Language Planning, Standardization And Policy In Africa

A Summary

By Elizabeth.D., Chimdi W. and Beniyam J.

Submitted to Zelealem Leyew (Ph. D)Jan./2009

Summary on Language planning, standardization and Policy

By

Elizabeth Demissie

Beniyam Jembere

Chimdi Wakuma

To

Zelealem Leyew (PhD)

Addis Ababa UniversityInstitute of Language Studies

African Languages and Applied Linguistics Graduate

program

Language Planning and Standardization Course (ALAL 601)

Addis AbabaJanuary, 2009

Contents

1. Language Planning and Standardization in Africa

1.1. Standardization of African Languages’ Orthography

1.2. Transborder Languages Standardization in Africa

1.3.Language Planning Models and Its Application in Africa

2. Language Policies of African Countries

2.1. Typologies of Language Situations and Policies in Africa

2.1.1. Typology of Language Situation

2.1.2. Typologies of Current Language Policies

2.2. Past and present language policies in Africa

2.3. African Language Policy Formulation advances

2.4. Guideline for African language policy formulation

2.5. Selected African Countries Language policy Profile

2.6. Sign Language in African language policy

Bibliography

1. Language Planning and Standardization in Africa

According to Wolff (2000:332) one of the major concerns of language

planning is language standardization, especially in Africa. Language

standardization is a means, in ‘language development,’ selection and

promotion of variants with in a language.

Similarly, Nyombe (2001) said the issue of standardization in Africa is a

question of development of African languages as modern vehicles of

education, administration and literacy expansion. He describe, by referring

Abdulaziz (1991), the development of indigenous African languages is vital

for the future material and political development of the continent. He

reason out, to be advanced politically, economically, educationally and

culturally, women and men of the rural Africa should be involved. This mass

involvement can be realized only using their language as a medium and

through their language.

Oyetade (2001:20) also explained the need for standardization by referring

its contribution in the development of a nation. He said standardization is

essential to facilitate communication, enhance unification, simplify

teaching, and serve a political purpose etc.

Generally, to use the languages in development of a country

standardization is highly essential. It is turning linguistic varieties into

standard languages in the sense of:-

An approved and accepted norm above all vernacular, colloquial

and dialectal varieties for generalized and normative usage in certain

domains such as literature, science, higher education, the media, the

churches and all public sectors.

A regular and codified normative system of reference supported by

a standard orthography, standard reference grammars and standard

dictionaries.

According to Wolff (2002) fully fledged standard language will, enjoy

recognition as such by the whole speech community (for instance, as a

prestigious high variety in a diglossia situation), reflect linguistic (Possibly

national or even ethnic) identity, have or develop a rich writing tradition

and be potentially equipped to encode all necessary modernization in its

lexicon. It is used effectively as high variety, predominantly for written

communication in matters of official concerns on regional, national or

international level.

In this sense, only a small number of African’s languages and even the

worlds’ languages are standard. The most illuminating and successful cases

of language standardization in Africa are, for various different reasons and

possibly in that order, Afrikaans, Kiswahili, Hausa, Somali and Shona.

For example, Kiswahili has more than sixty years of standardization history

(Miyamoto, 2001). During these sixty years, different activities carried out

to modernize it in the particular country it is spoken separately and jointly

as a cross-border language. From such activities: changes of the

orthography, lexical enrichment, semantic, grammatical and phonological

changes and the like done successfully.

1.1. Orthography Standardization and of African Languages

Orthography development is one of the major works in African languages.

According to Anderson (2009) African languages have very recent writing

history which is not more than two centuries. Most African cultures are

being described as oral, apart from Arabic in the north and a limited

amount of use of the Arabic script for languages in the Sahel and Swahili,

the Ethiopic abugida in the Horn of Africa. Most writing of African languages

uses the Latin script. Many, especially less widely spoken ones, do not have

a set orthography. As UNESCO document shows approximately 80% of

African languages do not have an established orthography.

As Ethnologue indicates, Africa has 2,092 languages, with 675millions

speakers. And also have recent writing traditions, and less support in

language policy and planning.

As Anderson (ibid) describes by referring Osborn (2007), another feature of

the language situation in Africa involves the role played by the colonials.

Not only did they leave a continent with most language groups split across

borders, but an overlay of several European languages act as official or

semi-official languages in all states. While the European languages can

facilitate communication across the continent, they also serve to add a new

set of linguistic divisions. Hence, the linguistic situation is a complex,

multilingual one in which Africans must master several languages for use in

different contexts. Hence the writing system dominated by this situation.

