language instruction for students with disabilities fourth edition © polloway, e. a., miller, l.,...

Language Instruction for Students with Disabilities

Fourth Edition

© Polloway, E. A., Miller, L., & Smith, T. E. C. (2012). Language instruction for students with disabilities (4th ed.). Denver, CO: Love.

Instructors who adopt this book may use the Power Points to teach your course without prior permission.

1

© Love Publishing: Lynda Miller

Chapter 1

Introduction to Speech, Language, and Communication

Introduction to Language, Speech, and Communication

• Importance of communication skills for employability

• Communication skills needed in school and for social interaction with peers

3

What Is Communication?

• Interchange of ideas, feelings, thoughts, experiences, and information

• Communicating through language• Speech—the oral sounds of the language code

4

How Is Literacy Related to Communication?

• Literacy: the set of competencies children develop with both oral and printed language (including electronic forms)– Speaking– Reading– Writing

5

Four Models of Language

• Rationalism• Empiricism• Nature–nurture continuum• Social-interactionist model

6

Language Development from Infancy through Adolescence

• The Building Blocks of Language– Form– Content– Use– Narrative– Nonverbal

7

The Building Blocks of Language

• Form: the structures of language• Content: how meaning is derived• Use: the social functions of language• Narrative: how conversations and stories are

structured• Nonverbal communication: meaning carried

outside spoken and/or written language forms 8

Language Form

• Phonology– 44 phonemes in English

• Vowels: sounds produced with an open vocal tract• Consonants: sounds produced through place of

articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing

9

Language Form, continued

• Morphology: rules governing how phonemes are combined into syllables and words to convey meaning

• Two kinds of morphemes: free and bound

10

Language Form, Continued

• Syntax: the study of linguistic conventions for generating meaningful phrases and sentences

• Examples: word order, use of active or passive voice, arrangement of words in a phrase and/or sentence

11

Language Content

• Language content: the meaning level of language

• Also called semantics• How humans attribute meaning (includes

study of vocabulary development in children)

12

Language Use

• Language use: the conventions governing how language is used in various social contexts

• Rules a culture uses for what people say, to whom, how, and under which circumstances

• Often called pragmatics: analysis of the functions of language, particularly those related to social contexts

• Significance of violations of the rules 13

Narrative Ability

• Narrative: a sequence of events tied together in a story

• Major precursor to learning to read and write• Story grammar: character(s), setting, and

episodes• Cultural variations: topic centered or topic

associated14

Nonverbal Language

• Paralinguistics

• Proxemics

• Kinesics

• Chronemics

15

Chapter 2



• Five stages of language development–prelinguistic–emerging language–developing language–language for learning (L4L)–adolescent language

• Mean length of utterance is used as a measure of language development up to age 5

17

Communication in the Prelinguistic Period

• “Motherese” and language during infancy

• Joint attention and joint referencing

• Mutual attending

• Babbling

• Emergence of communicative intentions

18

Emerging Language

• Brown’s Stage I, MLU between 1.0 and 2.0• Semantics and increasing vocabulary• Syntax: from one-word utterances to two-

word phrases• Noun phrases and verb phrases• Development of the interrogative and

negative forms19

Phonology

• Variability in the development of phonological abilities: phonetically consistent forms

• First phonemes to emerge• Simplification of adult forms of phonology:

phonological processes

20

Pragmatics (Language Use)

• Doubling of children’s attempts to communicate

• Increased range and number of intentions children express

• Discourse functions: referrals to previous speech acts

• Beginning awareness of the need for presuppositions

• Increased ability in turntaking 21

Developing Language

• Between ages 27 months and 46 months in typically developing children (Brown’s Stage II through V, MLU of 2.0 to 4.5)

• Semantics: exponential vocabulary development–nouns, verbs, prepositions, temporal words, adjectives, and pronouns–emergence of inflections to change word

meanings22

Semantics, continued

–regular and irregular verb forms–contractions–beginnings of pronoun acquisition

23

Syntax

• From two-word utterances to sentences containing adjectives, prepositional phrases, and subordinate clauses

–development of interrogatives and negatives

–increasing complexity of sentence forms through embedding

(1) embedding phrases within sentences

(2) embedding clauses within clauses24

Syntax, continued

• Compound and complex sentences• Object complement clauses, wh-question

clauses, and relative clauses

25

Morphology

• Plural marker: one of the earliest morphemes children use regularly

• Overgeneralization of morphemic rules• Learning exceptions to morphemic rules

26

Phonology

• Children acquire most of the phonological system during this stage

• Many children use later developing phonemes incorrectly well into the next stage

27

Pragmatics

• Turntaking and topic maintenance improve• Increased ability with conversational repair• Moving from a preponderance of direct

requests to an increased use of indirect requests

28

Figurative Language

• Emerging understanding that language exists on several levels

• Increased understanding of synonyms and homonyms

• Beginning understanding and use of metaphoric language– Idioms– Humor

29

Narrative Development

• Protonarratives and heaps give way to primitive narratives

• Four types of narratives children use in this stage:– Recounting– Eventcasts– Accounts– Fictionalized narratives

30

Language for Learning Stage (L4L)

