled with the

connotations of “something without serious value”; flattery or falseness have empty value because they are

not true. Ego apamensem Hephaestium, ego levissimum hominem, Megaristum Antandrium, ego Niciam

Smyrnaeum, ego nugas maximas omni mea comitate complexus sum, Nymphontem etiam Colophonium. “I

did so to Hephaestus of Apameia; to that very untrustworthy man, Megaristus of Antandrus, I did likewise;

the same to Nicias of Smyrna; I even embraced with all my courtesy the most trumpery of men, Nymphon

of Colophon” (Cicero, Quintum Fratrem 1.2.4). Trumpery is defined as a person or thing which is deceitful

and has a false appearance. The context for this passage is Cicero securing the good will of a list of Greek

men, all of whom have false appearances. Cicero himself said that the Greeks “have a genius for deceit,”

just a few sentences earlier. When he comes to Nymphon of Colophon, he calls him “nugas maximas.”

With the context of untrustworthiness and deceit, calling Nymphon the most “frivolous” or “trifling” of

men is not as fitting as referring to him as the most “dishonest”.

Quid siet? Nae, ista hercle magno iam conatu magnas nugas dixerit. “What may it be? Indeed,

now she will announce an important trifle with a great parade” (Terence, Heautontimorumenos 4.1.7). This

dialogue by Terence is between Chremes and a servant named Syrus - the woman under discussion is

Chremes’ wife Sostrata. Sostrata has sent Syrus to find Chremes, intimating that she would like to

communicate something to him. Chremes wonders what this thing may be, saying sarcastically that it will

probably be an “important trifle.” The contrast between these two opposites, magnas and nugas, is clarified

with the phrase magno conatu (“great parade”). The added sarcasm of Sostrata announcing her “important

trifle” with a “great parade” (literally, “enormous effort”), explains that in Chremes point of view, his wife

will be making “much ado about nothing.” Chremes expects his wife to think that her little trifle is

“important,” but the rest of the sentence makes it very clear that the nugas is nothing more than a “trifle.”

The central meaning of the Latin word nuga refers to something which has little or no value.

Catullus describes his poems about small, personal themes with nuga, as compared to epic poetry describing

world - shaking events and wars. Cicero states his intention of moving away from “trifles” to more

important matters, implying that the trifles have little value compared to the important matters. Cicero also

uses nuga to describe a scoundrel’s actions as “folly” and a certain man as “trumpery,” both of which have

no actual value. Folly would have no value because of its lack of wisdom and prudence, and this man

described as trumpery deceitfully pretends to value Cicero in a way which he does not mean. When a slave

states that he is in two places at once, his statement is an absurd contradiction with no value, and is thence

described with nuga. An amused husband sarcastically refers to his wife’s nugas as important, emphasizing

4 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

the fact that he believes it to have very little importance or value at all, but merely a “trifle.” All these cases,

chosen from a variety of Roman authors, demonstrate the meaning of nuga as “something of very little

worth”.

WORD STUDY 2 : FORMAT DEDUCTIONS!

Amor: the warm fuzzy feeling

Love is the most mysterious and confusing feeling a human being can have. It causes

people to do totally irrational things, such as speak to strangers without reason, drag pet cats out

of burning buildings, and sit through long shows that only the loved one enjoys. The Romans

used the word amor in just as many ways as the English use “love,” because the feeling for them

was no less confusing. Science has such difficulty in explaining its intricacies that an entire

branch of poetry is devoted to the love between two unrelated people. However, authors of prose

used the amor differently. Love poets like Catullus use it to mean lust, orators such as Cicero

reference the bond between friends and country, and Pliny uses amor to mean the favor of

authority.

Catullus was a thoroughly bored upperclassman in Roman society, and spent his copious

free time writing love letters to his girlfriend. He carried on a secret affair with Lesbia, a rich

Roman wife. In one poem addressed to her, he writes, cum tacet nox, furtivos hominum vident

amores, when the night is silent, they [the stars] see the secret love of a man. (Catullus, 7.8-9)

Since this poem is intended for Lesbia, he is talking about the secret romantic love that they

share.

In another poem, Catullus uses amor for the name of a god. Cupid, the god of love, was a

mischievous infant who flew about on angel wings and shot people with his bow to make them

fall in love. The god reflects the totally arbitrary nature of amor. Hoc ut dixit, Amor sinistra ut

ante dextra sternuit approbationem. Upon hearing this, Cupid sneezed on the left when before on

the right in approval. (Catullus 45.8-9) The rest of the poem is about two blessed lovers. Scholars

debate whether or not Cupid is approving of their actions, or if Catullus wrote Cupid to be

ambiguous intentionally. Whatever the case, amor is used to name Cupid in this poem.

Cicero, the famous Roman orator who alerted the senate to the Catiline conspiracy,

leaves behind the rocky world of romance entirely and uses amor in relation with his childhood

friend Crassus. Ego enim, qui ab ineunte aetate incensus essem studio utriusque vestrum, Crassi

vero etiam amore, For I, who in my early youth have felt a strong feeling for both, and even an

affection for Crassus (Cicero, De Oratore book 1 97-98) Here Cicero means the love of a friend,

as he and Crassus were not relatives. Cicero knew Crassus in childhood and grew up with him,

so they formed an attachment different from one of familial or romantic love.

Cicero also uses amor to mean loving his fatherland. tum autem quod amore patriae

censes nos nostrorum maiorum inventa nosse debere, (Cicero, De Oratore book 1 247-248),

thence because of the love of our fatherland, we ought to learn the practices of our ancestors.

By fatherland, Cicero means the state of Rome, so he is certainly using amor in relation to Rome

itself, and not to anyone personally. More precisely, Cicero is using the idea of patriotism.

Pliny, a learned Roman scholar, writes in one of his Epistulae about the tyranny of

Regulus the praetor. Est enim locuples factiosus, curatur a multis, timetur a pluribus, quod

plerumque fortius amore est. (Pliny the Younger, Epistulae Book 1 5.15) He is most wealthy,

cared for by many, feared by more, which is often more strong than love. Pliny means the trust

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of the people towards their authority figure. People who “love” their king know that he will

reward loyalty and keep a stable reign. Those who fear their king stay in line not out of mutual

trust, but out of fear of punishment. Pliny is not referencing romantic or friendly love, but the

trust between the people and an authority figure that Regulus notably lacks.

