landscapes, land use and the history

7/25/2019 Landscapes, Land Use and the History

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Journal of Archaeological M ethod and Theory, Vol. 4, N o. 1, 1997

Lan d s c ap e s Lan d U s e an d t h e H i st or y o f

Terr i tory Format ion: An Example from the

P u e b l oan S ou t h w e s t

M a r i a N i e v e s Z e d e f i o I

Terr i tor ies are spat ia l un i t s tha t encompass the broades t range o f a soc ie ty ' s

l and -use behav iors a s we l l a s t he h i st o ry o f hum an in te rac ti ons w i th t he na tura l

l a nd s c a pe . D r a w i n g f r o m p u b l i s h e d d o c u m e n t s p e r t a in i n g t o t he N o r t h

A m e r i c a n I n d i a n L a n d C l a i m s a n d t o t h e p r e hi st o ry a n d h i st o ry o f l a n d u s e

am on g the Ho p i In d ians o f Ar i zon a , t h i s pap er i nt egra te s spa tia~ ma te ria~

an d h i s to ri ca l var iab le s o f l and u se b ehav ior (1 ) t o f o rm u la t e an emp i r i ca l

de f in i t ion o f terr i tory and (2) to deve lop a general i zed l i f e h i s tory o f terr i tory

format ion that can be appl ied expl ic i@ to the archaeological record .

KEY WORDS: landscape; land use; territory form ation; life history; H op i history; Hopi pre-

history.

An Indian will never ask to what nation or tribe or

body o f people another Indian

belongs to but to what land do you belong and

how are you land[-]named? Thu s the very nam e

of the Indian is his title deed to his h o m e .. .

John W esley Powell

I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n s e a r c h o f a u n i t o f o b s e r v a t i o n a n d a n a ly s is t h a t c o n v e y s t h e b r o a d -

e s t r a n g e o f b e h a v i o r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s

h a v e d e v i s e d n u m e r o u s s p a t i a l f r a m e w o r k s f o r d o c u m e n t i n g v a r i a b i l i t y i n

1Bureau of A pplied Research in Anthropolog y, Haury Building, The University of Arizona,

Tucson, A rizona 85721.

7

1072-5369/97/0300-0067512.50/09 1997PlenumPublishingCorporation


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8 Zede~o

p r e h i s t o r i c e c o n o m i c , s o c ia l , a n d p o l i ti c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t i s g e n e r a l l y a c -

c e p t e d t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r e in d u s t r i a l s o c i e t ie s is in e x t r ic a b l y li n k e d

t o t h e l a n d a n d it s r e s o u rc e s a n d , t h u s , c a n n o t b e w h o l l y u n d e r s t o o d o u t s i d e

t h e c o n t e x t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e t e r r i t o r y t h e y o c c u -

p i e d . H o w e v e r , t h e s c al e, c o n t e n t , a n d h i s to r i c a l r e l e v a n c e o f u n i t s o f o b -

s e r v a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s t h a t b e s t a p p r o x i m a t e a t e r r i t o r y h a v e c h a n g e d

r e p e a t e d l y t o a c c o m m o d a t e c o n t r a s t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d r e -

s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s . F o r e x a m p l e , i f o n e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e -

g i e s f r o m a n e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e t e r r it o r i a l u n i t c o n s i d e r e d a s

b e h a v i o r a l ly r e l e v a n t w o u l d b e t h e e c o s y s t e m ( e.g ., D y s o n - H u d s o n a n d

S m i t h , 1 9 7 8 ; W i n t e r h a l d e r a n d S m i t h , 1 9 8 1 ) , t h e r a n g e o r e x p l o i t a t i o n t e r -

r i t o r y ( B i n f o r d , 1 9 8 2 ; L e e , 1 9 6 9 ; V i t a - F i n z i a n d H i g g s , 1 9 7 0 ) , t h e d o m a i n

( S t a n n e r , 1 96 5), o r t h e e c o l o g i c a l l a n d s c a p e ( K e l s o a n d M o s t , 1 9 90 ; p a p e r s

i n R o s s i g n o l a n d W a n d s n i d e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . I f , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s o c i o p o l i t i c a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t h e r e s e a r c h t o p i c , t h e s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , t h e s i t e c l u s t e r ,

o r t h e r e g i o n w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s o f a n a l y s i s ( e . g . , P a r -

sons , 1972 ; Upham , 1982 ; P log , 1994 ; Kin t igh , 1985 ; c f . Duf f , 1996 ; Te l t s e r ,

1 9 9 5 ) . F o r t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n , t h e t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r i e s o f s o c i a l u n i t s

w o u l d b e d e m a r c a t e d b y t h e s p a ti a l cl u st e ri n g o f f o r m a l ly h o m o g e n e o u s

a r ti fa c t s a n d f e a t u r e s ( K i d d e r , 1 9 2 4 ) . C r o s s - c u t ti n g m o s t p e r s p e c t i v e s i s t h e

p r e m i s e t h a t p a t t e r n e d d i s t ri b u t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l c u l tu r e r e p r e s e n t d i s t i n c t

s o c i a l g r o u p s w i t h t e r r i t o r i a l m e m b e r s h i p ( D e A t l e y a n d F i n d l o w , 1 9 8 4 ;

G r a v e s , 1 9 9 4 a , b ; H e g m o n , 1 9 9 4 ; P e t e r s o n , 1 9 7 9 ; S a m p s o n , 1 9 8 8 ; W o b s t ,

1974; c f . Binford , 1982) .

S i n c e t h e u n i t s w e d e f i n e a r e u l t i m a t e l y ta i l o r e d t o f i t a v a r ie t y o f

c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s , t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n a n a l y t i c a l s p a t i a l u n i t s

a n d t h e a c t u a l t e r r i t o r i e s u s e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y i s a s u b j e c t t h a t r e -

q u i r e s e m p i r i c a l in v e s t ig a t io n . F o u r l i m i t a ti o n s o f e x i st in g r e s e a r c h m o d e l s

o f p a s t l a n d a n d r e s o u r c e u s e p r e c l u d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f

p r e h i s t o r i c t e r r i t o r i e s . F i r s t i s t h e l a c k o f t i m e d e p t h i n m a n y s t u d i e s ; e m -

p h a s i s i s p l a c e d o n s y n c h r o n i c s p a t ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e l o n g -

t e r m d y n a m i c s o f l a n d a n d r e s o u r c e u s e ( D e w a r , 1 99 1 ; D e w a r a n d

M c B r i d e , 1 99 2, p . 22 7 ). S e c o n d i s t h e r e s t r i c te d r a n g e o f l a n d - u s e b e h a v i o r s

b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d : m o s t s t u d i e s f o c u s o n s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s a n d e x -

p l o i t a ti v e t e c h n o l o g i e s , w h e r e a s t h o s e a d d r e s s i n g t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

s p a c e s e l d o m d o c u m e n t e x p li ci tl y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e b u i l t e n v i -

r o n m e n t a n d t h e n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e ( R o s s i g n o l , 1 9 9 2 , p . 4 ; b u t s e e A d l e r ,