• Extends from age 5 through 10 or 11 years• Language characteristics and knowledge of

children from homes in which literacy practices are common

31

Relationship between Oral Language and Print

• Recency of written language forms

• Advantages of being read aloud to before learning to read

• Decoding and phonological awareness

32

Semantic Development

• Characteristics of vocabulary development in this stage– Addition of new words– Using words they already know in new ways– Choosing words for getting just the right meaning– Chunking: classifying words into categories and

hierarchical subcategories

33

Semantic Development, continued

– Elaborated definitions of words– Differentiation of nouns into subcategories– Appearance of adverbs– Fine tuning the pronouns

34

Figurative Language

• Nonliteral use of language:– Metaphor– Simile– Idiom– Proverbs, adages, maxims

• Development of humor in this stage

35

Syntactic Development

• Expanding noun and verb phrases

• Passive sentences: reversible and nonreversible

• Exceptions to the rules– Principle of minimal distance and

exceptions/violations

36

Syntactic Development, continued

• Embedding– Infinitive phrases– Object complements– Relative clauses that modify noun phrases in

the object position (but not in the subject position)

– Decreasing difficulty with confusing embeddings

37

Syntactic Development, continued

• Conjoining– Learning exceptions to logical (cause–effect)

order

38

Morphological Development

• Three significant morphological advances: producing– Gerunds– Agentive forms– Adverb forms

39

Pragmatic Development

• Moving toward the literate end of the oral–literate continuum

• Discourse: different ways to talk, act, and write in different circumstances

• Discourse genres• Conversational competence

– Increased ability to sustain topics over time– Improved skill in responding to clarifications

for repair 40

Pragmatic Development, continued

– Proficiency in understanding and using indirect requests

• The oral-to-literate shift: shifting from using primarily oral language to using language that is primarily literate– Characteristics of literate language– Advantages to children from homes that use

literate language41

Pragmatic Development, continued

– Six narrative genres children are likely to encounter

• Structured play• Wordless books• Comic books• Books on video/DVD/online• Folk tales• Trade books

42

Narrative Development

• Shift in narrative abilities during this stage– Stories containing a basic episode give way to

stories that contain complete episodes• Basic episode: initiating event, attempt, consequence• Complete episode: basic episode plus internal

response, plan, and reaction or ending

• By age 7, most children produce stories with a plot that may or may not be developed

43

Narrative Development, continued

• After age 8, children’s stories begin to resemble adults’ stories:– Clear plot line– Problem is obvious– Enough (not too much) information/detail – Time and place described in enough detail– Character’s actions and motivations make sense

44

Learning New Discourse Forms

• Classroom Discourse– Often implicit and not verbalized by the teacher– Initiation-Response-Evaluation (IRE) format

• Expository Discourse– Highly decontextualized language– Structures are different from story grammar– Nested organizational schemes may be more

difficult for students until late in this stage45

Learning New Discourse Forms, continued

• Argumentative/persuasive discourse– More abstract and complicated structure than

expository structures– Some students in this stage develop proficiency

with oral forms but few are able to produce written argumentative/persuasive discourse

46

The Metas

• Metalinguistic• Metapragmatic• Metacognitive

47

Metalinguistic ability

Most children develop some proficiency with the various metalinguistic forms; some are considerably older

•Consequences for learning to read•Difficulties with phonological awareness

•Metapragmatic strategies•Decoding classroom discourse

Metapragmatic ability

Metacognitive ability

• Comprehension monitoring• Organizational and learning strategies

50

Writing

• Graphophoneme awareness• Importance of oral language development and

emerging reading skills

51

Adolescent Language/Advanced Language

• Primary developments in this stage– Social interactions with peers– Necessity of understanding and producing literate

language forms– Using language to develop critical thinking skills

52

Semantics

• Vocabulary– Enlarging number and types of words– Elaborating vocabulary that reflects literate

language forms– Further expanding the meanings of already known

words– Learning Aristotelian definitions

53

Pragmatics

• Most prominent developments are:– increased abilities with figurative language

forms– Understanding and producing diverse

discourse types

• Figurative language– Improved comprehension of metaphor,

similes, and idioms– Playing with language for humorous effects 54

Pragmatics, continued

– The importance of slang for teenagers– Increased emphasis on understanding and

using all the discourses presented by school• Narrative• Expository• Argumentative• Persuasive

55

The Metas

• Increased demand for metacognitive skills– Emergence of:

• Analogic/inductive reasoning• Syllogistic/deductive reasoning

– Comprehension monitoring during adolescence– Organizational strategies for learning

56

The Metas, continued

• Metapragmatic requirements necessary for negotiating school and peers– Writing: purpose of writing; audience who will be

reading the writing; choosing the appropriate discourse genre

– Social interactions: which discourse types to use when and with whom

57

The Metas, continued

• Metalinguistic development– Talking about language and its uses, both oral

and written– Reflecting on language form, content, and

discourse type in order to write– The emergence of an understanding of the

aesthetic aspects of language– Humor

58

Writing

• Reading and writing as reciprocal processes

• Increased proficiency with writing mechanics and different literary styles

• Three major processes of writing in adolescence– Planning

– Sentence generation

– Revision59

Chapter 3

Cultural Diversity and Language Differences

Cultural Diversity and Language Differences

• Language varies across cultures• Diversity in society

– More cultural diversity in the U.S. today than in previous years

– One fourth of the U.S. population consists of minority groups

– Population projections indicate a continued increase in diversity in the U.S.

61

Language Characteristics Across Cultures in the U.S.