The core meaning of amor is revealed by Pliny’s last usage, which is not similar to any of

the others. Love between friends, lovers, and family all give the same warm and fuzzy feeling

that many cultures have one word for. However, the trust of a ruler is not the same, and yet both

modern English and the Romans use one word for it. The element in common with all these

usages is that special bond of trust. Love may appear chaotic and arbitrary, like the Cupid of

Catullus, but fundamentally love is a way for people to trust each other. Amor is about the

certainty that a beloved country, king, friend, or lover will be there the next day, and for all the

days after. Works Cited:

Erik, ~. “Pliny on the Malice and Villainy of Regulus.” SENTENTIAE ANTIQUAE, 1 July 2020,

sententiaeantiquae.com/2020/07/01/pliny-on-the-malice-and-villainy-of-regulus-3/.

The Latin Library, www.thelatinlibrary.com/.

Smith, Andrew. “Cicero, De Oratore.” Cicero, De Oratore, 1 (c), www.attalus.org/old/deoratore1C.html.

WORD STUDY 3

The Conspicuous Conspicio

Conspicio can be found in countless Latin works overtime used by many different types of

authors or speakers. It is a connection of two other Latin words: cum “with” and specere “to look at”. The

word can be used in a very principal way by relying its meaning off of specio, however with context and

analysis the word can create different and stronger meanings than simply using specio.

In 56 AD Cornelius Balbus was accused of having illegally taken over the Roman citizenship,

and Cicero himself came to the defense of Cornelius in a speech. Cicero is asking for the people to take

into mind Caius Marius, who also did similar acts to Cornelius but was not convicted for them. exsistat

ergo ille vir parumper cogitatione vestra, quoniam re non potest, ut conspiciatis eum mentibus, quoniam

oculis non potestis, “For a short while let that man appear in your mind, as he cannot appear in the event,

so that you may understand him with your mind that which you cannot do with your eyes” (Cicero, Pro

Balbus 20.47), Cicero is telling the people think about the man in their mind, because he is not currently

present. It is possible to translate conspexit as “look at” instead of “acknowledge”, however it doesn’t fit

the context as well considering conspexit is used in a mental state with mentibus. Meaning ‘understand’

would be a good translation.

Catullus, living from 84-54 BC, wrote an epyllion about Theseus and the Minotaur. Here the

royal virgin is Ariadne who helps Theseus in his quest to kill the Minotaur. hunc simul ac cupido

conspexit lumine virgo regia, quam suauis exspirans castus odores lectulus in molli complexu matris

alebat, “At once the royal virgin admired the man with a keen eye, which the pure sweet-smelling bed

nourished her in her mother’s soft embrace.” (Catullus, Carmina 64.86). Ariadne is looking at Theseus

and immediately falls in love with him after he decided to go to Crete. Here conspexit has a more abstract

feel about it considering love is involved. ‘Admired’ is a good translation since it is implying that she

looked at him with love.

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Written in 69 BC, Cicero was talking about a law that seemed to have to many loose ends, he

says, Actio est in auctorem praesentem his verbis: '“qvandoqve te in ivre conspicio.”', “It is done on the

present seller: “since I acknowledge you in the court.” (Cicero, Pro Aulus Caecina 19.54), Here,

“acknowledge” is the best translation since he was saying he looked at him and took him into

consideration.

Livy was the author of The History of Rome which he started writing in 29 BC, here he talks

about the growth of the city, eodem anno, ne priuatis tantum operibus cresceret urbs, Capitolium quoque

saxo quadrato substructum est, opus vel in hac magnificentia urbis conspiciendum, “In the same year,

that city should not only spring up with private labors, and which the Capitol is built beneath with square

stone, even in this magnificence of the city the job must be observed.” (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 6.4, 12)

Livy talks about how even with the all the other magnificent things in the city, the job should not be

disregarded and looked upon. “Observed” is a good translation to suit this purpose.

There are a few derived words provided by conspicio, some English ones being: conspicuously,

meaning clearly visible; conspicuity, the state or quality of being clearly visible; and conspectus, a

summary of an object.

Based on the previous translations and the derivatives, conspicio is meant to be more detailed and

meant to be used when something is made clear or looked at thoroughly. It is used when something needs

to be understood or distinguished, thus it seems fitting to say the core meaning is ‘to acknowledge’. For

Cicero, acknowledge implies looking upon as well as understanding so it would fit the context well; for

Catullus, she acknowledged the man when she saw him as well as maybe acknowledging her love for

him; acknowledge can also fit in the context of Cicero’s second part as well as Livy’s.

WORD STUDY 4

Discovering the Core Meaning of Reperio

The Latin word reperio, -ire can be translated as “to find,” “to learn,” and “to invent.” However, the

core meaning of reperio relates to uncovering the unknown.

One such example of this occurs in Catullus’ Carmen 87, published around 50 B.C. In this poem,

Catullus writes about his girlfriend, Lesbia: Nulla fides ullo fuit umquam foedere tanta / quanta in amore

tuo ex parte reperta mea est, “No faith in any promise has ever been as great as it has been discovered on

my part in my love for you” (Catul. 87). Catullus uses the participle reperta to demonstrate his love for

Lesbia. Here, it can be translated simply as “discovered.” The use of reperta here is that someone has

searched out Catullus’ love for Lesbia and found it, perhaps being surprised at its strength, since Catullus

characterizes it as having the most faith of all promises. The word conveys the feeling of a new discovery.

Another text reveals a similar meaning, in a different context. Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a first century

philosopher, writes about various medical practices in De Medicina, a physician’s encyclopedia published

around 30 A.D.: Alii vel amomum vel sycamine lacrimam fronti inducunt. Hoc nomen apud medicos

reperio, “Others spread either a cardamom balm or tears from the mulberry tree onto the face. This

account I find in the writings of physicians” (Cels. 3.18). Celsus describes natural remedies and explains

where he finds them. Again, reperio conveys the meaning of a discovery. Celsus formerly did not know

about this remedy, so he searched for it and has now learned something new. On the most basic level,

reperio simply means “I find,” but it carries with it more significance than the English word does.

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A similar example occurs in Annales, written by Tacitus, a Roman historian and senator, around 116

A.D. He writes: Reperio apud scriptores senatoresque eorundem temporum Adgandestrii principis

Chattorum lectas in senatu litteras, “I find in the views of the authors and senators of the times that a

letter of Adgandestrius, leader of the Chatti, has been read in the senate” (Tac. Ann 2.88). Tacitus talks

about a discovery that he made while doing research. Once again, this carries with it the meaning of

searching for something previously unknown and then finding it.

Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia, published in 77 A.D., has another perfect example to demonstrate

this idea of a new discovery. In a passage where Pliny discusses tigers, he writes: At ubi vacuum cubile

reperit feta…fertur praeceps odore vestigans, “But where [the mother tiger] discovers the lair unoccupied

by her offspring…she carries off headlong, tracking them down by scent” (Plin. Nat. 8.29). In this

example, once again, reperit conveys the meaning of a new discovery. To translate it as “discovers” or

“finds” work equally well, but the key idea here is something new. The mother tiger is searching for her

offspring and finds something that she did not expect to find. This example, while a different

circumstance, has a direct connection with the meaning found in Catullus’ Carmen 87. In both cases,

someone was searching for something and found the unexpected.