1 9 9 4 ). T h i r d i s t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f d i c h o t o m i z i n g t y p o l o g i e s o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c

a n d p o l i t ic a l o r g a n i z a t io n ( e. g. , h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s v s. f a r m e r s ) , w h i c h i n t u r n

d e t e r m i n e t h e r e s e a rc h e r s c o n c e p t u a l iz a t io n a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f l a n d

u s e [ s ee I n g o l d s ( 1 9 86 , p p . 1 3 1 - 1 5 8 ) d i s c u s si o n o n t h i s is s u e] . F o u r t h a n d


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History of Territory ormation

9

l ast i s t he l ack o f par s imonious c r i t e r i a fo r de l imi t i ng bou nda r i es and , con-

sequen t ly , t he use o f a d h o c sca l es t o def ine t e r r i t o r i a l un i t s (Al l en and

Ho eks t r a , 1992 , p . 11 ). A re l a t ed p rob lem i s t he ov erwh elming re l i ance on

p o r t ab l e a r t if ac ts t o i d en t if y b o u n d a r y m ar k e r s w i t h o u t r e f e r en ce t o t h e

su r round ing l andscape .

Al t e rna t ive ly , I a rgue t ha t t e r r i t o r i es a re spa t i a l un i t s t ha t r esu l t f rom

t h e cu m u l a ti v e u se o f lan d an d r e s o u r ces t h ro u g h t i me . A l l r ea lms o f s o -

c i e t a l l if e invo lve hu m an - l an d in t e rac t ions , a l a rge num be r o f wh ich mod i fy

t h e l an d s cap e p e r ma n en t l y ; t h e s e m o d i fi ca ti o n s ev en t u a l ly en t e r t h e a r-

chaeo log ica l r eco rd . The refo re , i n fe renc es t ha t a t t e m pt t o de l imi t te r r i t o -

r ie s w o u l d b e s t r o n g e r i f t h e y w e r e b a s e d o n a b o d y o f p r in c i p l e s

ar t i cu l a t i ng a b road r ange o f l and-nse behav io r s wi th t he i r mater i a l co r re -

l a t e s , w h i ch may b e r eco n s t r u c t i b l e f r o m t h e a r ch aeo l o g i ca l r eco r d . Th e

h i s to r i ca l r eco rd i s one p l ace t o beg in bu i ld ing such theory .

Th i s paper p resen t s a genera l i zed l i f e h i s to ry o f t e r r i t o ry as an em-

p i ri ca l un it t ha t encom passes t he r eco rd o f a soc i e ty s in t e rac t i on w i th t he

l and society here r e fe r s t o a par t i cu l a r g roup o f peop le , sensu G i d d e n s

(1984, p . 164)] . To i l lus t rate th i s approach, the paper in t roduces a br ief

h i s to ry o f H op i abor ig ina l t e r r i to ry . Be cause o f i t s r i ch a rcha eo log ica l , h is -

t o r ic , and e thnog raph ic r eco rds o f land-use , Hop i soc i e ty p rov ides a s t rong

analy t i ca l case fo r bu i ld ing co r re l a t es o f l and use behav io r . E thnoh i s to r i c

docu m ent s sugges t t ha t H op i soc i e ty r es i s ted acc u l tu ra t i on dur ing t h e S pan-

i sh r u l e o f t h e A m er i can S o u t h w es t ( A d ams , 1 9 89 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e i n t ro d u c -

t io n o f Eu r o p ean c r o p s an d d o m es t i c an ima l s f o r ced t h e H o p i t o ma k e

ad jus tmen t s i n t he i r pa t t e rns o f l and use , mos t Hop i t r ad i t i ona l p rac t i ces

w er e p r e s e r v ed a l o n g s i d e Eu r o p ean i n n o v a t i o n s u n t i l t h e mi d n i n e t een t h

cen t u r y , w h en t h e H o p i t e r r i t o ry b eca m e p a r t o f t h e U n i t ed S t a te s . A d d i -

t i ona l ly , r ecen t t r ans fo rmat ions o f Hop i soc i e ty and t e r r i t o ry , because o f

the i r mod i fy ing e f fec t s on t he l andscap e , can be r ead i ly i nco rpora t ed i n to

a general ized l i fe h is tory .

The paper deve lops as fo l l ows . F i r s t , I fo rmula t e a def in i t i on o f t e r -

r i t o ry t ha t can be app l i ed t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd . Pub l i shed docu-

me n t s p e r t a in i n g t o N o r t h A m er i can I n d i an ab o ri g in a l lan d c l a ims p r o v i d e

an empi r i ca l base fo r fo rm ula t i ng t h is def in i ti on . Ne x t I exam ine t he r ange

o f l an d u s e s an d l an d s cap e mo d i f ica t io n s th a t w e r e p r e s en t a t H o p i s h o r tl y

b e f o r e t h e e s t ab li s h men t o f t h e r e s e r v a ti o n i n 1 8 8 2 . H o p i l an d - u s e b eh av -

io r s a re t hen p l aced wi th in an h i s to r i c con tex t t o exp lo re t he p rocesses

r e sp o n s ib l e f o r t h e f o r ma t i o n , ma i n t en an ce , an d t r an s f o r ma t i o n o f t h e a r -

chaeo log ica l r eco rd o f t he i r abor ig ina l t e r r i t o ry . F ina l ly , impl i ca t i ons fo r

archaeo log ica l r esearch a re d i scussed .


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70 Zedefio

TERRI TORI ALI TY VERSUS TERRI TORY:

E M P I R I C A L

F O U N D A T I O N S O F A L I F E -H I S T O R Y A P P R O A C H

T h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s t u d y o f t e r r i t o r ia l i ty i n l iv i n g s o c i e t ie s

w o r l d w i d e h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l m o s t e x cl u si v el y o n t h e a n a l y s is o f b o u n d -

a r y - r e in f o r c i n g b e h a v i o r s a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e p o s s e s s i o n a n d d e f e n s e

o f v i t al r e s o u r c e s ( I n g o l d , 19 86 , p . 1 3 5 ). T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s i n c l u d e t h e

a n a l y s i s o f i n s t i n c t i v e t e r r i t o r i a l d e m a r c a t i o n ( M a l m b e r g , 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 7 ff ) ,

c o m p e t i t i o n f o r r e s o u r c e s ( H a r n e r , 1 9 77 ; S m i t h , 1 98 3 , p . 6 1 ) , p o l i t i c a l a g -

g r e s s i o n ( W i l m s e n , 1 9 7 3 , p . 4 ) , a n d c o g n i t i v e a f f i r m a t i o n o f m e m b e r s h i p

( C a s i m i r , 1 9 92 , p . 2 0 ). I n t h e s e s t u d i e s , t h e t e r r i t o r i e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e r a t h e r

p o o r l y d e f i n e d , b e i n g t r e a t e d a s i m p l i c i t b a c k g r o u n d s f o r h u m a n a c t i o n .