• Immigrants to the U.S. speak a variety of languages other than English

• As of 2007, one fifth of students in schools in the U.S. were immigrants and likely to speak a language other than English

62

Myths Surrounding Students from Diverse Backgrounds

• A student’s ethnic background implies that s/he has the same needs and intellectual abilities of all other students from the same ethnic background

• Speaking “broken” English or a dialect indicates intellectual deficiency

• All “minority” students are disadvantaged, lazy, and on welfare

63

Myths Surrounding Studentsfrom Diverse Backgrounds,

continued• All students from Asian-American families are

academically gifted • All students from minority families are inferior

64

What teachers can do in the classroom:

1.Have reading materials addressing cultural diversity

2.Enlist advocacy groups to obtain information about cultural diversity

3.Seek out families of students from diverse backgrounds

4.Find professional seminars that focus on diversity

5.Learn about diversity from reading materials aimed at children

What teachers can do in the classroom:

1.Have reading materials addressing cultural diversity

2.Enlist advocacy groups to obtain information about cultural diversity

3.Seek out families of students from diverse backgrounds

4.Find professional seminars that focus on diversity

5.Learn about diversity from reading materials aimed at children

Disproportionality in Special Education

• What is disproportionality?– Overrepresentation– Underrepresentation

• Primary cause of disproportionality = unfair (i.e., biased) assessment

65

Policies and Practices Affecting Education for Minority Students

• Institutional racism• Reduced (or enhanced) expectations• Mismatch between curriculum and student

needs• Using inappropriate pedagogy• Limited input from teachers and from students

and their families66

Three Cultural Models for Educating Minority Students

• Background regarding linguistic diversity in the U.S.

• Eight linguistic regions in the U.S.• Substantial linguistic variation: language

disorder, cultural mismatch, or language difference?

67

The Cultural Deficit Position

• Assumptions– Language of minorities constitutes a deficient

code• Students not speaking standard English have an

automatic language deficiency

– Minorities are culturally deprived, which indicates educational limitations

– Implications of using elaborated or restricted codes of language

68

The Cultural Mismatch Model

• Primary assumption: there is a mismatch between the expectations of the majority culture and the student’s culture

• Educational implication: closing that gap, i.e., helping the student achieve majority cultural values, prepares the student for success in the majority culture

69

The Culturally Different Model

• Primary assumption is the same as the cultural mismatch model: there are differences between individuals from different cultures, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses

• In this model, language systems may be different but are not necessarily deficient

• Ebonics as an example70

The Culturally Different Model, continued

• Importance of using the term nonstandard instead of substandard

• Challenges facing students who do not speak “proper” (i.e., standard) English

71

What Teachers Can Do

• Characteristics of culturally responsive teachers

• Self-reflection questions teachers can use to understand their own and others’ cultural beliefs, values, and expectations

72

Fair Assessment

• The challenge of finding fair, accurate assessment instruments and procedures– Content bias– Construct bias

• IDEA requirements for reducing discrimination in assessment

73

Four Instructional Approaches

1. English as a Second Language Approach– English is the language of instruction– Student’s native language not addressed directly– Advantages and disadvantages

2. Bilingual Education Approach– Instruction uses both English and the student’s

native language– Advantages and disadvantages

74

Four Instructional Approaches, continued

3. Submersion Programs– No bilingual programs available– Students are expected to develop the majority-

culture language– Student’s native language is not used

75

Four Instructional Approaches, continued

4. Immersion Programs– Students grouped with others who speak the

same primary language– Teachers are fluent in both English and the

students’ native language– No formal instruction in English– Advantages and disadvantages

76

Code Switching and Code Mixing

• Code switching: proficient in both languages, the individual switches from one to the other deliberately and consciously

• Code mixing: the individual indiscriminately mixes the two languages

77

Bilingual Education Materials

• Few Spanish-language materials are available• Steps to use in selecting appropriate materials

for students from diverse backgrounds

78

Guidelines and Teaching Strategies

• Twelve specific suggestions for teachers to meet the special classroom needs of students with language differences

79

Families of Culturally Diverse Students

• Factors influencing family participation in the student’s education

• Importance of school–home communication

80

Chapter 4

Language Assessment and Instructionfor Preschool Children

Language Assessment and Instruction

for Preschool Children

• For preschoolers, assessment is used to determine the child’s developmental characteristics

• The goal of instruction and intervention is to assist the student in moving to the next developmental stage

• Legislative background

82

Developmental Considerations for Preschool Children with Disabilities

• How severely are communication and language affected developmentally?

• Focus of assessment for preschoolers with severe impairments

• Goal of assessment for preschoolers with moderately compromised communication and language

• Purpose of assessment for preschoolers with mild impairments 83

Four Types of Assessment

• Standardized tests• Nonstandardized approaches• Interviews with parents and caregivers• Observations of the child’s play and routines in

familiar environments

84

Standardized Testing

• Standardized instruments are norm referenced

• Characteristics of norm-referenced instruments

• Strengths and weaknesses of standardized instruments

85

Nonstandardized Approaches

• Criterion-referenced procedures• Developmental scales• Dynamic assessment

86

Interviews with Parents and Caregivers

• Constructing one’s own interview formats• Using existing developmental scales and

behavior checklists• Using a combination of the two• Advantages and disadvantages of using

interviews

87

Observation of Children’s Play and Routines in Familiar Environments

• Less intrusive for the child• Likely to yield more representative

communication and language abilities than a standardized instrument

• Advantages of using interviews to assess a child’s communication and language abilities