1.2. Transborder Languages Standardization in Africa

As history shows, European colonials have hastily drawn lines on maps

without any consideration of ethnic and linguistic reality of the partitioned

people in their ‘scramble of Africa’ (Chumbow and Tamanji, 2001). This

unfortunate outcome of Berlin 1884 conference creates many transborder

languages in Africa. Given the role of language as an element of culture, a

common language across the frontier is an indispensable tool for

transborder cooperation, if it is developed and used to serve the people.

These languages can be jointly standardized, developed and used for

mutual benefit of the two countries by building joint language planning

committee for different transborder languages like, Fulfulde, Gbaya, Fanga,

Kiswahili etc.

The activity of those transborder language committees shall be founded to

identify standard variety, lexical and orthographic standardization,

Harmonizing the standard form, design and provision of learning materials

and the like.

The development of transborder languages is not only helping to facilitate

communication but also as a means of resolve tension. Therefore as

Chumbow and Tamanji (ibid) suggested a lot more effort should be put into

their standardization.

1.3. Language Planning Models and Its Application in

Africa

As Magwa (2006:119) and Chumbow (1987) stated language planning

activities in Africa differ substantially from those in the developed countries

of Europe and America in a number of ways.

Globally the most dominant model of language planning is the “Canonical

Model”. This model serves as a guide to countries like Zimbabwe. The

model relates language planning to all other forms of planning or national

development.

Some of the main features of the Canonical model are:-

The model emphasizes fact finding in terms of relevant socio

linguistic surveys and profiles, demographic cultural and political

considerations as input to policy decisions.

Policy is arrived at from a judicious choice of the ideal policy from

among careful articulated policy alternatives.

Cost benefit analysis is envisaged and undertaken as an internal part

of policy formulation. Adoption of a policy means acceptance of

financial implications.

A central agency, such as a government authority is required to

coordinate all planning activities and maximize all efforts directed to

words national development.

The model is future oriented in two ways, namely

- Strategies and policies as well as procedures cost and outcomes are

specified in advance of action taken to implement the policy.

- Planners are prepared to concede the effort, time and resource as

an investment in a project whose results lie in a long term future

expectation.

The multilingual nature of African nations and the level of linguistic

complexity in the countries, it is obvious that there is a gap in what the

Cannonial model of language planning requires as planning and what is

actually practiced on the ground as Magwa, (2006,122). Areas of disparity

between the requirements and the practice of language planning are:-

Most policy decisions are taken without the benefit of the socio

linguistic fact

Language planning activities are the result of personal efforts

of individuals and private organization often without

government support.

efforts are uncoordinated

non professional undertaking of planning activities

projects often abandoned mid stream

objectives, procedures and methods of planning are not clearly

defined and outlined thus making evaluation of progress at

every stage difficult and sometimes impossible

The canonical model of language planning thus has to be modified as to

take due cognizance of language planning practices prevalent in Africa, as

Magwa (ibid) suggested.

2. Language Policies Of African Countries

Most African countries have the overall structure of language policies which

they have inherited from their respective colonial powers (Magwa,

2006:116). Based on this it is possible to categorize in two broad general

classes.

Exoglossic language policy countries: are countries that use foreign

languages as major official language. For example: English is given priority

and greater prestige in countries such as Kenya where Kiswahili is national

language and English is official language. Likewise in Zimbabwe Shona,

Ndebele and other minority languages have recognition English uses as

language of the major domains including education. Niger, Burkina Faso,

Senegal, etc are in this class.

Endoglossic language policy countries: Only Tanzania, Somalia, Sudan,

Ethiopia and Guinea pursue an active endoglossic language policy (i.e. use

of indigenous languages as the major media of communication throughout

the most important domains of the society). As Magwa (ibid) from these

countries Guinea Language policy is a model for many African states. It’s

edoglossic policy which adopted in 1958 since then eight (8) indigenous

languages have been developed into official national languages. In this

country, for example, competence in one of the eight national languages is

a requirement for employment in the civil service or advancement in socio

economic status.

On the other hand, countries like Zimbabwe, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia and

Many others nations the primordial language policies that are

dominated by European languages.

Together with all these, most language policy decisions taken in several of

the developing African countries with their one party state as military

dictatorship are more appropriately styled planning by decree. Status

decisions do not necessarily have to follow patterns of western

democracies. It is usually carries out by politicians (non language expert)

and the consideration involved in the decisions are often political rather

than socio linguistic. We can look at Kenya, Zimbabwe, Somalia, Nigeria

and the like African countries as an example.