One derivative of reperio is the English word “repertorium,” which is a location for something to be

stored, as art is stored in a museum. Another derivative is “repertoire,” which is a list of options, such as a

musician’s repertoire of songs that they can play. Both derivatives give credence to the definition of

reperio as relating to a discovery. A person can discover something new and unexpected in a repertorium,

and they can hear a previously unheard song in a repertoire.

In Catullus’ poem, he finds love for Lesbia that is unexpectedly stronger than any other love. In

Celsus’ encyclopedia, he finds medical information that he previously did not know existed, as evidenced

by the fact that he had to look it up. Similarly, in Tacitus’ record, he finds an account of a letter that he

had to research, thus meaning that this is new information. Finally, in Pliny’s essay about tigers, he writes

about the mother tiger finding that her offspring are missing. Once again, this is a surprise discovery.

Thus, the core meaning of reperio means “to discover something new or unexpected.”

WORD STUDY 5

Ring around the Rosie

The Latin noun cinis, cineris is used by Roman authors to communicate death or destruction, the

product of fire. It is most often associated with corpses. A study of works by several famous Roman poets

and an examination of both the three European languages which it derives from as well as the English

derivatives will reveal the root meaning of this word.

The Roman poet Catullus mourns the loss of his brother who has died and been cremated: Advenio has

miseras, frater, ad inferias, ut te postremo donarem munere mortis et mutam nequiquam alloquerer

cinerem, “I come to these tragic funeral rites, brother, so that I mighty finally present you with a gift at

your death, and speak to your silent ashes in vain” (Catullus 101.2-4). Cremation was a common form of

burial in Rome. After a loved one’s corpse had been burned up, the remaining ashes would be placed in

an urn. This is what has happened to Catullus’ brother. The context clearly indicates that the brother is

dead and buried. Catullus is lamenting that his brother who once was alive is now no more than mutam

cinerem, “silent ashes.”

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Propertius, a Roman poet who composed four books of love poetry, writes this: Atque utinam non tam

sero mihi nota fuisset condicio! Cineri nunc medicina datur, “and if only the compact had not been made

known to me so late! Now the medicine is reduced to ashes” (Propertius 2.14). Propertius’ use of cinis is

figurative here. The idea is that a certain arrangement has failed because it was given to the speaker too

late. The translation is a little looser in the second half in order to better convey the sense that the bargain

has failed. Something that was almost a beneficial, harmonious agreement instead came to nothing.

Ovid, another famous Roman poet, writes: iamque cinis vivis fratribus Hector erat, “and now Hector

was dead with his brothers alive” (Ovid, Amores 2.6.42). In this short passage, the famous Trojan hero

Hector is compared to his brothers. His brothers are all still living and Hector is not. It is even possible

that he has even been cremated. Either way, it is clear that Hector is among the dead. Ovid uses the word

cinis not only because it contrasts the difference between life and death, but also because it highlights that

Hector who was once one of the greatest warriors of the ancient world has been made useless, just as a

fire that once flamed brightly turns into cold ashes.

Lucan, a distinguished Roman poet from the Silver Age of Latin literature, tells of a single man’s

journey through deserted lands. Idem pelago delatus iniquo / hostile in terram, vacuisque mapalibus

actus, / Nuda triumphati iacuit per regna Iugurthae, / Et Poenos pressit cineres, “Carried down by the

hostile sea into enemy territory, and driven to the empty African huts, he lay down among the bare

regions of conquered Jugurtha, and he marched through the ruins of Carthage” (Lucan 2.88-91). The

traveler in this passage is passing through the lands that once belonged to Carthage. When the Romans

defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War, they plundered, burned, and then plowed over the city to

ensure that it would never be rebuilt. All that was left of the formerly great city was bits of charred and

pulverized rock.

The Latin word cinis derives from three different older languages, which combine together to add a

unique perspective on what the core meaning of the Latin really is. In Proto-Indo-European, ken- means

“dust” or “ashes.” In Latin, the idea is primarily that of “ashes,” but this older word also refers to any

small particles, not just those that come from fire. Cinis is also closely related to the Greek word κόνις

which means “powder” and the Sanskrit word कण which means “particle.” In each of these three

languages, the words possess a broader meaning than what cinis really has. Dust can be used to produce

something of value in the future; a plant might grow in the dust of the ground, or a clay pot might be

formed from dust. Ashes, however, are the product of something that was once valuable but no longer is.

This is the angle that cinis leans toward.

In addition, several English words which derive from cinis helpfully indicate the direction of the Latin

word. A “cinder” is a hot coal that glows without a fire. A “cinerarium” is where the ashes of cremated

bodies are stored. To “incinerate” something is to dispose of something by burning it up. “Cinereous”

describes the color of hair or feathers that are ash-gray. Each of these examples has to do with either ashes

or using fire to burn something up.

At its core, cinis means “ashes.” It indicates that something valuable has been destroyed in a fire. In

the passage from Catullus, his brother has been burned up so that all that remains are his ashes. Propertius

uses the word figuratively to signify the end of a nearly successful agreement, just as ashes signify the

end of a fire. In Ovid’s passage, it is used to illustrate how death has removed all value from Hector, so

that he is as valuable as a fire that has died. Lucan employs it to describe the burned ruins of Carthage, a

9 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

formerly great city. Cinis narrows the scope taken by the Proto-Indo-European, Greek, and Sanskrit

words, each of which implied all types of particles. Cinis only refers to those particles that come from a

fire and are no longer useful for anything. This is exactly what the English derivatives all indicate. The

Latin word cinis communicates two things: it is the product of a fire and it is no longer useable.

WORD STUDY 6

Raising Levo Above Literal Translations

The Latin word levo has many English interpretations, as is true with many Latin words. This variety

has also entered our own language. For example to alleviate something, usually pain, is to diminish it or

make it more bearable; a lever is in physics terms a simple machine used to lift objects. Both of these

come from the word levo, and yet have different meanings. English might never have a single definite

translation of the word, but by examining its uses in Roman texts, one can determine the core meaning of

the word as the Romans saw it.

Vergil’s Aeneid is one of the most famous Roman works. While on the sea, Aeneas and his men are

struck upon a rock by turbulent waters, from which they are saved by the god Triton with assistance from

Cymothoe. Vergil writes, Cymothoe simul et Triton adnixus acuto detrudunt navis scopulo; levat ipse

tridenti, “At once Cymothoe and Triton, pressing upon the ships, thrust them down from the jagged crag;

the god himself lifts them with his trident,” (Vergil, Aeneid 1.144-145). As the god is trying to dislodge

the ships from the shelf, it makes the most sense to translate levat as he raises. He takes the ships off the

rock.

