LANGUAGE & CULTURE ISSUES IN LANGUAGE & CULTURE ISSUES IN ASIAN ENGLISH-MEDIUM ASIAN ENGLISH-MEDIUM

UNIVERSITIESUNIVERSITIES

Joseph Lo BiancoJoseph Lo BiancoProf. Language and Literacy Prof. Language and Literacy

EducationEducationThe University of MelbourneThe University of Melbourne

OUTLINE OF PAPEROUTLINE OF PAPERi)i) Settings & history variations: deeply Settings & history variations: deeply

shaping;shaping;

ii) ii) English and global English and global communication;communication;

iii)iii) Identity: National & Personal;Identity: National & Personal;

iv)iv) Positions: Positions: a) Accept & improve;a) Accept & improve;b) Challenge & problematise.b) Challenge & problematise.

i) UNESCO 1953i) UNESCO 1953Iconic declaration; post-colonial contextIconic declaration; post-colonial context

The Use of Vernacular Languages in EducationThe Use of Vernacular Languages in Education

““It is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a It is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is his MT”child is his MT”

• PsychologicallyPsychologically ... meaningful signs, expression & ... meaningful signs, expression & understanding;understanding;

• SociologicallySociologically...means of identification with ...means of identification with community;community;

• EducationallyEducationally...efficiency of knowledge gain. ...efficiency of knowledge gain.

Recommended MT be used to as late in education as Recommended MT be used to as late in education as possible, beginning as early as possiblepossible, beginning as early as possible

i) UNESCO 2003i) UNESCO 20033 PRINCIPLES3 PRINCIPLES

1.1. MT instruction for “improving educational MT instruction for “improving educational quality” by “building on knowledge & quality” by “building on knowledge & experience of learners & teachers”;experience of learners & teachers”;

2.2. Bi-lingual or multi-lingual education at all Bi-lingual or multi-lingual education at all levels for “promoting social & gender equality”;levels for “promoting social & gender equality”;

3.3. Mother tongue an “essential component of Mother tongue an “essential component of inter-cultural education” connected to inter-cultural education” connected to “understanding between different population “understanding between different population groups & respect for fundamental rights.”groups & respect for fundamental rights.”

i) DUAL ROLE OF TEACHER i) DUAL ROLE OF TEACHER INPUTINPUT

In content programs lecturer’s linguistic input to In content programs lecturer’s linguistic input to learners (lesson classroom talk) serves three learners (lesson classroom talk) serves three

rolesroles

it is the:it is the:1)1) ....modelmodel of English that learners acquire (TL of English that learners acquire (TL

model);model);2)2) … … vehiclevehicle for content (message-conveying for content (message-conveying

talk);talk);3)3) .. .. content-constitutingcontent-constituting register for knowledge. register for knowledge.

i) OBJECT AND MEDIUMi) OBJECT AND MEDIUMOBJECTOBJECT

Lecturer teaches Lecturer teaches ENGLISH ENGLISH throughthrough

EnglishEnglish

Talk is about English, Talk is about English, (grammar, (grammar,

communication, communication, expressions etc)expressions etc)

MEDIUMMEDIUM

Lecturer teaches Lecturer teaches SUBJECT SUBJECT throughthrough

EnglishEnglish

Talk is about subject Talk is about subject matter, (geography, matter, (geography,

maths, history)maths, history)

i) ROYAL UNIVERSITY i) ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF OF

PHNOM PENHPHNOM PENHTeaching Languages Since 13 January 1960Teaching Languages Since 13 January 1960• 1960s: mostly French1960s: mostly French• 1970s: mostly French, gradual “Khmerisation”1970s: mostly French, gradual “Khmerisation”• 1975-1978: closure & killings1975-1978: closure & killings• 1980s: initially Russian; later also 1980s: initially Russian; later also

Vietnamese; still later also Khmer; Vietnamese; still later also Khmer; • Late 80s ~ early 90s: first French then Late 80s ~ early 90s: first French then