F o r e x a m p l e , t e r r i t o r i e s s e r v e a s s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e p o o l s i n f u n c t i o n a l

e c o l o g y ( D y s o n - H u d s o n a n d S m i t h , 1 9 7 8 , p . 2 3 ; M a l m b e r g , 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 7 f f ) ,

p o l i ti c a l a r e n a s i n c u l t u ra l a n t h r o p o l o g y ( B a r n a r d a n d W o o d b u r n , 19 88 ,

p . 1 0 ; M y e r s , 1 9 8 8 , p . 6 5 ) , s y m b o l s o f i n d i v i d u a l g r o u p i d e n t i t y i n p s y c h o l -

o g y ( T ay lo r, 1 9 8 8 ), a n d c o m m o d i t i e s i n W e s t e r n p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y (S o j a ,

1 9 7 1 , p . 1 0 ) . T h e s e d i s p a r a t e v i e w s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d s c a l e o f t e r r i t o r y

p r o v i d e n e i t h e r a d e q u a t e a n a l o g u es n o r m a t e r i a l c o r r e la t e s f o r a r c h a e o lo g i -

c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . W e n e e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o f o r m u l a t e a d e f i n i t i o n o f t e r r i -

t o r y t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s m a t e r i a l a n d h i s to r i c a l d i m e n s i o n s , o n e t h a t c a n b e

e x p l i c i t l y a p p l i e d t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . D o c u m e n t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n

o n a b o r ig i n a l l a n d u s e a n d t e r ri to r y f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h t h e N o r t h

A m e r i c a n I n d i a n l a n d c l a im s p ro c e s s p r o v i d e s a s o li d e m p i r ic a l f o u n d a t i o n

f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e n e c e s s a ry a n d s u f f ic i e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f s u c h a d e f i n i ti o n .

Sc a le Co nte nt a nd His to r ic a l Re le v a nc e o f Abo r ig ina l Te r r ito r ie s

T h e N a t io n a l A r c h i v e s h o l d s th o u s a n d s o f d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o rd s p e r -

t a i n i n g t o A m e r i c a n I n d i a n a b o r i g i n a l t e r r i t o r y c l a i m s . F r o m t h e s i g n i n g o f

t h e I n d i a n C l a im s C o m m i s s io n A c t b y P r e s i d e n t T r u m a n i n 1 9 46 t o t h e

e a r ly 1 9 8 0 s , t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f Ju s t ic e a n d t h e I n d i a n t r ib e s s o u g h t

t h e e x p e r t a d v i ce o f a n t h ro p o l o g i st s t o g a t h e r b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n

a b o r ig i n a l l a n d a n d r e s o u rc e u s e t h a t w o u l d s u p p o r t t h e i r c o m p e t i n g c la im s .

T h u s , m a n y o f th e d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o r d s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f o v e r th r e e d e c a d e s

o f e x p e r t w i t n e ss r e se a r c h c o n d u c t e d b y e m i n e n t a n t h r o p o l o g is t s , s u c h a s

A l f r e d K r o e b e r a n d J u l i a n S t e w a r d , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f I n d i a n e l d e r s ,

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h i s t o r i a n s , g e o g r a p h e r s , a n d w i l d l i f e b i o l o g i s t s ( B e a l s , 1 9 8 5 ,

p . 1 4 2 ; S u t t o n , 1 9 8 5, p p . 9 1 - 1 1 3 ) . T h e s e r e c o r d s c o n t a i n a w e a l t h o f e m -

p i r i c a l d a t a o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a b o r i g i n a l N o r t h A m e r i c a n t e r r i t o r i e s . I t

i s i m p o r t a n t t o m e n t i o n h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h a t th e a b o r i g i n a l t e r r it o r i e s a s


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7

d e t e r m i n ed b y t h e I n d i an C l a ims C o m mi s s io n o r t h e U .S . C l a ims C o u r t

r ep r ese n t exc lusive l and use a t a spec i f ic po in t i n t ime. N onethe l ess , expe r t

w i tn e s s r e s ea r ch co v e r ed a m u ch b r o ad e r t ime p e r i o d , b eg i n n i n g w i t h p r e -

h i s to r i c t r aces o f occupat ion . Legal abor ig ina l t e r r i t o ry de t e rmina t ions a re

therefo re l ess usefu l t han t he exper t wi tness t es t imon ies t hemselves .

As t he i n t e l l ec tua l and l ega l deba t e car r i ed ou t du r ing t he l and c l a ims

process and in i t s a f t e rmath demons t ra t es , t he key to p i ec ing toge ther ev i -

d en ce o f ab o ri g in a l lan d u s e an d o w n er s h ip r e s t ed o n t h e co n cep t u a l iza t i o n

o f

t r r i t o r y

(Beals , 1985, pp . 149-153; Pr ice, 1981, p . 18) . W este rn com m on -

sense no t ions o f te r r i t o r ies as hom ogen eous , c l ear ly bou nde d , a nd s t ab l e

spat ial uni t s w ere set as ide (B arney, 1974, p . 14). Ins tead , a ter r i tory had

to be conce ived in t e rm s o f t he abor ig ina l fo rms o f e f f ec t ive l and use and

ownersh ip , wh ich d id no t f i t t he nar row def in i t i ons o f t he l aw. In t he ab -

sence of " t r ibal legal t i t l es" to abor ig inal lands, judges , a t torneys, and ex-

per t w i tnesses nee de d to so lve t he p rac t ica l p rob l em of de l imi t i ng t e r r i to r i a l

un i t s based on mater i a l ev idence o f t he h i s to ry o f l and use as wel l as on

e thnoh i s to r i c docum ent s an d o ra l t r ad i t i on (B arney , 1974 , p . 14 ).

In examin ing the conf igura t i on o f l and c l a ims , Imre Su t ton (1985 , p .

11 ) po in t s ou t t ha t , a l thoug h each Ind i an l and c l a im was un ique i n ex t en t

and con ten t , c l a ims sh ared severa l charac t e r is t ics . Abor ig ina l t e r r i to r i es , as

conce ived in t he co l l ec ti ve m em ory o f an Ind i an soc i e ty as wel l as docu-

men t ed t h r o u g h r e s ea r ch , co mp r i s ed ag g r eg a t e s o f " t en u r e s " h e l d a t d i f -

f e r en t t ime s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e r m o f o ccu p an c y (S u t t o n , 1 9 85 , p. 1 2 9).

Tenures cons i s t ed o f s i ng l e p l aces, po r t i ons o f l and ( e .g . , landm arks , f ie lds) ,

na tu ra l r esources ( e .g . , wi ld herds , t r ee s t ands , minera l o res ) , and the ma-

t e r i a l r eco rd o f human use o f bo th t he l and and i t s r esources ( e .g . , bu r i a l

g r o u n d s , v i l l ag es , en camp men t s , t r a i l s , s h r i n e s ) . Ten u r e s r ep r e s en t ed a

b road r ang e o f ac t iv i ti es car r i ed on s ince " t ime im m em or i a l " un t i l aborig i-

na l l ands w ere l os t t o Eu rop ea n co nque s t and co lon i za t ion . Th ese ac ti v it ies

included housing, hunt ing, farming, f i sh ing, ceremonial p i lgr images, bur ial

r it ua ls , t r ade , m ig ra t ion , a nd wa r fare (Kroeber , 1963 ; Pr i ce , 1981 ; Wishart ,

1985).