Levo has also been used in metaphorical ways, especially in poetry. Catullus wrote in his Carmina,

“May I be able to play with you as the sparrow does, and lighten the cares of a sad mind,” tecum ludere

sicut ipsa possem et tristis animi levare curas, (Catullus, Carmina 2.9-10). Here by curas Catullus is

referring to the thoughts which occupy his girlfriend’s mind. These cannot be physically lifted, so it does

not make sense to translate it as such. However, it is common enough to say that burdens are lifted;

Catullus is using levare here to say that he wishes to take Lesbia’s cares and worries off her mind, to

lighten their burden, and thus it can be interpreted as to lighten.

In a similar way Cicero used levo to talk about relieving grief: nisi scirem iis remediis quibus meum

dolorem tu levasses te in tuo non egere, “Had I not known that you did not have need in your grief of

those remedies with which you yourself relieved my own,” (Cicero, Ad Brutus 1.9.1). As with worry,

grief is not a physical object, and cannot be lifted, but as Cicero mentions remedies, to relieve is the

logical translation. Notably, to relieve grief is to lift it or take it from someone’s mind.

Cicero used levo in another of his letters. In this case he uses it more in a sense of separation. Horum

ego sermone non movebar, quin etiam, credas mi velim, si quid tu ageres, levari me putabam molestia…,

“I myself was not moved by their speech; why even, I may wish that you believe me, if you did anything,

I was considering myself freed from trouble,” (Cicero, E. A. F. 3.6.5). Here Cicero uses the passive form

of the word. Molestia here is used as an ablative of separation, since none of the other uses of the ablative

fit, and this lends itself to levari being translated as to be freed from. He thinks that he is removed from

trouble; that he is taken away from it.

10 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

In Horace’s Epistulae in a letter to Florus, Horace asks his friend how he would react if someone were

to sell him a slave. He then presents a possible sales pitch by the slaver, in which is this particular line:

Multa fidem promissa levant, ubi plenius aequo / laudat venalis qui volt extrudere merces, “Many

promises weaken confidence, when he who wishes to sell his goods overly praises what is for sale on

equal terms,” (Horace, Epistulae 2.2.10). Multiple extravagant promises would lower confidence, not

raise it. Therefore, they weaken is the best interpretation of levant. Notice that to weaken confidence, one

must take it away, make it lighter or less.

There is no definite English parallel to levo. To try to make one would take away from the meaning of

the word; but a core meaning can be identified from the examples. Each use of the word has involved

some kind of lifting action, whether physical or metaphorical. In every case the subject takes something

from something else: Triton takes the ships off the crag; Catullus wishes to take burdens off Lesbia’s

mind; Cicero refers to how Brutus took away his grief; Cicero considers himself taken out of trouble;

generous promises take confidence from the buyer. Though what the thing is being taken from is often

implied, the core meaning of levo is to take from.

WORD STUDY 7

To Roll or to Unroll: The Meaning of Explicare

By combining ex, “out,” and plicare, “to fold in,” Latin authors created a new oxymoronic word:

explicare. While the word is used literally and figuratively in many contexts, it remains tied to the

Romans’ literature.

Writing in the mid-1st century BC, Catullus praises his friend Cornelius for his concise writing of

Italian history. “Now then, when you are alone daring to lay out all time of Italy in three books,” Iam tum,

cum ausus es unus Italorum omne aevum tribus explicare cartis (Catullus 1.5-6). In this context,

Cornelius is telling a sequence of events and explaining the history of his country. “Lay out”

appropriately encompasses this concept, and the preposition “out” fittingly references the word’s prefix

ex. Additionally, because plicare can refer to “folding,” the picture here is of “unfolding.” Cornelius

opens the scrolls and tells the stories of the past.

Later in the 1st century BC, Horace discusses the simple pleasure of a humble life. “Within the poor

people’s little home, the meals relaxed his worried brow,” Parvo sub lare pauperum cenae…solicitam

explicuere frontem (Horace, Odes 3.29.14-16). Here, solicitam is a transferred epithet properly applied to

a person, whose forehead wrinkles with worry. Consequently, an “unfolding” would in this context be an

“unwrinkling.” “Relax” is a more idiomatic word that communicates the same concept.

Livy uses the word in a military context when explaining how an enemy was so eager to fight that they

were ready as soon as they spotted the Romans a distance away. “That the battle line had straightened out

immediately,” Ut extemplo proelium…explicuisset aciem (Livy, A.U.C. 7.23.6). Livy is explaining how

the army is getting into battle position, so a straight line of soldiers must be growing. In this context,

explicare creates a vivid work picture: just as a scroll unrolls to cover a table, so the army straightens out

to cover the battlefield. A confused clump of soldiers makes an easy target, but these troops are a

formidable foe.

In the mid-1st century AD, Calpurnius Siculus wrote eclogues, writing that focused on detailed

descriptions of the countryside. “The cows, which the father gave over, lay calmly on their side under the

11 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

prickly shrubs,” Pater quas tradidit… vaccae mole sub hirsute latus explicuere genista,” (Calpurnius,

Eclogae 1.4-5). In this short passage, Calpurnius references cows on their sides. Clearly, the cows must

be lying down, which is consistent with the adverb molle, “calmly.”

Later in the 1st century AD, Martial describes the joy he feels when he realizes that his friend has read

his book from beginning to end. “Septicianus, you bring back the book to us, as through unrolled all the

way to its own horns and read through,” Explicitum nobis usque ad sua cornua librum / et quasi

perlectum, Septiciane, refers (Martial 11.107). At this time, Romans read scrolls by unrolling the right

side while rerolling the left (UChicago, n.d.). As a result, a read scroll appeared different from a scroll yet

to be read. In the context of reading a scroll, therefore, “unroll” makes the most sense.

Interestingly, Roman authors began ending their manuscripts with the phrase explicitus est liber,

meaning “the book is unrolled.” Eventually authors seem to have abbreviated this to simply explicit,

which is frequently found at the end of medieval transcripts (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.). In English,

an “explicit” is information or words at the end of such an early manuscript. A more common cognate of

explicare in English is “explicitly,” which means “clearly.” This word is of course consistent with “laying

open” a scroll or, from Catullus’ example, explaining information well.