English, some KhmerEnglish, some Khmer• Early 2000s, largely Khmer, booming English, Early 2000s, largely Khmer, booming English,

residual Frenchresidual French

i) SRI LANKAi) SRI LANKALANGUAGE POLICY PHASES

inTraditional>Colonial>Modern

Education Official EnglishOfficial EnglishOfficial SinhalaOfficial SinhalaRestoration of TamilRestoration of TamilRestoration of EnglishRestoration of English

i) KOREAi) KOREA

CONTEXT “OFFICIAL ENGLISH” DEBATES> PRIVATE SECTOR

FINANCING, DISCOURSE OF “UNIS & SCHOOLS DON’T DELIVER”

School students, Undergraduates, Business People and Public Officials, Military

ENGLISH AS LOCAL SOCIAL MEDIUMBased on communicative, task-specified,

intensity and frequency

i) MALAYSIAi) MALAYSIAFIRST OCCASION FOR BMFIRST OCCASION FOR BM

Razak Education Commission 1956Razak Education Commission 1956 >National Education Policy >National Education Policy stipulated BM as MOI, stipulated BM as MOI, educational inequalities & educational inequalities & national national unity, remove association of English with privilege (Asmah 1997). unity, remove association of English with privilege (Asmah 1997). 1958 primary school BM as MOI; by 1983 transition to 1958 primary school BM as MOI; by 1983 transition to University achieved;University achieved;

SECOND OCCASION FOR ENGLISHSECOND OCCASION FOR ENGLISHEmployers perception of Employers perception of English proficiency, also government & English proficiency, also government & academics (Asmah 1987, Gill 1993, 1999)> international academics (Asmah 1987, Gill 1993, 1999)> international marketplace & English medium credentials;marketplace & English medium credentials;

> Education Development Plan> Education Development Plan 2001-2010 (Blueprint for the 2001-2010 (Blueprint for the Future, 2001) Higher Education for human resource needs to Future, 2001) Higher Education for human resource needs to meet national industrialisation goals, Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir meet national industrialisation goals, Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad announced “meritocracy” instead of ethnic quotas, Mohamad announced “meritocracy” instead of ethnic quotas, fromfrom 2002. <<<New identity for English, new national identity through 2002. <<<New identity for English, new national identity through English>>>English>>>

i) CORPUS ISSUESi) CORPUS ISSUES

Terminology research & translation efforts Terminology research & translation efforts of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka effective but of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka effective but rapid pace of new knowledge required rapid pace of new knowledge required students to read English + issues of students to read English + issues of international economic competitivenessinternational economic competitiveness

Asmah H. O. (1994) Asmah H. O. (1994) Nationalism & exoglossia: Nationalism & exoglossia: English in MalaysiaEnglish in Malaysia, pp 65-85 in H. Abdullah, ed, , pp 65-85 in H. Abdullah, ed, Language planning in SE Asia. KL: Dewan Bahasa Language planning in SE Asia. KL: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka & Ministry of Education.dan Pustaka & Ministry of Education.

ii) ENGLISH ASii) ENGLISH ASLINGUA MUNDILINGUA MUNDI

““2 billion people – 1/3 of human race –learning 2 billion people – 1/3 of human race –learning English by 2010-2015.” English by 2010-2015.”

“…“…..the world is about to be hit by a tidal wave of the world is about to be hit by a tidal wave of English”English” and that and that “… as many as 3 billion people “… as many as 3 billion people or 1/2 world’s population could be speaking the or 1/2 world’s population could be speaking the

languagelanguage “. “.

By 2050 By 2050 English English learnerslearners to “a mere to “a mere 500 million500 million” ceasing ” ceasing

to be a language> a “to be a language> a “basic skillbasic skill”, English as ”, English as transactional.transactional.

ii) ENGLISH AND SUCCESSIONii) ENGLISH AND SUCCESSION

English … only lingua franca in English … only lingua franca in history to have been history to have been maintained though a global maintained though a global power succession; in which one power succession; in which one dominant world power dominant world power succeeded another but both succeeded another but both used the same language.used the same language.