Al though abor ig ina l t e r r i t o r i es were bounded spaces (S t ewar t , 1966 ,

p . 191 ; W ishart , 1985, p . 171), t he i r bound ar i es were no t n ea t ly dem arca t ed .

R a t h e r , r e s e a r c h d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a b o r i g i n a l b o u n d a r i e s w e r e b u f f e r

zo n es f r eq u en t l y u s ed b y m o r e t h an o n e s o c ie t y an d u s u a ll y co i n c i d ed w i th

ma j o r g eo g r ap h i c fea t u r e s , t r ad e r o u te s , m i g r a to r y p a t te r n s o f w i l d g ame ,

(e.g ., Pr ice, 1981, p . 18), or anc est ral p laces (Haw ley-El l is , 1974; H este r ,

1962). Nonethe l ess , r esearch er s we re ab l e t o f i nd t ha t , fo r t he m os t par t ,

w i t h i n t h o s e b r o ad l y d r aw n b o u n d a r i e s t h e r e w as i n d eed a r eco r d o f t h e

h i s to ry o f l and use b y par t i cu l a r g roups (S t ewar t , 1966 , p . 191).


6/37

72 Zedefio

M o r e o f t en t h an n o t , t h e I n d i an C l a i ms C o mmi s s i o n an d t h e U .S .

C l a ims C o u r t l o o k ed f av o r ab ly u p o n ex p e r t w i tn e s s t e s t imo n y t h a t d ep i c t ed

abor ig ina l t e r r it o r i es as nuc l ear un i t s de l im i t ed by a r eco r d o f exc lus ive ,

l ong- t e rm, and in t ens ive use o f t he l and ; bu f fe r zones o r j o in t u se a reas

were no t admi t t ed as r i gh t fu l c l a ims fo r abor ig ina l t e r r i t o ry de t e rmina t ions

(Beal s, 1985 , p . 142) . How ever , t he bu lk o f ev idenc e ga ther ed dur ing t he

l and c / a ims t r i a l s i nd i ca t es t ha t a much l a rger sca l e , a deeper t ime f r ame,

an d a m o r e i nc lu siv e ex am i n a ti o n o f t h e r an g e o f h u m an - l an d i n t e rac t i o n s

t h an t h o se a l lo w ed f o r n u c l ea r t e r ri to r i a l u n i ts a r e n eed ed t o co m p r eh en d

t h e f u ll ex t en t an d co n t en t o f A m er i can I n d i an t e r r i to r i e s ( s ee F e r g u s o n ,

1995; Ha wley -Ell is, 1974; K roe be r, 1963).

I n s h o r t , t h r ee d ecad es o f an t h r o p o l o g i ca l r e s ea r ch o n I n d i an l an d

c l a ims have fu rn i shed impo r t an t i n sigh ts fo r r econs t ruc t i ng bo th var i ab il it y

in an d un i fy ing p r inc ip l es o f abor ig ina l l and- and r esource -use behav io r s .

Th e d a t a accu mu l a t ed t h r o u g h t h e l an d c l a i ms p r o ces s p r o v i d e t h e n eces -

sary c r i t e r ia fo r concep tua l iz ing t e r r i t o ry as a soc i e ty 's t o t a l bou nd ed space ,

w h e r e i n a b r o a d r a n g e o f h u m a n - l a n d i n te r a c ti o n s t a ke s p la c e t h r o u g h

t ime. Wi th in t h i s bounded space , t here a re t h ree mater i a l e l emen t s : l and ,

n a t u r a l r e s o u r ce s , an d h u m an - m ad e o b jec ts . S u ch co n cep t u a l iza t io n b r i ng s

in to focus t he t h ree essen t i a l d imens ions o f a t e r r i t o ry : t he r ange o f hu -

man- l and in t e rac t i ons , t he spa t i a l sca l e o f t hese i n t e rac t i ons , and the h i s -

t o ri ca l p r o cess e s o f lan d an d r e s o u r ce u s e . Th i s p ap e r i n t eg ra t e s t h e t h r ee

d ime ns ions i n to a sys t em at i c f r am ew ork fo r def in ing t e r r it o r i a l un i ts and

organ iz ing the m ater i a l r eco rd o f t e r r i t o ry fo rm at ion i n a rchaeo log ica l con-

texts.

T e r r i t o r i e s a s O b j e c t A g g r e g a t e s

H er e I d e f i n e a t e rr i to r ia l u n i t a s an ag g r eg a t e o f t h r ee k i n d s o f o b -

j ec ts : l and , n a t u r a l r es o u r ce s, an d o b j ec ts o f h u m an m an u f a c t u r e - - b o t h s t a -

t i o n a r y f ea t u r e s an d p o r t ab l e a r t i f ac t s . Lan d f o r ms an d n a t u r a l r e s o u r ce s

f o r m t h e n a t u r a l l an d s cap e u p o n w h i ch h u man - mad e o b j ec t s s t an d ( A l l en

an d H oek st ra , 1992, p . 47; Jacks on, 1984, p . 6 ; Rossignol, 1992 , p . 4) . Hu -

m an m o d i fi ca ti o n s o f th e n a t u r a l l an d s cap e a r e o f t en ca ll ed b u i lt en v i ro n -

m en t s by h i s to r i ca l a rchaeo log i s ts ( e .g . , A nd er so n and M oore , 1988) and

ru ra l o r vernacu lar l andscapes by geog raphe r s , a rch i t ec ts , and h i s to ri -

ans (e .g . , Copps, 1995; Cro non , 1984; Jack son, 1984; Kelso , 1994; M cC lel -

l an d , 1 9 9 1 ; S au e r , 1 9 2 5 ). Th e te r m cu l t u r a l o r s o c ia l l an d s cap e h as

b ee n ad v an ced b y cu l t u r a l an th r o p o lo g i s ts an d a r ch aeo lo g i st s t o c o n v ey t h e

in t eg ra t i on o f t he na tu ra l and bu i l t env i ronm ent s ( e .g . , Ad ler , 1994 ; Gre id er

and Garkov ich , 1994 ; S to f f le

e t a l .

1996) . Landscapes a l so have been

d e


7/37


7

f i ned as soc i a l and ideo log ica l cons t ruc t s t ha t s ign i fy r e la t i onsh ips o f p owe r

an d m ea nin g (Ti lley , 1994, pp . 31-34; s ee al so pa pe rs in Be nde r , 1993).