Explicare is the opposite of plicare, so whatever can be rolled, folded, or knotted, explicare means is

unrolled, unfolded, or unknotted. The core meaning of explicare, therefore, is “to stretch out,” thus

undoing such an entanglement. Cornelius “stretches out” the Italian history, meals “stretch out” a

wrinkled brow, armies “stretch out” to prepare for battle, cows “stretch out” when they lie down, and

readers “stretch out” ancient scrolls. In some instances, there is a literal opening, such as with the scroll,

or a literal relaxation, such as with the cows. In other cases, explicare refers to a metaphorical knot of

confusion being untied, such as when Cornelius makes clear the tangled Italian history. Regardless of the

context, however, expliare always comes with a release.

Works Cited

UChicago. (n.d.). Scroll and Codex. LacusCurtius.

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/scroll/scrollcodex.html.

Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Explicit. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/explicit.

WORD STUDY 8

The Latin meaning of gurges

Water has a long history of shipwrecks, floods, and deaths by drowning. This water is not in its

life-giving form but raging rapids, waves, and whirlpools. While English employs various words to

describe this concept, Latin uses the single word gurges, which means this turbulent water.

Vergil describes the chaos in the aftermath of a shipwreck, when all kinds of things are floating

around, “Scattered men, their weapons, planks, and the royal Trojan treasury are apparent floating

through the waves on the rough sea” adparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto, arma virum, tabulaeque, et

Troia gaza per undas (Vergil, Aeneid, 1.118-119). “Sea” is appropriate here because the ship was

wrecked on the sea, meaning the survivors would need to struggle through the sea to escape. The use of

vasto suggests that the sea was stormy or rough at the time of the wreck.

12 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

Cicero is describing the crimes of Verres and Apronius, whom the passage later identifies as

Verres’s chief agent. Cicero writes, “That man will be Apronius who, as he himself shows not only with

his life but with his body and face, is an immense gulf or whirlpool of all crime and deformities” is erit

Apronius ille qui, ut ipse non solum vita sed corpore atque ore significant, immensa aliqua vorago est aut

gurges vitiorum turpitidinumque omnium (Cicero, Verrine Orations, 2.3.23). The passage goes on to

describe some of the crimes of Apronius, and how not even wild beasts can endure him. The translation

“whirlpool” fits here more than “sea” or something similar because it shows the turbulence that Apronius,

“a whirlpool of all crimes”, causes.

Catullus speaks of his recently dead brother in close proximity to the river of Lethean, one of the

five rivers of the Underworld, “for a flowing wave in the Lethean river washes the recently palled foot of

my bother” namque mei nuper Lethaeo in gurgite fratris pallidulum manans alluit unda pedem (Catullus,

65). Because the Lethean is the river of forgetfulness in the Underworld, the translation “river” works

well. Catullus uses this to show his brother’s journey in death.

When Jupiter decides to destroy all humans, he uses the help of his brother Neptune, flooding the

world. Ovid describes how the sea covers even the high towers, “If any houses remain and were able to

stand not thrown down against so great an evil, a wave covers the higher roofs in this place, and pressed

they hide towers under the sea” siqua domus mansit potuitque resistere tanto / indeiecta malo, culmen

tamen altior huius / unda tegit, pressaeque latent sub gurgute turres (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 1.288-290).

Since Jupiter is employing the help of his brother, the god of the sea, the translation “sea” works. The

next parts of the poem says that the land was the sea and the sea the land. Undoubtedly, Neptune has

caused the sea itself to rise until it has covered the earth.

Jonah is stuck inside the belly of a fish, having been swallowed in a storm because of his

disobedience. Jerome translates his words, “And you threw me into the depths in the heart of the sea, and

the water surrounded me. All your waves and your billows passed over me” et proiecisti me in profundum

in corde maris et flumen circumdedit me omnes gurgites tui et fluctus tui super me transierunt (Jerome,

Jonah, 2.4). In this passage gurges is pair with fluctus, “billows”. This makes the translation “waves”

make sense because the two go together. Jonah is describing the rough sea filled with waves and billows,

which was the last thing he saw before being swallowed.

The thing common in these examples is raging or turbulent water. The “sea”, especially the way it

is described by both Vergil and Ovid, is turbulent and destructive, a “whirlpool” is also raging or

turbulent water, a powerful “river” is full of rapids and rocks, and the “waves” in a storm cause

shipwrecks. From these examples the core meaning of gurges is turbulent water, the type of water the

destroys ships and devours anything that falls into it.

WORD STUDY 9 – AUTHOR: LEARN HOW TO CENTER YOUR TITLE, PLEASE

Exsolvo, Exsolvere and Its Uses

Exsolvo, exsolvere, meaning “to end, set free, do away with,” was used differently throughout

different time periods. Plautus, Catullus, and Augustine each used this word, and each used it in distinct

13 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

ways. However, their meanings can all be traced back to a common root, which carries over into modern

derivatives of the word as well.

Plautus died in 184 B.C., making him by far the earliest author here. He uses exsolvo to mean “set

free.” Quin tu me exsolvi iubes? “Why will you not command that I be set free (Plautus, Bacchides,

4.8.20)?” As the oldest author, Plautus’ use sheds the most light on the original usage of exsolvere. His

use is an excellent indicator that the first meaning is something very similar to “to set free.”

Catullus was born 100 years after Plautus died, which provides plenty of time for the meaning of

the word to change. His use of exsolvere means “to end.” Androgeoneae poenas exsolvere caedis/electos

simul et decus innuptarum/Cecropiam solitam esse dapem dare Minotauro, “The glory of Androgeos

ended the penalty of murder of select youths and of unmarried women at the same time Cecropia was

accustomed to give as sacrifices to the Minotaur (Catullus, Carmina 64.78-81).” The penalty is ended,

freeing Cecropia and the young men and women from the tribute. The city and its people were trapped in

this tribute, but now they are free. Here, tyranny is ended in freedom, thus exsolvere has changed to mean

an end.

Writing around 400 A.D., Augustine is the latest author cited. His use of exsolvere is more

metaphorical, since the subjects’ souls are being freed from an idol rather than their bodies or their city

being freed from something more substantial. Nisi cum festa fabricato idolo exsolverent, “If they were not

doing away with the created idol with joy (Augustine, Epistles 10.4).” “Doing away with” in this case

deals with freeing oneself from enslavement to an idol.

Exsolvo is a compound of ex and solvo. Ex means “from” or “out of.” Solvo means “to loosen” or

“to free.” So exsolvere means “to free from.” This corroborates what is shown in the above translations,

since each case has to do with being freed from something.

A derivative of exsolvo is sciogliere, an Italian word meaning “to thaw” or “to loosen.” The

English word “exsolve” refers to separating minerals at an important point in an experiment. In Corsican,

“sciògghiri” means “to dissolve.” These all have to do with separating and disentangling two substances

from one another. This shows the same element of freedom displayed above.