88

Assessment of Preschool Children

• Purpose of assessment for children in the– Prelinguistic period of language development– Emerging language stage – Developing language stage

89

Standardized and Nonstandardized Testing

• Tools for Prelinguistic Language

• Tools for Emerging Language

• Tools for Developing Language

90

Interviews with Parents and Caregivers

• Designing the interview format, location, and process to reflect the purposes of assessment for each stage of communication and language development

• Available instruments• Designing one’s own interview

91

Observations of Children’s Play and Routines in Natural

Environments

• Passive observation• Interactive observation and dynamic

assessment• Constructing a worksheet or checklist to

organize observations

92

Communication and Language Instruction for Preschoolers

• Types of guidelines and standards for designing instruction

• The importance of literacy development• Metalinguistic awareness in preschool children• Language-learning disabilities and dyslexia• Long-term goals of language instruction for

preschool children93

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Prelinguistic Stage

• Specific instructional goals• Four effective interactive behaviors that

foster communication1. Turntaking and imitation2. Joint attention3. Anticipatory sets4. Communicative intentions

• Fostering language through reading books aloud 94

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Emerging Language

Stage

• Factors that predict the need for language intervention and instruction

• The role of symbolic play in developing language– Semantic development: relational and

substantive words– Syntactic development– Phonology– Pragmatic skills

95

Language Instruction: Emerging Language, continued

• Communicative intentions and discourse functions– Requests for information– Acknowledgments– Answers

• Presuppositions and turntaking: possible instructional scenarios

96

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Developing Language

Stage

• Focus on language abilities underlying success in school

• Instructional products (goals), processes (methods), and contexts (settings)– Instructional goals–linking to state learning

standards• Long-term goals and benchmarks (short-term

objectives)• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and modifiability97

Language Instruction: Developing Language Stage, continued

• Example showing how to use the ZPD to select short-term objectives

– Instructional methods• Teacher directed • Child centered• Combinations of both of the above

– Instructional settings• Collaborating with a Speech-Language Pathologist (SLP)• Consulting with an SLP• Language-based classroom 98

Children with Severely Compromised Speech

• Alternative and augmentative communication modalities (AAC)

• Primary goal = engaging in interactive communicaion

• Guidelines for selecting AAC systems/devices• Symbol systems• AAC devices

99

Chapter 5

Language Assessment and Instruction for School-Age Children

Language Assessment and Instruction for School-Age Children

• Language abilities ranging from prelinguistic and the language for learning (L4L) stages

• Two levels of assessment and instruction– Basic communication and language skills – School-related oral language skills and emerging

literacy

101

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments

• Four primary assessment questions: level of development in

1. Semantics, syntax, phonology, and pragmatics2. Narrative discourse3. Nonnarrative discourse4. Metalinguistic ability

• Assessing developmental abilities– Semantics

102

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments, continued

– Syntax and morphology– Phonology– Pragmatics– Figurative language– Narrative language– Metalinguistic awareness

• Standardized measures

103

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments, continued

• Nonstandardized measures– Observational checklists– Criterion-referenced measures and behavioral

observations

104

Assessing Language Development, continued

• Phonology– Phonological awareness and phonological

processing– Rapid automatic naming (RAN)

• Semantics– Receptive and expressive vocabulary

differences– Instructional and textbook vocabulary– Word retrieval and/or word finding– Noun differentiation–categorization

105

Assessing Language Development, continued

• Syntax and morphology– Understanding and use of specific syntactic and

morphological structures– Using dynamic assessment and the Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD) for both assessment and instruction

– Mediated teaching

106

Assessing Narrative Discourse

• Appleby’s stage model– Heap stories– Sequence stories– Primitive narratives– Chain narratives– True narratives

• Miller et al.’s component model– Story components

• Setting: time and place 107

Assessing Narrative Discourse, continued

• Character information• Temporal order• Causal information

– Story ideas and language• Complexity of ideas• Complexity of vocabulary• Knowledge of dialogue• Creativity

108

Assessing Narrative Discourse, continued

– Episode elements and structure• Six episode elements• Development of children’s episode structure

109

Assessing Nonnarrative Discourse Genres

• Classroom discourse– The hidden curriculum– Decontextualized nature of classroom

discourse

• Other types of nonnarrative discourse encountered by children entering school– Descriptive– Poetry– Expository– Argumentative/persuasive

110

Assessing the Metas

• Examples of assessing:– Metalinguistic ability– Metapragmatic ability– Metacognitive ability

111

Pragmatics

• How difficulties with metapragmatic skills manifests in the social–interactive rules governing the various discourse genres typical of school

• Difficulties students with LLD may exhibit

112

Language Instruction for School-Age Students

• Linking language instruction to state learning standards via the IEP

• How Section 504 can help students with language disabilities

113

Language Goals

• Two primary goals for language instruction during the language for learning (L4L) period– Developing facility with the language structures,

forms, and functions typical of the language in this developmental stage

– Making the shift from oral to literate forms of language

114

Language Instruction

• Principles guiding language instruction in this stage of development:– Integrating oral and written language

• Language targets can include components of both oral and written language

• Example for a second-grade student with difficulties in phonological awareness and pragmatic abilities