Super fi c ia l ly , t he p ropo sed def in i t ion o f t e r r i t o ry approx im ates t ha t o f

cu l tu ra l o r soc i a l l andscape i n t ha t th i s t ype o f l andscape , t oo , m ay be

d e f i n ed a s an ag g r eg a t e o f l an d , n a t u r a l r e s o u r ce s , an d o b j ec t s o f h u man

manufac tu re . In p rac t i ce , however , a t e r r i t o ry d i f f e r s f rom a l andscape a t

two fund am enta l po in ts . F i r s t, l andsca pes a re , by d ef in i t ion , con t iguous

s p aces t h a t c an b e co m p r eh e n d e d a t a g l an ce ( A l len an d H o ek s t r a , 1 99 2,

p . 47 ; Jackson , 1984 , p . 8 ) , wh erea s a soc i e ty ' s t e r r i t o ry ma y encom pass

two o r more noncon t iguous spaces o r even d i scre t e s i t es o r p l aces [ fo r a

de t a i l ed d i scussion o f p l ace-bound t e r r i t o r i a l un i ts see Ingo ld (1986)] . A nd

s eco n d , l an d scap es a r e u n i ts w h o s e b o u n d a r i e s a r e p e r ce i v ed b y t h e v i ew er

(Al len a nd Ho ekst ra , 1 992, pp . 47 , 69; Copps, 1995, p . 55) , w he rea s ter r i-

t o ry bounda r i es a re es t ab l i shed by ( a ) t he soc i e ty t ha t u ses and con t ro l s a

g iven space an d (b ) o ther soc ia l g roups t ha t u se and con t ro l ad j a cen t spaces

(Soja, 1971, p . 34 , Mor eho use , 1996). I t fo l lows that a ter r i to ry may be

rega rded as a s i ng l e l andscape o r , a l t e rna t ive ly , as a com pos i t e a r r a nge m ent

o f l an d s cap es . Th u s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y - - an d t o av o i d co n f u -

s i o n - - I u s e t h e t e r m l an d s cap e w i t h ex c lu s iv e r e f e r en ce t o th e l an d an d

i ts n a t u r a l r e s o u r ce s an d u s e t h e w o r d s l an d s cap e mo d i f i ca ti o n s t o id en -

t if y o b jec t s o f h u m an ma n u f ac t u r e .

C o n ce i v i n g a te r r i t o r y a s an ag g r eg a t e o f lan d , n a t u r a l r e s o u r ce s , an d

o b j ec t s o f h u m an m an u f ac t u r e a l lo w s o n e t o i n t eg r a t e s p a ti a l, t em p o r a l ,

an d m a t e r i a l d i men s i o n s i n a si n gl e, emp i r ica l l i fe h i s t o ry [ d e f i n ed h e r e

a s t h e cy c l e o f f o r ma t i o n , u s e, an d t r an s f o r m a t i o n o f o b jec t s an d o b j ec t

aggre ga t es ( se e Sch i f f e r , 1972 , 1987 , p . 13 ; W alker and La M ot t a , 1995)] .

L a n d , r e s o u r c e s , a n d o b je c ts o f h u m a n m a n u f a c t u r e e a c h h a v e t h e i r ow n

l if e h i s to r ies . Ter r i t o r i es as ob j ec t aggrega t es , i n t u rn , fo l l ow spec i f ic t ra -

j ec t o r i e s t h a t a r e t h e c o m b i n ed r e s u l t o f t h e n a t u r a l h i s to r y o f t h e l an d

an d i ts r e s o u r ce s

nd

t h e s o c i a l h is t o ry o f l an d an d r e s o u r ce u s e . S o c i e ti e s

e s t ab l i s h , ma i n t a i n , an d t r an s f o r m t e r r i t o r i e s t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r -

ac t i ons and ac t i v i t i es . These i n t e rac t i ons and ac t i v i t i es i nc lude no t on ly

e f f ec t iv e u s e o f th e l an d s ca p e b u t a l so r e l a t io n s h i p s o f lan d an d r e s o u r ce

o w n er s h i p w i t h in a s o c i e ty a s w e l l a s b e t w ee n t h e s o c i e t y an d i ts n e i g h -

b o r s ( I n g o ld , 1 9 86 ). Th r o u g h t i me , t h e ma t e r i a l r e co r d o f t h e s e i n t e r ac -

t i o n s a n d a c t i v it i e s r e f l e c t s a d j u s t m e n t s o f l a n d - u s e s t r a t e g i e s t o a

ch an g i n g en v i r o n men t a s w e l l a s ch an g es i n t h e l an d s cap e o w i n g t o h u -

man mo d i f i ca t i o n . Th e h i s t o r y o f H o p i l an d an d r e s o u r ce u s e i l l u s t r a t e s

th i s def in i t i on o f t e r r i t o ry , and u l t imate ly , i t shows tha t t e r r i t o r i es a re

emp i r i ca l u n i t s w h o s e l i f e h i s t o r i e s a r e amen ab l e t o s y s t ema t i c r eco n -

s t ruc t i on .


8/37

7 Zedefio

H O P I T E R R IT O R Y

In the Spr ing o f 1858 , L i e u t en an t Jose ph Ives and J . S . New ber ry v is -

i ted t h e H o p i m es as in n o r t h eas t e r n A r i zo n a o n t h e i r w ay t o t h e C o l o r ad o

R i v e r o f t h e W es t . I v e s an d h i s p a r t y a s cen d ed S eco n d M es a an d came

u p o n t h e t o w n o f M u s ang n u v i.z In t h is o f f ic i a l descr ip t i on o f an A m er i c an

vis i t to the area, Ives (1861, pp . 119-131) recounted the vastness of the

c o u n t r y a n d i ts l a n d s c a p e . F r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t o f M u s a n g n u v i s

roof tops , t he l i eu t enan t cou ld make ou t t he ou t l i ne o f f i ve t r a i l s t ha t r a -

d i a t ed i n s t r a igh t l i nes f rom the mesa , rough ly po in t ing i n t he d i r ec t i on o f

sh r ines , pe t rog lyphs , anc i en t ru ins , and na tu ra l p romonto r i es mark ing the

edge o f Hop i t e r r i t o ry .

Th e t ra il s tr av e r s ed t h e l an d H o p i h ad u s ed an d m o d i f ied fo r m an y

centur ies . In th e mid-1800s, th ei r t er r i tory cov ere d at l eas t 14 ,000 m i2, ex-

t en d i n g ap p ro x i ma t e ly f r o m t h e S an J u an R i v e r o n t h e n o r t h t o t h e L i t tl e

C o l o r ad o R i v e r o n t h e s o u t h, an d f r o m C a n y o n d e C h e l ly o n t h e ea s t t o

M arb le Can yon on the wes t (F ig . 1 ) (Haw ley-El l is , 1974 ; Page and Page ,

1982 , p . 610). Occup y ing a cen t ra l pos i t i on wi th in t he t e r r i t o ry we re seven

H opi v il lages on t he m esa tops. A gr i cu l tu ra l f i e lds and sum m er f a rm s tead s

were sca t t e red wi th in a 20 -mi r ad ius o f t he v i l l ages , a long the f l oodp la in

of t he Tusayan washes , and on the d unes o f t he Je dd i to Val ley. Sh eep co r -

r a ls w e r e co n s t r u c t ed o n t h e b en ch e s i mm ed i a t e l y b e l o w t h e m es a t op s ,

whi le grazing areas were conf ined to a 10- to 15-mi radius of the v i l lages .