Plautus’ character asks to be freed. Lifting a penalty frees the person being penalized. Getting rid

of an idol frees the idolator from its hold. Each of these citations have to do with freeing someone from

something, whether it be literal or metaphorical freeing. The derivatives follow the same pattern, since

they all have meanings that are closely related to freeing. Plautus, the earliest author, uses exsolvere

explicitly as “to free,” indicating that may have been the original meaning. For all these reasons, the core

meaning of exsolvere is “to free.”

WORD STUDY 10

Taking In the Meaning of Duco

Duco, ducere, duxi, ductus is a Latin word which stems from the Proto-Italic word doukō, and is

most commonly translated “to lead,” but also as many other English words, such as “to consider.”

14 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

In his epic poem about the aftermath of the Trojan War, and the ancestry of the Romans, Virgil

says: Perge modo, et, qua te ducit via, dirige gressum. “But go on, and take your walk on the path which

leads you,” (Virgil, Aeneid, 1.401.) The best translation for this is the most basic one: “to lead.”

Catullus, in a poem to himself about his somewhat failed love affair with Claudia writes: Miser

Catulle, desinas ineptire, / et quod vides perisse perditum ducas, “Miserable Catullus, may you stop

playing the fool, / and what you see to be dead, may you consider as ruined” (8.1-2.) Here, Catullus is

obviously not saying “what you see to be dead, may you lead as ruined,” because that would make no

sense! Instead, what Catullus likely means is “to consider,” for when you lead, you take someone

somewhere. Catullus tells himself to take this into his mind, that what he sees that is dead, is ruined (an

accounting term that is essentially the Latin equivalent of our phrase “take the hit”).

In the same poem, Catullus uses duco again, further proving that the word had a broader meaning

than simply “to lead,” and erasing the possibility of a change in meaning over time. Catullus Fulsere

quondam candidi tibi soles, / cum ventitabas quo puella ducebat, “Before, the bright suns shone for you, /

when you were going to where your girl used to take you” (Catullus, Carmina, 8.3-4.) At first, the

translation that makes the most sense is “to lead.” However, translating duco as “to take you,” is more

accurate, because it is in line with the previously discussed examples of the word.

Caesar, in De Bello Gallico, his commentary on the Gallic Wars (as the name suggests), speaks of

the named Vesontio: Idque natura loci sic muniebatur ut magnam ad ducendum bellum daret facultatem.

“And the nature of that place was so fortified that gave a great means to carry out the

war(Caesar, De Bello Gallico, 1.38.) Without context, it seems like duco could be translated as “lead,” but

the way that Caesar speaks of it after this quote makes it seem like he intended to leave later. Thus, it is

best to translate the word as “to carry out,” for when Caesar.

Some of the most common derivatives of duco are: abduct, induct, and seduce. To abduct is to

take someone away; to induct is to take someone or something in; and to seduce is to lure someone away

from something, in effect taking them away.

A common theme running through all of the translations of duco is the idea of taking: when

Virgil sings of the path leading, the path is taking you to a place. When Caesar writes about carrying out

the war, he is taking his initial action of warring through time to make it continuous. When Catullus, in

the same poem, uses duco in two seemingly different ways, it’s confusing, but each of these ways is fully

expressed by the idea of taking—in one, he goes were his girl takes him, in the other, he tells himself to

take something into his mind. The way that English translates duco provides a close up, and detailed view

of what the word means specifically, and in each application, but it fails to give a full definition of what

the word means as a broad whole, which “to take” does. This evidence, combined with the fact that many

of its derivatives have to do with taking, all point to the fact that duco, at its core, means “to take.”

WORD STUDY 11

The Core Meaning of the Term Carpo

In Latin, the verb carpo is a strange word, its primary meanings being agricultural, but much of

its usage being poetic. A logical assumption based on modern norms would be that this word, being

15 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

primarily agricultural in meaning, would primarily be the province of farmers and other working-class

people, as opposed to poets and their aristocratic readers. However, considering the common seeking of

innovative metaphors by Roman poets, this turns out not to be the case in reality.

Ovid, writing in the early 1st century AD, includes the sentence Fortuna est impar animo, talique

libenter exiguas carpo munere pauper opes, “My fortune is unequal to my disposition, and I gladly

harvest my paltry resources for such poor favors” (Ovid, Epistulae Ex Ponto 4.9.122). In this case, Ovid

seems to be using the word metaphorically, as he is “harvesting” his resources in order to gain favors, in

the same way as how farmers harvest crops to gain whatever useful part of the crop may exist, whether it

be fruit, grain, or edible leaves. However, Ovid certainly isn’t literally harvesting his worldly goods. As

such, a metaphorical meaning seems most probable.

Horace, writing in the 1st century BC, writes in one of the most famous passages in Latin poetry,

Dum loquimur, fugit invida aetas: carpe diem quam minima credula postero, “While we speak, the

envious ages will have fled: seize the day, trusting as little as possible in things following” (Horace, Odes

1.11.8). Here, “seize” is the superior translation. The meaning is approximately the same here, with a

similar metaphor, but the idea of seizing the day is closer to English idiom, such as “seize the

opportunity,” than “harvest the day.” This thus makes it a better choice in an English translation, but the

meaning is still the same.

Pliny the Elder, meanwhile, in the 1st century AD, wrote that stans et in sicco carpit, quo frugem

modo, “standing and in dry land he harvests it, in the manner of our produce” (Pliny the Elder, Natural

History 22.2). In this case, “harvest” is also the best meaning, since the rest of the passage is discussing

various plants used by the peoples of Gaul to make dyes. Here, the meaning is perfectly literal: Dyes are

needed, so the Gauls go out and harvest plants to make them out of. Such simple agricultural uses seem to

outnumber metaphors in prose, and thus also likely in everyday speech.

Finally, Vergil writes Ergo alte vestiga oculis, et rite repertum carpe manu, “Therefore follow it

high up with your eyes, and, with it discovered, seize it solemnly with your hand” (Vergil, Aeneid 6.145-

6). This passage is referring, in context, to a sacred apple made of gold, which Proserpina, goddess of the

underworld, demanded as a gift in payment for entrance to the Underworld. As such, “seize” is being used

literally here: Aeneas is being ordered to seize the sacred golden apple from Proserpina’s magic tree. At

most, this could be viewed as an allegory for taking opportunities (take the apple, and it allows one access

to possibilities previously unavailable; take the opportunity for success that just passed, and it will allow

access to possibilities previously unavailable), but within the possible allegory, the word is still being

used literally.