• Two examples of how to use narrative language as a means of integrating oral and written language

115

Language Instruction, continued

– Focus on the metas• Engaging students on both the concrete and abstract

levels• Using rehearsal of a performance of a piece of

literature to emphasize different discourse types, pragmatic abilities, and talking about talking, language, and thinking

– Narrative discourse• Dynamic assessment and mediated teaching• Using a variety of narrative genres

116


– Nonnarrative (expository) discourses• Characteristics of nonnarrative discourse• Graphical schemas as visual organizers• Key words

– Mathematics discourse• Teacher instruction• Reading mathematical symbols• Story problems• Self-talk strategies

117

Methods for Language Instruction

• Recap of methods from Chapter 4: continuum from teacher directed to student directed

• Scaffolding– Example of mediated teaching as a method for

utilizing scaffolding– Wallach’s narrative development approach– Westby’s book report sequence

• Whole language as a method of language instruction 118

Settings for Language Instruction

• Classroom settings– Collaborating or consulting with the speech-

language clinician (SLP)– Language-based classrooms

119

Web-Based Instruction

• Teacher-hosted web pages• Teacher- and state-sponsored networks• Online technologies supporting instruction• Case Western Reserve University’s website

tutorial for teachers• Internet4Classroom’s web design resources for

teachers120

Web-Based Instruction, continued

• Websites offering specific language instruction materials

• LD Online website resources

121

School-Age Children with Severe Impairments

• Primary goal of language instruction– Independence in daily living and vocational

settings– Functional repertoire of communication and

language skills– Contexts for language instruction– Published programs for teaching functional

language– AAC systems and devices 122

Chapter 6

Language Assessment and Instruction for Adolescents

Language Assessment and Instruction for Adolescents

• Assessment goals, procedures, and instruments– Social discourse with peers and in the classroom– Literate language abilities– Skill with the metas

• Standardized measures– Oral language– Written language

124

Nonstandardized Assessment

• Semantics– A rubric for evaluating the student’s knowledge of

the literate lexicon– Special verb classes

• Factitives• Nonfactitives

– Word relationships and etymologies– Evaluating words according to context of use– Figurative language

125

Nonstandardized Assessment, continued

• Syntax and morphology– Assessing through an oral narrative sample– Three aspects of oral and written syntax

• T-unit length• Clause density (subordination index)• High-level, low-frequency structures characteristic of an

advanced literate style

126

Assessing Pragmatics

• Conversational competence– Larson and McKinley’s assessment procedure– Two procedures for assessing negotiation

abilities• Role playing• Hypothetical situations

– Nelson and Rosenbaum’s procedure for assessing slang vernacular

127

Assessing Pragmatics, continued

• Discourse genres– Assessing competence with classroom

discourse• Observational checklist• Student self-rating

– Assessing listening skills• Literal level• Critical (metalistening) level

– Drawing inferences128

Assessing Pragmatics, continued

– Retelling complete and complicated narratives

– Summarizing narratives through the use of cohesive markers

• Cohesive devices used by good writers

– Assessing expository abilities, both oral and printed

• Assessing the process of writing as well as the product

• A model for assessing written products

• Using rubrics to evaluate expository writing

• Portfolio assessment129

Assessing The Meta Level

• Using dynamic assessment to assess metalinguistic skills

• A set of questions to assess students’ awareness of classroom rules (metapragmatic aiblity)

• Using Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences to assess metacognitive abilities

130

Language Instruction

• Purposes of language instruction• Prerequisites for students’ being successful

with compensatory learning strategies

131


• Semantics– Focus on the literate lexicon– Ellis’s five elaboration techniques used to teach

vocabulary– The Family Learning Association’s six-step

vocabulary development program– Denver Public School’s Literacy Support Team– Metalinguistic approaches to semantics

instruction 132

Semantics Instruction, continued

– Web resources for teaching figurative language

133

Syntax and Morphology Instruction

• Syntactic and morphological complexity of literate language

• Using reading (or reading aloud) as a means to teach syntax and morphology

• Self-cueing and editing others’ work

134

Pragmatics Instruction

• Conversational competence– Teaching oral persuasion– Teaching conversational discourse– Peer modeling– Helping students with classroom discourse

• Models of scaffolding• Graphic organizers• Role playing

135

Pragmatics Instruction, continued

• Narrative discourse– Reading good stories– Scrambling stories for students to reassemble– Using story frames– Online resources– Literature-based rehearsal and performance– Explicit instruction about story grammars – Story grammar checklists– Including cohesive markers

136


• Expository discourse– Teaching the macrostructures of different

expository types– Teaching students how to understand persuasive

discourse functions– Teaching students to write expository discourse

• Rubrics• Online resources

137


–Techniques for students with LLD• Three phases of writing expository text

–The planning stage–generating ideas–Generating and organizing sentences into

coherent wholes–Editing their work

138

Instruction for the Metas

• Teaching comprehension monitoring• Teaching metacognitive skills

139

Secondary Students with Severe Impairments

• Teaching functional communication and language skills– Individualized Transition Plans– Teaching conversational skills– Teaching the communication skills needed for

self-advocacy– Helping students learn the communication

and language skills needed outside school– Teaching skills needed in independent living

contexts 140

Secondary Students with Severe Impairments,

continued

• Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC)– Evaluating the communicative appropriateness

and effectiveness of the AAC systems used by students in a secondary school environment