Umberto Eco (1997Umberto Eco (1997))

ii) COMMUNICATION ii) COMMUNICATION FUTURESFUTURES

EU/COE EU/COE expectation of “plurilingual individuals”expectation of “plurilingual individuals”

comprising > comprising >

Languages of Identity & National LanguagesLanguages of Identity & National Languages++

LWC & English (-es)LWC & English (-es)++

multiple, partial and temporary language multiple, partial and temporary language competenciescompetencies

++Multiple LiteraciesMultiple Literacies

ii) PRAGUE MANIFESTOii) PRAGUE MANIFESTODemocracy~~Effective Democracy~~Effective

education~~Multilingualism~~Language education~~Multilingualism~~Language Rights~~Language diversity ~~Human EmancipationRights~~Language diversity ~~Human Emancipation

see how English is positioned in see how English is positioned in identity terms>>identity terms>>

““Esperanto promotes Global Esperanto promotes Global education”education” unlike “ unlike “ethnicethnic” languages ” languages

(such as English)b/c Esperanto not (such as English)b/c Esperanto not ““boundbound” to cultures & nations; “” to cultures & nations; “aa

language without borderslanguage without borders””

ii) CAPITAL THEORISATIONSii) CAPITAL THEORISATIONSii Physical Capital: Language IrrelevantPhysical Capital: Language Irrelevantii ii Human Capital (embodied market): trade, Human Capital (embodied market): trade,

exchange or investmentexchange or investmentiiiiii Social Capital: Bridging and Building LinksSocial Capital: Bridging and Building Linksiviv Cultural Capital: Central quality, eloquence, Cultural Capital: Central quality, eloquence,

position, discursive position, discursive

UNESCO-UNICEF>Human Rights UNESCO-UNICEF>Human Rights (cultural capital)(cultural capital)

OECD/WB/IMF>Human Capital OECD/WB/IMF>Human Capital (embodied economic) Capital (embodied economic) Capital

iiiiii) NATION & STATE) NATION & STATENationNation

horizontal axis horizontal axis

identity, identity, attachment, attachment, sentiment, sentiment, belonging, belonging, loyalty etcloyalty etc

StateStatevertical axis vertical axis

administration administration and formal and formal authority etcauthority etc

iiiiii) ) COMPONENTS of COMPONENTS of NATIONALISMNATIONALISM

Theoretically limitless: Theoretically limitless:

• languagelanguage (code & narration); (code & narration); • thethe pastpast (incl. dead & their (incl. dead & their

“continuing life”); “continuing life”); • culture (high & mass),culture (high & mass), religion & religion &

ethnicityethnicity

iiiiii) NATION & IDENTITY) NATION & IDENTITY

““Every nation speaks…according to Every nation speaks…according to the way it thinks and thinks the way it thinks and thinks according to the way it speaksaccording to the way it speaks” ”

Johan Herder 1772Johan Herder 1772

iiiiii) CULTURE, RELATIVITY,) CULTURE, RELATIVITY,LANGUAGELANGUAGE

Wilhelm von Humboldt’s introduction to study of Wilhelm von Humboldt’s introduction to study of Kawi language of Java> Kawi language of Java> The Heterogeneity of The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Language and its Influence on the Intellectual

Development of Mankind (Development of Mankind (Berlin 1836) > Berlin 1836) > languages differ in essential ways > Sapir-languages differ in essential ways > Sapir-

Whorf RELATIVISM (weak or strong versions)Whorf RELATIVISM (weak or strong versions)toto

……. relativity shifts focus from static concepts . relativity shifts focus from static concepts (language, thought, and culture) to dynamic (language, thought, and culture) to dynamic

notions (speakers/writers, thinkers, discourse notions (speakers/writers, thinkers, discourse communities)communities)

iiiiii) IDENTITY & ENGLISH ) IDENTITY & ENGLISH LEARNING IN CHINALEARNING IN CHINA

identity is a notion that is not self-evident but ambiguousidentity is a notion that is not self-evident but ambiguous