C a t t l e r an g es w e r e l o ca t ed 4 0 t o 6 0 mi aw ay f r o m t h e mes as . H u n t i n g

g r o u n d s s u r r o u n d ed t h i s n u c l eu s an d a l s o i n c l u d ed n u mer o u s mi n e r a l an d

plan t col lect ing locat ions , spr ings , pet roglyph s, shr ines , ea gle nests , tur t le

nests , an d anc est ral v il lages (Be agleho le, 193 6, p . 22; Fewk es, 190 0, pp .

693-700; H oug h, 1915; Page, 1954, pp . 9-14; Pa ge an d Page, 1982, pp . 6 10-

611; Step hen , 1936, pp . 566-569; W hi t ing , 1939). Th e o ute r por t ion of th i s

a r ea w as s h a r ed b y n e i g h b o r i n g g r o u p s , s u ch a s t h e Zu n i ( F e r g u s o n an d

Ha r t , 1985 , p . 45 ), t he So u the rn Pa iu t e ( Jam es , 190 0 , p . 239), and the

Navajo (McPherson 1992 , p . 20 ) , who co l l ec t ed cer t a in r esources , engaged

in t r ade , o r m ad e p i l g rimages t o sac red p l aces (F ig . 2 ). S imi l a rly , t he Ho p i

exp lo i t ed r esources and v i s i t ed sacred p l aces , such as t he Zun i Sa l t Lake ,

w h i ch w er e l o ca t ed b ey o n d t h e i r t r ad it io n a l t e r r i to r y ( F e r g u s o n an d D o n -

gos ke, 1994, p. 34).

Ex t en si v e re s ea r ch o n H o p i s o c ia l an d eco n o m i c o rg an i za ti o n i n d i ca te s

tha t , i n t he n ine t e en th cen tu ry , ances t r a l p rac t i ces still govern ed Ho p i l and

use at the household , l ineage, c lan , v i l lage, and societal l evels (Beaglehole,

1936; Bradf ield , 1971; Egg an, 1949, 1950, 1967; Few kes, 189 7, 1900; Fo rde ,

2Hopi village nam es are written according o orthographicrules of the Ho pi Dictionary.


9/37

H i s t o r y o f T e r r i t o r y F o r m a t i o n

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10/37

7 6

Z e d e f i o

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e t a t o k i n

Canyon

d e Chel ley

ill

Wil l iams

Mtn

Sct~

FTa ~c~ sco

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e a r Spr ing \ 4 / x W o o d r u f f u t t e

D e s c e n t T r a i l

o 20 40

M i le s

I I I I

I I

0 210

4 1

i lome te rs

F i g . 2 . H o p i v i l l a g e s b o u n d a r y s h r i n e s a n d l a n d m a r k s : 1 ) M u n q a p i ; 2 ) S o n g o o p a v i ; 3 )

O r a y v i ;

4 ) P a y u p k a ; 5 )

M u s a n g n o v i ;

6 ) W a l p i; 7 ) H a a n o ; 8 ) S i k y a t k i ; 9 )

K a w a i k a - a ;

1 0 )

A w a t o v i .

1 9 3 1 ; H a c k , 1 9 4 2 ; L e v y , 1 9 9 2 ; M i n d e l e f f , 1 9 8 9 ; P a g e , 1 9 5 4 ; S c h l e g e l , 1 9 9 2 ;

S t e p h e n , 1 9 3 6 ; T i t i e v , 1 9 9 2 ; W h i t e l e y , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 8 ) . O f t h e s e , c l a n

ow ner ship r ights to agr icu l tura l land s , r i tua l fac i l i t i e s , spr ings , sh r ines , ea g le

n e s t s, a n d a n c e s t ra l v i ll a g e s w e r e t h e d o m i n a n t fo r m o f c o n t r o l o v e r r e l a -

t i v e ly l a r g e , a l b e i t d i s c o n t i n u o u s , p o r t i o n s o f t h e t er r it o ry . O r a l h i s t o r y d e -

s c r ib e s h o w t h e s e a n c i e n t r ig h ts w e r e o b t a i n e d b y t h e l i n e a g e s o f m a t r i l in e a l

H o p i c l a m ; p r i m e a g ric u lt ur a l l a n d s w e r e t a k e n b y i m m i g r a t in g c l a n s t h a t

f ir s t a rr iv e d a t t h e m e s a s , w h e r e a s m a r g i n a l l a n d s w e r e a s s i g n e d b y t h e

f o u n d e r c l a m t o t h e la t e c o m e r s C o u r l a n d e r , 19 8 7; F e w k e s , 1 89 7 ; S t e p h e n ,


11/37

History of Territory Formation

77

1936 ; Mindel ef f , 1989) . Th i s sys t em su rv ived in to t he twen t i e th cen tu ry

Bra dfield , 197 1, p. 50; Tit iev, 1 992 , p. 62).

W i th in t he v illage, dom es t i c a rch i t ec tu re was t h e p rope r ty o f a house -

ho ld ; na tu ra l r eservo i r s o r tin j s co u l d b e o w n ed b y a h o u s eh o l d , g ro u p s

o f w o m en r e l a t iv e s e .g ., s ame c l an o r l i n eag e ) , o r ev en an i n d iv i d u a l

w om an S tephen , 1936 , p . 134). Vi l lages ow ned com m una l l ands and m ajo r

water sources t ha t were defended aga ins t o ther v i l l ages ; t hese l ands cou ld

be p l an t ed by marg ina l l i neages o r l and l ess i nd iv idua l s upon approval by

the v i ll age ch i e f. Village an d c l an l ands w ere c l ear ly par t i t i oned and m arke d

wi th bound ary s tones and ca i rns Forde , 1931 , Hac k , 1942 , p . 71, S t ephen ,

1936 , p . 390) . Hun t ing , r anch ing , an d p l an t co l l ec t ing w ere c ond uc ted on

communal , suprav i l l age l ands . Crops , sheep , and ca t t l e were owned by in -

d iv idua l s and t ended by ex t ended fami l i es . Thus , f rom the per spec t ive o f

ef fec t ive use and ownersh ip , Hop i t e r r i t o ry com pr i sed t he t o t a l it y o f land ,

spec i f i c p l aces , and r esources con t ro l l ed by the soc i e ty as a who le nd by

sec to r s t hereo f , such as i nd iv idua l v il lages, and a l so i nc luded a reas shared

w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g g r o u p s . E i g h t k n o w n s h r i n e s mar k ed t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f

th is ter r i to ry Page and Pag e, 1982, pp . 610-611) .