– Guidelines for assessing AAC systems needed for a variety of different communicative situations

– Teacher resources141

Chapter 7

Reading Concepts and Assessment

Reading Concepts and Assessment

• The increasing achievement gap between students in general and students with disabilities (the Matthew effect)

• Challenges in learning to read successfully• Origins of reading problems

143

Development of Reading

• Early reading– Three primary concepts guiding reading

instruction• Phonemic awareness• Understanding the link between speech sounds and

printed words (alphabetic understanding)• Automaticity with the phonological/alphabetic code

– Key early reading skills– The role of phonological and phonemic awareness

144

Initial Reading Skills

• Instruction for early reading skills, which are prerequisite for initial reading instruction– Sight vocabulary– Word analysis skills– Phonetic analysis

145

Acquiring Broad Reading Skills

• Automatic decoding: rapid reading and the acquisition of a broader base of skills

• Development of fluency in reading• Skill in the structural analysis of word forms• Contextual analysis: the bridge between word

recognition and comprehension

146

Advanced Reading

• Students shift from learning to read to reading to learn

• Characteristics of reading at this stage• Focus on comprehension• Variables affecting comprehension

– Student background, experiences, skills, motivation

– The content to be read– The reading purpose 147

Reading Comprehension, continued

• Three types of comprehension– Text explicit– Text implicit– Script implicit

• Specific comprehension skills for reading development

148

Refined Contextual Readingand Life Applications

• Reading independently• Skills of students at this stage

149

Assessment of Reading

• Using assessment to guide instruction• Formal tests to obtain quantitative

information• Advantages and limitations of formal tests• Survey and diagnostic tests• Commonly used diagnostic tests

150

Informal Assessment

• Applying the results of informal assessment to reading instruction

• Advantages of informal assessment• Informal reading inventories• Curriculum-based assessment

151

Using Assessment Data

• Using assessment data to– Identify a reader’s specific problems– Hypothesize reasons for the problems– Derive implications that guide instruction

• Summarizing informal diagnostic data

152

Selected Teaching Strategies

• Direct instruction of critical skills for the different stages of reading development– Learning stages– Acquisition learning– Proficiency learning– Generalization learning

• Specific recommendations for teachers to provide effective instructional programs

153

Selected Teaching Strategies, continued

– Provide incentives– Foster cooperation– Focus on using reading to teach reading– Shift from oral to silent reading– Allow sufficient time– Group students effectively– Use scaffolding– Continue instruction at the secondary level– Promote home–school cooperation

154

Chapter 8

Reading Instruction

Reading Instruction

• Bottom-up (decoding) and top-down (holistic) approaches

• Phonemic awareness– Rationale for teaching phonemic awareness– General recommendations for teaching

phonological awareness

• Four elements of word recognition and analysis

156

Word Recognition

1. Sight word identification• Automaticity• Strategies for promoting recognition and recall of

sight words• Using word banks• Fernald’s multisensory method• The Edmark program• Helping students build a functional reading

vocabulary157

Word Recognition, continued

2. Phonetic analysis• Importance of phonics instruction• Balancing phonics instruction with other instructional

approaches• Teaching phonics skills

– Analytic phonics– Synthetic phonics– Teaching consonants first, then vowels

158


3. Structural analysis• Morphemic analysis• Syllabication• Teaching compound words• Teaching affixes• Contractions

4. Contextual analysis• Provides semantic and syntactic cues to help identify

words• The cloze procedure 159


– Combining word recognition strategies• Steps to follow in teaching students to combine word

recognition strategies• DISSECT

160

Vocabulary

• Importance of developing a strong vocabulary• Approaches to enhancing vocabulary

development

161

Fluency

• Definition of fluency• Repeated readings

– Steps in using multiple oral reading approach– Cautions in using repeated readings to promote

reading achievement

162

Comprehension

• Definition• Specific levels of comprehension• The eight kinds of comprehension instruction

most likely to be effective and promising• Holistic programs

– Key concepts– Specific activities– The language experience approach (LEA) 163

Comprehension, continued

• Teacher-directed questioning strategies– Directed reading/thinking activity (DRTA)

• Student-directed strategies– Why students need strategies to understand

expository text– Comprehension monitoring (self-questioning)

• Importance of self-questioning in comprehension• Features characteristic of comprehension monitoring• The Reads-It approach 164

Comprehension, continued

– Other student-directed strategies• RAP• SQ3R• Collaborative reading

• Graphic organizers– The value of graphic organizers– Semantic mapping

165

Students with Significant Disabilities

• Specific considerations for teaching reading to students with significant disabilities

166

Commercial Reading Programs

• Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program for Reading, Spelling, and Speech

• Phonological Awareness Training for Reading• Edmark Reading Program• Gillingham-Stillman Remedial Reading Manual• Reading Mastery Program• SRS Corrective Reading Program• Basal Readers

167

Chapter 9

Handwriting Assessment and Instruction

Handwriting Assessment and Instruction

• Definition, history, and importance of handwriting

• Trends in handwriting– Effect of technological advances– Emphasis on the process of writing– Renewed attention to handwriting instruction– Teaching handwriting skills in isolation or context

169

The Nature of Handwriting

• The complexity of the mechanics of handwriting

• Perceptual–motor skills required for handwriting

• Handwriting development in children– Continuous curvy lines– Series of circles or straight lines or both