Asked about cultural identities informants made clear Asked about cultural identities informants made clear and strong claim of Chinese identity, but this got and strong claim of Chinese identity, but this got

broadened and enriched in the process of L2 learning broadened and enriched in the process of L2 learning (Gao, 2002: 15)(Gao, 2002: 15)

• I feel terrific when I find my command of English is better I feel terrific when I find my command of English is better than that of others;than that of others;

• English learning has a great impact on my self-English learning has a great impact on my self-confidence;confidence;

• When I have difficulties in English learning, I begin to When I have difficulties in English learning, I begin to doubt my own ability;doubt my own ability;

• Whenever I have overcome a difficulty in learning Whenever I have overcome a difficulty in learning English, I can feel my own growth; (Gao, 2005: 45 English, I can feel my own growth; (Gao, 2005: 45

• After learning English, I'm often caught between After learning English, I'm often caught between contradicting values and beliefs; (Gao, 2005:46 contradicting values and beliefs; (Gao, 2005:46

iiiiii) IS ENGLISH A POST-IDENTITY ) IS ENGLISH A POST-IDENTITY LANGUAGE ?LANGUAGE ?

Hashimoto and others in Korea who Hashimoto and others in Korea who show how nationalist placation is show how nationalist placation is

involved in promoting English; China involved in promoting English; China Ministry of Education English and Ministry of Education English and

FLs in separate compartments; Tun FLs in separate compartments; Tun Mahathir reassuring nationalists Mahathir reassuring nationalists

that Malaysians’ sense of nationality that Malaysians’ sense of nationality can be realised through more and can be realised through more and

instrumental Englishinstrumental English

iiiiii) WORLD CALAMITY) WORLD CALAMITY• 1956 All Party Report on Chinese Education> 1956 All Party Report on Chinese Education>

Singapore's strategy "equal treatment" policy. Singapore's strategy "equal treatment" policy. Said Said the new nation’s education system was the new nation’s education system was ‘‘unnaturalunnatural’ because ’ because 85% of children taught in 85% of children taught in English & Mandarin; neither a MT. English & Mandarin; neither a MT.

If because of a world calamity children in If because of a world calamity children in England were taught Russian and Mandarin England were taught Russian and Mandarin but continued to speak English at home, but continued to speak English at home, ““the the

British educational system would run into British educational system would run into some of (our) problemssome of (our) problems””..

iiiiii) ) CHINESE VIEWS OF CHINESE VIEWS OF ENGLISH’S IDENTITY EFFECTSENGLISH’S IDENTITY EFFECTS

TENTATIVE

i) Keep Chinese “essence” separate from i) Keep Chinese “essence” separate from English;English;

ii) Adds needed individuality and ii) Adds needed individuality and ‘assertiveness’;‘assertiveness’;

iii) Produce an English invested with iii) Produce an English invested with Chineseness;Chineseness;

iv) Identity formed in childhood iv) Identity formed in childhood linguistic linguistic socialization; adult process unclear.socialization; adult process unclear.

iiiiii) SUBJECTIVITY & ) SUBJECTIVITY & IDENTITYIDENTITY

Writing on identity is often oriented Writing on identity is often oriented to a primary assumption about to a primary assumption about human subjectivity and identity from human subjectivity and identity from either an essentialist framework or a either an essentialist framework or a constructivist alternative grounded constructivist alternative grounded in concrete settings of language use in concrete settings of language use and behaviour.and behaviour.

iiiiii) MULTI-FACETED SELVES) MULTI-FACETED SELVESBoth essentialist (enduring) and contingent (situated) Both essentialist (enduring) and contingent (situated) interacting selves and identities interact with an interacting selves and identities interact with an endangeredendangered self.self.