From all this, it is apparent that the word carpo was primarily used in the sense of harvesting or

seizing things in prose use, a rather mundane agricultural term much like the English “to plow,” while in

poetry, it sometimes bore this meaning, but normally was used metaphorically, to signal taking an

opportunity, using one’s wealth, or enjoying something, be it a time or an object. All of these, however,

are distinctly part of the primary meaning - in all cases, the word is used with its meaning being an

extension of harvesting, or as a metaphorical use of the term for harvesting. The core meaning of the

word, therefore, is likely “to harvest”. All the other meanings are but facets of that core concept,

regardless of how distant they seem to American readers.

16 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

WORD STUDY 12

Beyond a Shadow of a Doubt

The Romans used the word umbra to refer to the idea of something blocking light and creating a

shadow. Casting a shadow often provides needed shade, so umbra also refers to being under something

and out of the sun. Additionally, the word umbra has been used in a figurative sense to describe the

afterlife. Its main meaning however is simply shade or a shadow.

In describing the feelings he had following his brother’s death, Catullus likened himself to a bird

singing sad songs in the shade of the trees. He referenced the story of Procne who was changed into a

Daulian bird singing sadly for the loss of her son in the shade or umbris of the trees. Numquam ego te,

vita frater amabilior / Aspiciam posthac? At certe semper amabo / Semper maesta tua carmina morte

cana, / qualia sub densis ramorum concinit umbris / Daulias absumpti fata gemens Ityli, “Will I never

gaze at you brother, more dearer than life / in the future? / But surely I will always love you / I will

always sing sorrowful songs about your death / like the Daulian bird sings under the dense shade of the

branches lamenting the fate of the slain Itus (Catul. Carm. 65).

Like the Daulian bird singing in the shade, it was common to use umbra to describe a shady place or a

means of getting out of the sun and heat. Pompey’s Portico was erected by Pompey in Rome. Porticos had

covered walkways and served as a way to be outside but still be in the shade. In Ars Amatorio Ovid

advises those looking to meet young women to slow down under the shade of Pompey’s portico. Quot

caelum stellas, tot habet tua Roma puellas /…Tu modo Pompeia lentus spatiare sub umbra, “As many

stars there are in the sky / Rome has girls /…You walk slowly under Pompey’s shady portico” (Ov. Ars

Amat. 1).

In Elegies, Propertius’ beloved Cynthia seemed to be well-aware of Pompey’s portico when she warns

him: tu neque Pompeia spatiabere cultus in umbra, “No longer will you parade around the shade of the

Pompeian portico in your finest clothes.” (Prop. El. 4.8). On warm evenings, the cool portico was very

popular, and Cynthia is informing Propertius to stay away.

Another example of the word umbra used as a place of cool refuge is in Epistles where Horace

describes a shady escape from the heat of the day, vacua tonsoris in umbra “in the shade of the cool

barbershop” (Hor. Ep. 1.7). Whether the shade was cast by branches, porticos, or small shops, the use of

umbra to describe shade or that which gives shade was common.

Umbra was also used to describe shade or shadows cast, particularly those cast by celestial bodies.

Cicero uses umbra in an astronomy reference in De re publica where he describes a bronze globe

simulating a lunar eclipse that casts the earth’s shadow on the moon: fiebat,ut incideret luna in eam

metam, quae esset umbra terrae, “It happened that it might come upon the moon, then at her turning point

which would be a shadow of the earth, with the sun far away from the region” (Cic. Rep. 1.22). Later in

Book 2, Cicero references long shadows cast as he describes the prudence of Romulus in choosing the

perfect spot for Rome. The benefit of the hills providing fresh air and also shadows on the valleys was a

smart choice. Locumque delegit et fontibus abundantem et in regione pestilenti salubrem; colles enim

sunt, qui cum perflantur ipsi, tum adferunt umbram vallibus, “The place he chose had an abundance of

fresh water and in the unhealthy region; hills which brought forth fresh air and shadows to the valleys”

(2.11).

17 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

In addition to shadows cast on the moon via an eclipse or on the earth due to physical features like

hills or mountains, Latin authors used umbra to refer to shadows cast by people, as in one’s own shadow.

In Elegies Propertius is plagued by the unfaithful Cynthia. Calling his friend and fellow poet Lynceus a

traitor, he begs him to leave his mistress alone promising him his whole fortune. Almost the entirety of

his Elegies is written about Cynthia. He is a man possessed. Ipse meas solus quod nil est, aemulor umbras

/ stultus, quod stulto saepe timore tremo, “I am jealous of my own shadow, a thing of nothing, a fool who

often trembles with fear” (Prop. El. 2.34). So lovesick is he, his jealousy has made him a weak man. He

regards himself as a fool, his shadow, nothing and worthless.

After a while outside, the sun begins to set, and the human shadow stretches out as the day comes to an

end. Jerome uses this metaphor of the elongating umbra as a symbol for death. Eventually the shadow

disappears as day turns to night. Sicut umbra cum declinat ablatus sum excussus sum sicut lucustae, “I

fade away like a shadow and I am discarded just as locusts are” (Psalm 108.23). The normally strong

David of “David and Goliath” fame is unrecognizable here. He feels he is as light and as insignificant as

an insect to be blown away. It is almost as if the use of umbra in this context is the shadow leaving this

earth. This leads to another usage of umbra by some Latin authors that in death we are but a shadow of

our former self.

Poetically, umbra was used by Latin authors for the word ghost, or a “shade” of one’s former self. In

his Odes, Horace writes that in death, the body becomes ashes, a shadow, a shade, or a ghost. Damna

tamen celeres reparant caelestia lunae / nos ubi decidimus / quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus /

pulvis et umbra sumus, “However the swift moons recover the losses in the heavens / we, when we die /

where pious Aeneas and wealthy Tullus and Ancus are / we are dust and shadow” (Hor. Od. 4.7). The

lunar months mark the passage of time where eventually all will meet their death. The mythological hero

Aeneas only visited the underworld; however, the umbrae has descended for the Roman kings Tullus and

Ancus who have become mere dust and shadow.

Lucretius also uses umbra figuratively to mean a shade or ghost. In De rerum natura, he is troubled

that shady figures terrificant figuras “strange shapes” live among us. Quae nos horrifice languentis saepe

sopore / excierunt ne forte animas Acherunte reamur / effugere aut umbras inter vivos volitare / neve

aliquid nostri post moretem posse relinqui / cum corpus simul atque animi natura perempta, “Which

often scare us when we dream / if these souls flee Acheron / and shades go floating among the living /

what is left after death / with body and mind destroyed” (Lucr. De rer. nat. 4.45). Lucretius is convinced

that some souls are escaping from the river Acheron in the underworld. These umbrae then find their way

back to the land of the living nobis vigilantibus obvia mentes, “to torment our minds” (4.42).

Umbra can refer to a shady place under a portico or trees. It can also refer to shadows cast in an

eclipse or by geographical structures like hills. Metaphorically it can symbolize death or ghosts in the

afterlife. What all these things have in common is that they are without bright light. Shadows block light.