170

Handwriting Development, continued

• Five levels of early handwriting development

171

Sequence of Skills

• From prewriting to skilled written expression• The developmental sequence of handwriting

skills• Patterns of development

– Basic prewriting skills• Proper posture• Proper pencil grip• How to recognize and form uppercase and lowercase

manuscript letters 172

Sequence of Skills, continued

– Refining of manuscript writing and beginnings of the forming of some cursive letters

– Cursive writing– Written expression

• Sample handwriting at different grade levels

173

Assessment of Handwriting

• Common assessment methods: analysis of errors in– Letter formation– Spacing– Slant– Line quality– Letter size and alignment– Writing rate

174

Handwriting Assessment, continued

• Formal assessment– Limited number of formal assessment instruments

specifically designed to assess handwriting skills– Some general achievement tests include subtests

that measure handwriting skills

• Limitations of handwriting scales– Small sample sizes– Inadequate or missing information about

reliability 175


– Lack of differentiating between male and female handwriting

• Specific scales• Informal assessments

– Student work developed in natural settings, especially the classroom

– A hierarchy of handwriting skills– Most common forms of illegibilities– Elements of legibility

176


– Examples of informal evaluation tools

177

Remediating and Teaching Handwriting Skills

• Use of commercial teaching programs– Some popular programs– Scant evidence supporting any particular one

• Some instructional principles for teaching handwriting

178

Handwriting and the Whole Language Curriculum

• Incorporation of handwriting in the whole language curriculum

• Decline of handwriting instruction tied to the decline in the use of the whole language approach

179

Manuscript versus Cursive Writing

• No one best method for teaching students to write

• Manuscript generally taught first– History – Advantages of teaching manuscript first– Advantages of teaching cursive first

180

Alternatives to Manuscript and Cursive

• D’Nealian Handwriting Program• Mixed Script Approach• Slanted Approach• Typing/Keyboarding

181

Instructional Activities

• Readiness skills– Primary objectives

• Developing handedness• Developing visual–motor skills

– Prerequisite skills for beginning formal handwriting instruction

– Activities

182

Instructional Activities, continued

• Beginning to write– Pencil grip– Posture– Activities for integrating visual motor skills into

prerequisite writing skills– Questions and supports for handwriting

development

183


• Manuscript writing– Letters to focus on in initial instruction– Steps and guidelines for students to follow

• Cursive writing– Grouping letters into shape categories– Steps and guidelines for students to follow– Practice in penmanship

184


• Handwriting programs– Common characteristics of effective programs– Guidelines to follow regardless of program– Guidelines for parents to follow in

encouraging handwriting practice at home

• Remedial programs– Individualizing based on strengths and

weaknesses– Guidelines to follow for students with

disabilities 185


• Left-handedness– Incidence in the U.S. – Unique challenges faced by left-handed writers– Modifications for left-handed writers

186

Chapter 10

Spelling Assessment and Instruction

Spelling Assessment and Instruction

• English orthography– Definition– Phoneme–grapheme relationships in English– Five principles governing the regularity of English

spelling– Two approaches to teaching spelling

• Rule based• Word study

188

Spelling Assessment and Instruction, continued

• Differences in spellers– Two types of individuals with difficulties in

spelling– Characteristics of proficient spellers– Characteristics of less fluent spellers– Difficulty of remedying spelling difficulties

• Development of spelling skills– Models of spelling development– Characteristic development of spelling in

students with learning disabilities189


• Assessment– Formal assessment

• Purposes of assessment• How student performance is affected by the manner in

which the test is structured• Current tests that include spelling subtests• The Test of Written Spelling-4

190


– Informal assessment• Error analysis• Observations and clinical interviews• Spelling error analysis chart

– Criterion-referenced tests• Published CRTs• Informal spelling inventories• Progress monitoring

191

Instructional Approaches

• Purpose of spelling instruction– Principles for teaching spelling to students with

learning disabilities– Seven common effective practices

• Traditional approaches– Traditional approach may not be effective for

students with disabilities– Importance of adapting and modifying commercial

spelling texts 192

Instructional Approaches

• Remedial approaches– Curriculum modifications for implementing

remedial programs– Multisensory approaches– Linguistic approaches

• Rule-based, bottom-up instruction• Direct teacher instruction

193

Instructional Approaches, continued

– Word study approaches• Top-down instruction• Principles for using a word study approach to

instruction• The importance of combining a word study approach

with explicit strategy instruction

194


– Word lists• Determining which words are important to learn to

spell• Categories of word lists

– Fixed lists– Flow lists

– Cognitive approaches

• Specific instructional strategies– Corrected-test method– Study–test versus test-study-test method

195


– Instructional cues• Identifying the student’s specific spelling difficulties• Using configuration

– Mnemonic devices– Motivational techniques– Computer-assisted instruction– Detecting and correcting errors

• Activities for teaching proofreading• Specific dictionary skills 196


• Self-regulation and learning strategy instruction– Five ways to foster students’ self-regulation in

spelling– Cover, copy, and compare

• Study skills– Guidelines for teaching study skills

197

Chapter 11

Written Expression

Written Expression

• Recent research on written language• Challenges for students, including

students with disabilities• Aspects of written expression

– Formulation– Syntax

• General considerations in developing a writing instruction program for students with disabilities 199