Having this general categories of African language policy and planning

activities there are also some specific classifications of African language

policies and situations.

2.1.Typologies of Language Situations and Policies in Africa

The language situation of a country is a base for the language policy of a

given country. It basically supposed to be a reference to formulate

appropriate policies and strategies. Based on this assumption the language

situation and policies of Africa can be analyzed, in reference with the status

of indigenous African languages, in the following way.

2.2.1.Typology Of Language Situation

According to the report Of Intergovernmental Conference on Language

Policies in Africa (Chimhundu, 1998), there are different typologies both for

language situations of African languages and language policies. Regarding

language situation of African languages, the typology can be categorized as

follow:

Nations with one African language spoken by the vast majority of

the population

In this category there are two groups. These are:

I. Countries using African languages as a mother tongue such as Somalia

(Somali language), Lesotho (Sesotho), Rwanda (Kinya-rwanda), Swaziland

(siSwati), Burundi (Kirundi), and Botswana (Setswana)

II. Countries using African languages as a lingua franca such as Kenya and

Tanzania (Kiswahili),the central African republic (Sango), Mali (Bambara),

Senegal (Wolof), Sudan (Arabic) and Ethiopia (Amharic)

Nations having a predominant African language

Countries in this category includes: Ghana (Akan-Twi), BurkinaFaso

(More/Mosi), Nigeria (Hausa), Zimbabwe (Shona), Togo (Ewe), Benin (Ge),

Malawi (Chichewa)

Nations with several dominant African languages in competition,

These category includes countries such as Nigeria, (Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo),

sierr aleone (Temne, Mende), and Zaire (kikongo, Lingala, chilumba,

kisiwahili/kinguana)

Nations having no predominant African language,

In this category countries such as Cameron (Bulu and Ewanda however are

widely used in the south, and Fulani in the north adjacent to Nigeria) Ivory

Coast, Mozambique, and Cote d’Ivoire, are included.

Countries in the second and the third categories, as Lodhi (1993) explained,

have good possibility of developing one or more indigenous African

languages as their national/official languages, but there is the constant

threat of rivalry between the various language groups.

For example, Nigeria follows the Indian model, in which the regional

language (i.e. the largest language in the region) is the medium of

instruction at the primary level; English is the medium at the secondary

and higher levels. At the secondary level, one more regional language is

introduced. For students of arts, a third regional language (and/or French)

is offered. At the university level, language/linguistics students are offered

a non-Nigerian African language e.g. Arabic and Swahili.

2.2.2. Typologies Of Current Language Policies

Based on these general language situations, basically on indigenous

languages of Africa, the typology of current language policies of Africa can

be categorized as follows.

Countries which consciously promote one language; These countries

policies have two forms.

I. as exoglossic, Francophone countries (excluding Zaire) like

Mozambique, Angola, and Guinea Bissau (Portuguese), Liberia (English)

II. as endoglossic, Tanzania (Kiswahili) Ethiopia (Amharic), Somalia

(Somali) and the Central African Republic (Sango)

Countries having an exoglossic language policy but with

developing endoglossic tendencies like Kenya, Uganda, Malawi,

Burundi, Rwanda, Lesotho, Botswana, Swaziland, and the Central African

Republic (all except Uganda with one African language being promoted at

national level)

Countries having an exoglossic language with more than one

African language being promoted like Nigeria, Guinea, and Zaire.

Countries with an exoglossic language policy ,but using indigenous

language in some areas (e.g. first year of primary education, limited

local language press and the law courts) Zambia, Zimbabwe, and sierra

lion.

Apart from indigenous languages of Africa, According to Lodhi (1993), we

can divide the linguistic map of Africa into several parts. These are

Anglophone countries

Francophone countries

Luzophone countries

Arabiphone countries

Swahiliphone countries

As far as the choice of the language of administration is concerned, most

countries in Africa have, because of political and/or economic reasons,

chosen colonial languages as their official languages, at times together with

one or more African languages as national languages. Nineteen countries

have English as their official language, twentieth two have French, five

have Portuguese and one has Spanish. Arabic is the official language in

seven African countries, and in several countries an African language has

been chosen as the first or second official language together with a

metropolitan language, e.g. Amharic in Ethiopia, Swahili in East Africa,

Somali in Somalia and Chichewa in Malawi, together with English.