T h e S p a t i a l S c a le a n d R a n g e o f L a n d U s e A c t i v it ie s

Thi s b r i e f e thnograph ic accoun t o f Hop i l and use i n t he mid-1800s

prov ides key po in t s o f r e fe rence fo r examin ing the spa t i a l sca l e and r ange

of l and- and r esource-use ac t i v i t i es car r i ed ou t wi th in a t e r r i t o ry and the

ways i n wh ich t hese ac ti v it ies li ke ly modi f i ed t h e na tu ra l l and scape i n p re-

his tor ic and his tor ic t imes. Two concepts- -p lace as the d iscrete act iv i ty lo-

c u s a n d s p a c e a s t h e i n t e g r a t e d t o t a l i ty o f l o c i - - a r e c r u c i a l to t h e

ch a r ac t e r iza t i o n o f H o p i l an d a n d r e s o u r ce u s e .

A t t h e g eo g r ap h i ca l c en t e r o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o n e f i n d s t h e r eco r d o f

act iv i t ies involving the organizat ion and par t i t ion of

living sp ce

Fig. 3A).

Lan dscap e m odi f ica t i ons i nc lude t he c ons t ruc t i on o f v illages and assoc i a ted

suppor t i ng f ac i li ti es such as access rou t es and defens ive s t ruc tu res . At Hop i ,

fo r example , v i l l ages were connec t ed t o each o ther by t r a i l s , wh ich were

d e f e n d e d f ro m o u t si d e rs an d w er e d o t t ed w i th co mm em o r a t i v e i ns c ri pt io n s

an d s h r i n e s . H o p i p u eb l o s l o ca t ed a t o p mes as o b t a i n ed w a t e r f r o m l o ca l

c i s te rns and nearby reservo i r s and sp r ings M indel ef f , 1989 ; Co l ton an d

Bax ter , 1932 , p . 41; Tho m pso n and Joseph , 1944 , p . 30 ).

Th e r eco rd o f ac t iv i ti es t a rge t ing food p rodu ct ion occ ur s wi th in as wel l

as in t he su r round ings o f t he l iv ing space F ig . 3B) . Land scap e modi f i ca-

t ions associated wi th

food production sp ce

i nc lude t he par t i t i on and use

of ag r i cu l tu ra l l ands and cons t ruc t i on o f su ppor t i ng f ac i li ti es such as f a rm -


12/37

8 Zedefio

s teads , t er races , retent ion wal l s , and i r r igat ion devices , as wel l as so i l and

w ater conserva t ion f ea tu res . Th e success o f t rad i t i ona l Hop i a g r i cu l tu re de-

pe nd ed on the ab i li ty to f a rm in d i f f e ren t l oca t ions and a t d i f f e re n t e l eva-

t io n s t o s ecu r e w a t e r s u p pl ie s i n t h e f ace o f ex t r eme t em p o r a l an d s p a ti a l

var i a t i on and to avo id l oss due t o shor t g rowing seasons . As a r esu l t , t he

f i e l d s w e r e s p r ead o v e r a w i d e a r ea an d w er e f a r med u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f

t echno log ies Bradf i e ld , 1971 ; Hac k , 1942 , p . 26 ). A gr i cu l tu ra l f ie lds w ere

o f t en m ar k e d w i t h s to n e a l ig n men t s , ma n y o f w h i ch d ep i c t ed c l an o w n er -

ship inscr ip t ions Haw ley-El l is , 1974, p . 153). Stock rai s ing al so requ i red

suppor t i ng f ac i l i t i es such as co r ra l s and water ing ho l es . Cai rns and scare-

c r o w f ea t u r e s w e r e b u i l t a r o u n d t h e f i e l d s t o w a r n s h eep h e r d e r s an d t o

k eep h e r d s an d p r ed a t o r s aw ay f r o m t h e u n f en ced c r o p s S t ep h en , 1 9 36 ,

p. 390).

Th e n ex t s e t o f a c ti vi ty r eco r d s co r r e s p o n d s to t h e p r o c u r em en t o f

r e s o u r ces t o o b t a i n f o o d an d n o n f o o d ma t e r i a l s f o r a v a r i e t y o f s ecu l a r

uses F ig . 3C) . M odi f i ca ti ons o f t he procurement sp ce i nc lude t he phys i ca l

r emo v a l o f ma t e r i a l s f r o m t h e l an d s cap e an d t h e c r ea t i o n o f a s s o c i a t ed

logi s ti c f ac il it ies such as t em pora ry cam ps fo r she l t e r and r esou rce p roc -

ess ing , access and t r anspor t a t i on rou t es , and loca t iona l mark ings . As de-

s c r ib ed ab o v e , H o p i h u n t i n g an d r e s o u r ce co l l ec t in g g r o u n d s co v e r ed a

hug e a re a , p rac t i ca l ly t he en t i r e ex t en t o f t he a rea c rosscu t by majo r t ra i ls .

R es o u r ce l o ca t i o n s w e r e a s s o c i a t ed w i t h n u mer o u s p e t r o g l y p h s , s h r i n e s ,

and ca i rns Forde , 1931 , pp . 366-370) . Cer t a in r esources , such as na t i ve

p l an t s a nd po t t i ng c l ay , we re l oc a t ed i n t he v i c in it y o f t he v i ll ages a nd f ie lds ,

t hus over l app ing wi th o the r ac t iv i ty spaces .

A c t i v it ie s t h a t i n vo l ve r it u a l an d ce r em o n i a l i s m p r o d u c e l an d s cap e

modi f i ca t i ons t ha t c rosscu t a l l o ther spaces and a r t i cu l a t e wi th a l l o ther

l and-use behav io r s , a t l eas t i n t he case o f Hop i and o ther Pueb lo soc i e t i es

see Fo rd, 1972). Facil it ies asso ciate d w ith

ritu l sp ce

i n c l u d e ce r emo n i a l

s t ruc tu res , sh r ines , cem eter i es , caches , hous eho ld bur i a ls , l oca t i ons c on ta in -

ing p lants , anim als , and m inerals used in r i tual act iv it ies , an d anc est ra l s i tes ,

an d t h u s t h ey a r e a l s o f o u n d i n l i v i n g , f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , an d p r o cu r emen t

spaces F ig . 3D) . M any o f these l oca t ions and f ac i li ti es w ere use d exc lu -

s ive ly by cer t a in sec to r s o f Hop i soc i e ty Fewkes , 1900 ; S t eph en , 1936 , pp .

1076-1081; Ti t iev , 1992, pp . 60-62) , wh ere as o the r sacre d p laces , such as

t h e S an F r an c is co M o u n t a i n s , w e r e s h a r ed b y t h e H o p i w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s .