Stages of Written Language

• Prewriting: a planning stage– Input– Motivation– Purpose

• Narrative (expressive)• Informative (functional)• Persuasive (functional)

200

Stages of Written Language, continued

• Writing stage: drafting (transcribing)– Vocabulary acquisition and word usage

(semantics)– Sentence structure (syntax and morphology)– Paragraph development (transitioning to well-

written compositions or reports)– Organizational development

201

Stages of Written Language, continued

• Postwriting stage– Editing structure– Revising content

202

Assessment

• Emphases of assessment– Assessing composition– Assessing through indirect measures– Assessment of process– Assessment through holistic rating

• Formal assessment– Subtests of achievement and diagnostic tests– Test of Written Language (TOWL-3)

203

Assessment, continued

• Informal assessment– ASCD’s qualities of writing to be assessed

• Prewriting considerations– Student’s experiential background– Prewriting skills– Motivation and readiness for writing

• Writing fluency– Words per sentence– Types of sentences used 204


• Vocabulary– Type–token ratio– Use of unique words

• Syntactical analysis– Specific skills– Trends in error patterns

205


• Content assessment– Questions to guide assessment of content– Assessment of logical flow– Assessment rubrics– Portfolios– Learning-to-learn strategies related to writing

• Postwriting assessment– Questions guiding postwriting

206

Instructional Strategies

• Commitment to student success• Relationship to general education curriculum• Prewriting strategies

– Stimulation of students’ ideas– Motivating students to write from their own

interests

207

Instructional Strategies, continued

– Steps to follow• Help students set the purpose for their writing• Specific strategies from NAEP• Questions for setting the purpose• Questions for functional writing

• Writing/drafting strategies– General considerations

• Author role• Secretarial role

208

Writing/drafting strategies, continued

• A supports model for students with disabilities• Using selective feedback

– Developing initial writing skills• Conducive atmosphere• Language experience approach (LEA)• Relating functional writing to specific purposes• Keeping first assignments short

– Developing vocabulary• Goals of vocabulary instruction• Reducing the stress of spelling

209


– Sentence development• Patterned sentence guides and structures• Sentence extension/sentence combining

– Paragraph development• Elements to emphasize• Beginning with brief, functional writing tasks• Letter writing• Paraphrasing• Graphic organizers• Go For IT…NOW

210


– Composition writing considerations• Myklebust-Johnson stage model

– Concrete–descriptive– Concrete–imaginative– Abstract–descriptive– Abstract–imaginative

• Methods for encouraging student expression

– Composition strategy training• Story grammar strategies• Self-regulated strategy development model• Models using mnemonics 211


• Postwriting strategies: revising and editing– Selling students on the concept of the working

draft– Self-evaluation questions to guide students in

revising and editing– Organizing postwriting instructional exercises

• COPS• REVISE• Peer review and feedback 212

Chapter 12

Adolescents with Language Disabilities


• Overview– Impact of language disabilities on adolescents– Importance of language skills for postsecondary

educational success

• The nature of adolescence– Cultural variations– Number of U.S. adolescents in grades 9–12

214

Adolescence

– Definition of adolescence• Period between childhood and adulthood• Shift in emotional maturity• Beginning and end of adolescence

– Puberty– Chronological age– Economic and/or emotional independence– Beginning to work and be free of parental sanctions– Questions to help define beginning and end of adolescence– Subcategories of adolescence

215

Adolescence, continued

– Tasks associated with adolescence• Significant tasks associated with adolescence• How the presence of a disability affects these tasks

216

Characteristics of Adolescence

• Sexual maturation• Physical development• Moral development • Challenges created by rapid growth and sexual

maturation• Responses to appearances, actions, and/or feelings• Emotional responses• Influence of peers

217

Characteristics of Adolescents with Disabilities

• Comparisons with students without disabilities• Academic deficits• Social skills deficits

– Types of disabilities affected– Lack of peer acceptance

• Motivation problems• Behavior problems• Psychological problems 218

Characteristics of Adolescents with Disabilities, continued

• General problems facing adolescents– Suicide and suicidal ideation

– Drug and alcohol abuse

– Teen pregnancy and other problems

– School demands

• Language problems and interventions with adolescents

219


– Receptive language• How a difficulty in this area affects adolescents in

school• Reading

– Importance of teaching reading at the secondary level

– Students’ reading vocabulary– Woodward and Peters’ list of frequently used

content terms – Using SQ3R with secondary students– Literacy strategies

• Listening and attention 220

Adolescents with Language Disabilities, continued

– Expressive language• Written expression

– Teaching written expression in steps– Isolated skills approach– Holistic approach

• Spelling • Handwriting• Oral expression: Using Quick-Talks

– Expressive vocabulary: Activities– Pragmatics: Examples of activities to promote

pragmatics221


• General instructional considerations with adolescents– Student motivation

• Role of family and peers

– Curricular options• Alternative curricular options

– Remediation– Maintenance– Functionality

222


– Study skills• Commonly used study skills and their significance for

learning

– Accommodations• Teacher efforts to modify the learning environment

– Advanced organizers– Post-organizers

223


• General school survival skills– “Teacher-pleasing behaviors”– Six survival skills secondary students need– Activities to teach school survival skills

224

language instruction for students with disabilities fourth edition © polloway, e. a., miller, l.,...

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