2.3. Past and present language policies in Africa

Past and present language policies have a lot to do with the present

situations in Africa countries. The fact that colonialism has been the

experience of almost all African except Ethiopia, the policy of languages

were said to be heavily determined by the following factors according to

Nyombe (1998:126):

the missionaries

colonial administrators and

post colonial governments

The missionaries, for instance, found the local languages to be effective for

their religious activities and the translation of bible into indigenous

languages, dictionaries and other educational materials were produced. in

southern Sudan work on the local languages started in 1848 and continued

until the mid 1930’s. in 1928 the colonial government give support to this

policy of vernacular language empowerment by recognizing the use of local

languages in administration and in education. For instance Bari, Shilluk,

Dinka, Zande, Nuer and Lotuho were given this position. However, the

policy of vernacular empowerment was reversed at independence in 1956

in favor of Arabic.

As Nyombe (ibid) states by referring Abdulaziz (1992), in Kenya the

missionaries and colonial government also had a lot to do with the

development of vernacular languages. While the missionaries were

attracted by the development of the vernaculars as vehicles of religious

activities, the colonial rulers were interested in the use of these languages

for successful communication and administration. English were the

language of administration in this country vertically to district level and

Kiswahili was the lingua franca. Even the post independence situation in

Kenya still remained the same virtually. In Tanzania, too, Kiswahili gained

dominance at the expense of other local languages and presently the

government has the enthusiasm in order to revive the local languages.

Concerning the Ethiopian situation, Bender and Cooper (as cited in

Nyombe, ibid) indicate that Geez was anciently the language of the

kingdom which is now restricted to religious services. With the breakup of

the kingdom the fourth century by invaders (the Turkish, Persians and

Arabs) and the Italians in the 20th c, Italian and Arabic was introduced. In

the federation between Eretria and Ethiopia (1952 - 1962) Amharic was the

official language of the country. The military socialist government latter

declared in 1974, that every nationality has the right to develop its own

political, economic and social life and its own language. As a consequence

15 major languages were designated as national languages. Presently the

EPRDF has in its constitution granted each and each and every nations and

nationalities recognition to be used as regional official languages and

medium of instruction.

2.4. African Language Policy Formulation advances

According to the Harare declaration of the intergovernmental conference

(1997), each country/region should formulate its own policy on the basis of

established needs and an informed awareness of its prevailing linguistic

situation, as well as the language equipment of its citizens but within a

general framework leading to a common vision. To arrive at such a policy

the following stated in the document to look at the following issues:

I. determining the correct typology of a country's language situation,

and defining the statuses of the country's various languages, taking

into account their functions and the media (oral, written, electronic,

etc.) in which they are used

II. establishing how many languages and language families there are in

a given country, as well as what each is used for, who uses them, and

people's attitudes towards them;

III. Involving all concerned individuals and/or groups of individuals in the

formulation and implementation of language policies;

IV. Organizing follow-up and monitoring activities at national and

regional levels in conjunction with such organizations as UNESCO

and the AU.

2.5. Guideline for African language policy formulation

As it declared at the Harare Declaration of the Intergovernmental

conference (1997) proposed the following guidelines for policy formulation:

All African language policy should be those that enhance the chance

of attaining the vision of African development

Each country should produce a clear language policy document,

within which every language spoken in the country can find its place

Guideline for policy formulation should be sanctioned by legislative

action

Every country policy framework should be flexible enough to allow

each community to use its language side-by –side with other

languages which integrating with the wider society, within an

empowering language policy that caters for communications at local,

national, and international

A language policy- formulating and monitoring instruction body

should be established in each country

According to the declaration, the strategies for African language policy

implementation can be well treated at Pan-African level, Regional level

and Government level

2.6. Selected African Countries Language policy Profile

As stated the current language profiles of some African countries looks the

following (Chimhundu, 1998).

South Africa

South Africa now probably has the most progressive Constitution in the

world, at least as regards language rights. Since South Africa's democratic

transition in April 1994, the government has taken up the challenge of

moving from two official languages to eleven, which means that more than

98% of the home languages spoken by the total population of 46.9 million

people are now accounted for - in contrast to the two-language policy

during apartheid, which favored the white minority. South Africa’s

Constitution (Act No. 108 of 1996) recognizes not only the eleven official

languages (English, Afrikaans, isiZulu, isiXhosa, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana,

isiNdebele, siSwati, Xitsonga and Tshivenda) but also the promotion of

other languages which referred to as heritage languages. These heritage

languages include indigenous languages like the khoisan languages,

languages such as German and French, as well as for languages for

religious purposes like Hindi and Tamil.