Seeking shade is to get out of the light. Death is often portrayed in darkness. Stories of ghosts are in the

shadows. The core meaning of umbra therefore is shadow. A shadow can be cast. Shade provides

shadows. Ghosts are often described as shadowy figures.

There are several specific derivatives of umbra in English. Two of them come from astronomy. An

“umbra” is the darkest part of a shadow where all light is blocked, or a total eclipse of the sun or moon. A

“penumbra” is a partial eclipse where a sliver of the moon is still visible. Umbrella is another derivative

18 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

of umbra as it can block light. The adjective “umbrageous” is used to describe an object that gives shade

such as an “umbrageous” tree.

WORD STUDY 13

The Expansiveness of Ex

The Romans often added prefixes to common words, thereby changing the meaning. A good

example is effluere, which Cassell’s defines as “to flow out of.” Deriving from the Latin word fluere (“to

flow”), the meaning is augmented by the prefix ex (“out of''). At first glance, the distinction between “to

flow” and “to flow out of” is not entirely obvious, or might be considered insignificant. However, when

Latin authors use the word “flow” symbolically, it seems that they add ex. The preposition ex is needed

when the word is used metaphorically. This word study will address the various nuances of “ to flow out,”

whether as a physical action or a metaphorical one.

The basic meaning of effluere is “to flow out of.” One of the clearest examples comes from

Catullus, when he writes, et tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto / haec expressa tibi carmina

Battiadae, / ne tua dicta vagis nequiquam credita ventis / effluxisse meo forte putes animo, “And

nevertheless, Hortalus, I send into such great sorrows this poem expressed by the descendents of Batta to

you, so that you do not think that your words have flowed from my soul, entrusted to the wandering

winds.”(Catullus, 65.14-17). In this poem, Catullus mourns the death of his brother, but he tries to cheer

himself up by translating some Greek poems, which he sends to his friend Hortalus. He doesn’t want

Hortalus to feel forgotten, like his words slipped out into the wind. “Flow out” is the best translation here.

Effluere also can be used more figuratively. For example, in Proverbs, fili mi ne effluant haec ab

oculis tuis custodi legem atque consilium, My son, let not these disappear from your eyes, observe the law

and wisdom. (Vulgate, Proverbs 3.21). The author warns the son to be upright and just. Here he cautions

him to not let wisdom flow away from him completely, or vanish. In this circumstance, the author isn’t

saying the laws flow downstream, instead they float so far away they vanish. “To disappear,” is the best

meaning.

However, there are times when effluere has a more nuanced meaning, when the Latin author

wants to symbolize flight. For example, Ovid writes, nube fugit visa… rector/ carbasa deducit, ne qua

levis effluat aura,“just like when a helmsman flies at the appearance of a cloud… and stretches the sail,

so that the slightest breeze might not escape. (Ovid Metamorphoses 6:232-233). In this poem, Ovid uses

the simile of a captain who is so afraid of a storm that he tries to catch the slightest breeze. In this case,

Ovid says the breeze is trying to escape, and the captain wants to capture it. “Disappear” isn’t the best

meaning here, since the breezes are trying to flow away from the captain. “Escape,” means, “to flow

away,” so it works well with the core meaning.

Lastly, effluere can be a mental action, as well as a physical one. As Cicero writes in his letters,

quod si scribere oblitus es… dabo operam ut istuc veniam ante quam plane ex animo tuo effluo, “Which

if you forget to write… I will give the effort so that I might come before I dwindle completely from your

spirit.” (Cicero, Ad familiares 7.14). In this letter, Cicero is remonstrating his friend for not writing, and

jokes that he will have to come himself so that he will not be completely forgotten. In this case, Cicero

isn’t just disappearing, he’s flowing from the soul into oblivion, into forgetfulness.The meaning is

19 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

“dwindle away,” or “forget.” In this case, effluere isn’t an outward action, but rather a state of mind.

Nevertheless, it is clear the core meaning is still important.

Thus effluere has a range of meanings from “escape,” to “forget,” to “disappear.” But in all of

these meanings, the action flows out, whether it flows far away and vanishes, or out of reach by escaping.

In the end, these meanings all depend on ex for their true meaning, “flow out of.” What matters most is

that Latin translators realize the difference between fluere and effluere, otherwise they would neglect the

symbolic or figurative implications.

WORD STUDY 14 – 1 PT. DEDUCTION FOR LATE SUBMISSION, FORMAT

DEDUCTIONS

HHH I realized far too late that Perdo was an awful word for a word study.

(Due to English not differentiating some things the same way as Latin)

(Like really, it was super hard to write what I wanted to say without being able to use examples of delevit for context)

There is a difference between using a sledgehammer to destroy a bookshelf and

destroying your relationship with the librarian whose bookshelf you just destroyed. The first is a

literal destruction of a physical object, whereas the second is a figurative destruction of

something intangible. The Latin word Perdo follows this second example. Perdo means to

destroy things like feelings, ideas, or events. Perdo means to destroy, not in a literal sense, but in

a completely figurative sense, Where in it is typically used in regards to intangible things.

“Miserable Cattulus, stop playing the fool, and see what you have lost, regard it as

ruined.” Miser Catulle, desinas ineptire, et quod vides perisse perditum ducas. Here Cattulus’

relashionship has ended, and he has lost it, and now finds int ruined, of course not in a literal

sense, but figurative.

“We would have won … only that Lepidus set to ruining everything and dying with the

others.” Sive enim vicerimus … nisi Lepidus perdere omnia et perire ipse cum suis concupivisset.

(Cicero ad Brut. 1.15.12) Here we have the definition of ruining, as the passage goes on to talk

about how when the romans had almost achieved victory, something happened causing Lepidus

to throw the battle in his grief, figuratively ruining the Roman’s victory.

“If you wish to destroy all of us, simply open your mouth.” si nos omnino vis omnes

perdere, tam etsi nil fecit, aiunt (Catullus Carmina 98.5) This is a passage about someone who

has extremely bad breath, to the point they’re called the stinkard, so much so that if the person

with the stinky breath were to open his mouth the other people around him would be destroyed,

of course here it is meant as being figuratively destroyed

20 Word Study #2 Latin 3b, 2020

“He destroyed my wallet with fire” would translate to “Hic delevit meum vidulum cum

ignis” and “He destroyed my wallet with that purchase” would translate to “Hic perdidit meum

vidulum cum ille emptio”, only what came after “with” changed in the English sentances, yet,

“delevit” also changed to “perdidit” in the Latin translation, this is because the meaning of the

sentence changed from the wallet being literally destoyed by fire, to being figuratively destroyed

from a big purchase.

WORD STUDY 15

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