Individuals often overcome cultural divergence by separating Individuals often overcome cultural divergence by separating permanent self and ethnic/language identity from locally permanent self and ethnic/language identity from locally situated self for adjustment purposessituated self for adjustment purposes

EnduringEnduring self> lifelong concept of “me” deeply rooted in self> lifelong concept of “me” deeply rooted in language, heritage, memory, educational and socio-cultural language, heritage, memory, educational and socio-cultural practices. practices. SituatedSituated self develops during adjustment to new self develops during adjustment to new context without harming the enduring self. context without harming the enduring self.

Spindler and Spindler (1992, 1993), Hall (1996), Ryan (1999), Spindler and Spindler (1992, 1993), Hall (1996), Ryan (1999), Norton (2000)Norton (2000)

iiiiii) SEMIOTIC RELATIVITY) SEMIOTIC RELATIVITY

how the use of a symbolic system how the use of a symbolic system affects thoughtaffects thought

iiiiii) LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY) LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY

linguistic relativity, or how linguistic relativity, or how speakers of different languages speakers of different languages think differently when speakingthink differently when speaking

iiiiii) DISCURSIVE RELATIVITY) DISCURSIVE RELATIVITY

how speakers of different how speakers of different discourses (across languages or discourses (across languages or

in the same languages) have in the same languages) have different cultural worldviewsdifferent cultural worldviews

iv) POSITIONSiv) POSITIONS

i) i) ACCEPT & IMPROVEACCEPT & IMPROVE

ii)ii) CHALLENGE & PROBLEMATISECHALLENGE & PROBLEMATISE

iv) ACCEPT AND IMPROVEiv) ACCEPT AND IMPROVEQuestions which follow from this Questions which follow from this

position>position>PedagogicalPedagogical

i) i) How improve effectiveness of How improve effectiveness of content area instruction?content area instruction?

ii) ii) How organise/sequence and How organise/sequence and assess delivery of EAP support?assess delivery of EAP support?

iii) iii) Attitude to sociolinguistic Attitude to sociolinguistic context & communicative norms & context & communicative norms & practices of learnerspractices of learners

iv) ACCEPT AND IMPROVEiv) ACCEPT AND IMPROVEQuestions which follow from this position>Questions which follow from this position>

Policy and PoliticsPolicy and Politics

i)i) How to deal w cultural consequences of How to deal w cultural consequences of becoming ESL not EFL society?becoming ESL not EFL society?

ii) ii) How to minimise concerns?How to minimise concerns?iii) iii) How to compensate or placate How to compensate or placate

opposition?opposition?

iv) CHALLENGE AND iv) CHALLENGE AND PROBLEMATISEPROBLEMATISE

Questions which follow from this Questions which follow from this position>position>

Social Equity of EMI choiceSocial Equity of EMI choice

i) i) Class distribution of “standard” & Class distribution of “standard” & academic English;academic English;

ii) ii) Ethnicity/regional distribution of Ethnicity/regional distribution of “standard” and academic English;“standard” and academic English;

iv) CHALLENGE AND iv) CHALLENGE AND PROBLEMATISEPROBLEMATISE

Questions which follow from this position>Questions which follow from this position>

Cultural and Identity Consequences of EMI Cultural and Identity Consequences of EMI choicechoice

iii) iii) Nationalist discourse of “indignity”;Nationalist discourse of “indignity”;iv) iv) Linguistic discourse of National Linguistic discourse of National

Language domain attrition;Language domain attrition;v)v) Personalist discourse of individual Personalist discourse of individual

learner identitieslearner identities

OUTLINE OF PAPEROUTLINE OF PAPERi)i) Settings & history variations: deeply Settings & history variations: deeply

shaping;shaping;

ii) ii) English: multiple English: multiple characterisations;characterisations;

iii)iii) Identity: National & Personal;Identity: National & Personal;

iv)iv) Positions: Positions: a) Accept & Improve;a) Accept & Improve;b) Challenge & Problematise.b) Challenge & Problematise.