Language plan of South Africa, according to the country’s constitution,

should address the various language issues in terms of needs of the people.

There are relevant issues for language in teaching and learning in

education area. These are learners concentrated on the language up to

grade 2 or 3 and from there onwards adds another language throughout

schooling but preferably end up in grade 12 with four languages. The

second issue is that every school, maybe there is exceptionally not, and

uses either English or Afrikaans as his or her language.

Zambia

Zambia has seven local languages that are taught in schools from grade

one to secondary level and then beyond up to university. The major

problem they are facing is that, although government always says it is

committed to the development of local languages; there is no funding.

Government has provided funds for colonial languages like English in

contrast. In addition English is the official language of the country.

Cameroon

There are 50 main languages in Cameroon in which English and French are

official languages. The most widely spoken language beside English and

French is Pidgin English, which is one third of the country.

For judicial purposes, only English and French are used. If defendants speak

in their mother tongue, an interpreter is employed. This also applies to the

legislature, where member of the parliament speak either English or

French. In regional administration, officials are also obliged to use one of

the official languages. At secondary school, French and English are medium

of instruction, whereas Cameroon languages are used for teaching for the

first three years of primary schools.

Very few of the 248 languages in Cameroon have been standardized. As

documents shows some standardization works done on 20 languages and

73 are on the way. Among the six countries in the country, two of them are

interested in teaching national language. In addition, national languages

are used in teaching of adult literacy.

Senegal

Senegal’s official language is French. There are six national languages.

These are Diola, Malinke, Poular, Serer, Soninke and Wolof. Standardization

of these languages has taken place recently.

French is used in the legislature, but the use of national languages has

been authorized in even encouraged since non French speaking

parliamentarians were elected. French is the official language of judiciary,

but interpreters are often employed to interpret to and from national

languages and it is a language of executives and regional administration. In

the area of education, preschool teaching takes place in national language,

with the first two years of school being conducted by the mother tongue

and French being introduced in the third grade. At secondary school,

French and English are obligatory and the other foreign languages are

available as subjects, together with one national language.

Arabic has an important place as a medium of religious and cultural

practices. In commerce, communication is dominated by national language.

In radio and television national languages are used more than French and

in press the reverse is true.

Ethiopia

Historically Ethiopia has covert language policies and in all the regimes

promoted one language policy (Getachew and Derib, 2oo6). A clear

language policy came out at paper level in the reign of Haile Sellasie I. The

policy of Derg regime was seemed the first multilingual policy to give a

hope for the development of many Ethiopian languages. But the

implementation was different.

The current government of Ethiopia now is trying to implement a

multilingual language policy since 1994. There are about six official

languages at regional level: Amharic, Afar, Aderi (Harari), Afan Oromo,

Tigrignya and Somali and Amharic is an official language at federal level.

There are also about 10 languages (Sidama, Kambata, Kafa, Hadiya, Gamo,

Gofa, Wolayta, Dawro, Silti, Gedeo) languages that are used as official

languages at zone and district level. Primary education is given in more

than 20 languages.

The FDRE’s 1994 constitution Article 5 guarantees the multilingual

language policy situation of the country. It says:

1. All Ethiopian languages shall enjoy equal state of recognition.

2. Amharic shall be the working language of the Federal

Government.

3. Members of the Federation may determine their respective

languages.

2.7. Sign Language in African language policy

According to Okoth Okombo (?) deaf persons who use the sign language of

a particular country simply form a language community. Thus, for example,

Kenyans who use Kenyan sign language constitute a language minority in

relation to the rest of the community of Kenyans who use spoken language.

For countries that would adopt a two-language policy. E.g. Rwanda, the

deaf citizen could simply be treated as a special group for whom

compulsory literacy would have to be in one official spoken language only.

Their sign language would language replace the second official spoken

language.

For a three-language country, e.g., Kenya, each hearing person would

ideally be trilingual. This trilingualism would involve three spoken language

in the following pattern:

One international language of wider communication, e.g. English.

One intra-national language of wider communication, e.g. Kiswahili.

One sub-national community language.

For a deaf person it this situation, the relevant national sign language

would take the place of the community language and the intra-national

language which is used for linking all the deaf in the country. Therefore,

one language plays two roles for deaf communities. This leaves them with

only the international language of wider communication to learn at school.

However sign language doesn’t get enough attention in many African

countries. On the other hand countries like South Africa have relatively a

good experience in sign language policy formulation and implementation.

Sign language usage is one of the linguistic rights that should be kept.

Therefore it should get enough attention.

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