I n s u m, H o p i t e r r i t o r y i n t h e n i n e t een t h cen t u r y en co m p as s ed t h e s ys -

t emi c r eco r d o f a l l h u man - l an d i n t e r ac t i o n s a i med a t s ecu r i n g a w i d e v a -

r i e t y o f r e s o u r ce s . Th e s p ace t ak en u p b y mo s t i n t e r ac t i o n s an d ac t i v i t i e s

over l apped on ly s l i gh t ly ; l i v ing , food p roduct ion , and p rocuremen t spaces

w e r e ad j acen t a n d t h e i r u se s co m p l emen t a r y . W h i le l iv in g an d f o o d p r o -

duc t ion spaces t o ok up r e l a ti ve ly r es t r ic t ed , nonc on t iguo us a reas , t he space


13/37


9

n e e d e d f o r t h e p r o c u r e m e n t o f fo o d a n d n o n f o o d r e s o u r ce s e x t e n d e d w ell

b ey o n d t h e mes as an d w as b o u n d ed b y f o u r ma j o r g eo g r ap h i c f ea t u r e s ;

M ar b l e C an y o n , t h e C o l o r ad o R i v e r , C an y o n d e C h e ll y, an d t h e M o g o U o n

Rim. Sacred t r a i l s connec t ed t he boundary sh r ines wi th t he v i l l ages and

thus served to in tegrate al l spaces . Because r i tual act iv i t ies were involved

in a ll r ea lms o f everyday l if e a t Ho p i , r i tua l space c rosscu t t he e n t i r e a rea .

A n ces t r a l h o mes r ep r e s en t ed t h e ma t e r i a l li nk b e t w e en t h e n i n e t een t h - cen -

tu ry Hop i and the i r unwr i t t en pas t .

A l s o co n t a i n ed w i t h i n t h o s e b o u n d a r i e s w as t h e ma t e r i a l r e co r d o f

Ho p i anc es t r a l h i s to ry o f l and use i n a c hang ing env i ronm ent . By exam in ing

the con temporary d i s t r i bu t ion o f p reserved t e r r i t o ry - re l a t ed t r aces i n t he

a r ch aeo l o g i ca l r eco r d , an d co mp l emen t i n g t h e s e d a t a w i t h e t h n o h i s t o r i c

d o cu m en t a t i o n an d o r a l h i st or y , o n e ma y b eg in t o r eco n s t r u c t t h e f o r ma-

t i on o f t he Hop i t e r r i t o ry . The r econs t ruc t i on t ha t fo l l ows o f fe r s i n s igh t s

on how por t i ons o f l and , d i f f e ren t t ypes o f na tu ra l r esources , and ob j ec t s

o f h u m an m an u f ac t u r e t h a t a r e n o w d i s tr ib u t ed i n a l a r g e g eo g r ap h i c an d

a r ch aeo l o g ica l r eg io n w er e ag g r eg a t ed t h r o u g h t ime , ev en t u a ll y b eco m i n g

a single terr i tory.

H i s t o r i c a l R e l ev a n c e T h e F o r m a t i o n o f H o p i T e r r it o r y

Th e H o p i mes as an d ad j acen t va l ley s w e r e ap p a r en t l y o ccu p i ed s in ce

ab o u t A D 7 00 A d ams , 1 9 8 2 ; C o l to n , 1 9 3 6 ; D a i f u k u , 1 9 6 1; G u m er m an an d

D ean , 1 9 8 9) . Th e r eco r d o f ea r l y s e t tl emen t s h a s b ee n l a rg e l y o b s cu r ed b y

l o n g -t e r m u s e o f t h e mes as ; h o w ev e r , i n f o r ma t i o n f r o m n e i g h b o r in g r eg i on s

s u g g est s th a t t h e g e n e r a l a r e a w as co l o n i zed an d ev en t u a l l y s e t t led b y

P u eb l o p eo p l e b y A D 1 1 0 0 P o w e ll , 1 9 8 3 ; G u m er m an an d D ean , 1 98 9).

Smal l mason ry v il lages wi th k iva s t ruc tu res were bu i l t on t he Ho p i mesas ;

p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n d e d i n to p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s d u r i n g t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y

Adam s, 1982 , p . 12 ) . Orayv i , t he o ldes t s t il l-occup ied Ho p i v i ll age , was

fou nde d c ir ca A D 1150 . Co n t inue d expan s ion o f ag r i cu l tu ra l f ie lds , f a rming

v il lages , and hun t ing r an ges was l i ke ly s t imula t ed b y a per iod o f f avorab l e

c l imat i c cond i t i ons fo r ag r i cu l tu re Eu ler

e t a l .

1979).

Ex p an s i on cea s ed d u r i n g t h e t h i r t e en t h cen t u r y ; p o p u l a ti o n s w i th d r ew

f rom p er iphera l a reas , and by the mid-1200s, a f ew fo rma l ly o rgan ized and

dense ly i nhab i t ed vi llages w ere bu i l t on t he Ho p i m esas an d in ne ighbo r ing

reg ions such as Tseg i Cany on , t he m idd le L i tt l e Co lo rado R iver Val ley , and

t h e J ed d i t o V a lley G u m er m an an d D e an , 1 98 9). A s s o c i a ted w i t h t h e s e vil-

l ages we re i n tens ive ly cu l t iva t ed f i e lds an d so il and w ater conserva t ion f a -

c ili ties. W i th t he onse t o f the G rea t D rou gh t i n A D 1276 , ag r i cu l tu ra l f ie lds

an d r an g es s h r an k ev en f u r th e r . B y A D 1 3 00 , Tsegi C an y o n , n o r t h e r n B l ack


14/37

8

edefio

: ~ i ii i ii ~ i i: ~ i i i i i : ~ i ~ i ~ i ~ i ii ~ i ~ i ~ i ~ i : ii i ~ i i i ii ii ii ii ii ii ~ : ~. . . . .

::::::::::::::::::::: : ~ i ~ '

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :


15/37

History of Territory Formation

81

C

~,~,~,~,~,~,~,~,~,~,~:~:~i~I~rI~I:............,,,,,~L ,iiiii~ii,,~,

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L i ~ i ~ i ~ 2 1 ~ i ~ i ~ i ~ i ~ : ~ i ~ ~

: : : ~ i i i : : i l i : i i i ~ i :

::~iii iiiiiiiiiii ili ii::i::::~:

otmdory

Fig . 3 . Hopi land use . A) Liv ing space . B) Product ion space . C) Procurement

Space. D) Ritual Space.


16/37

8 Zedefio

M e s a , a n d th e H o p i B u tt es w e r e a b a n d o n e d D e a n , 1 9 69 ; G u m e r m a n a n d

D e a n , 1 98 9; G u m e r m a n

e t a l .

1 97 2). Th e b u l k o f p o p u l a t i o n a p p a r en t l y

mo v ed s o u t h t o t h e H o p i mes as , t h e J ed d i t o V a l l ey , an d t h e mi d d l e L i t t l e

C o l o r a d o , w h e r e t h e r e w a s e n o u g h w a t e r t o s u p p o r t i n c o m i n g p e o p l e

t h r o u g h o u t t h e d r o u g h t A d ams , 1 9 8 2 , 1 99 1a , b , 1 9 9 6 , H ack , 1 9 4 2 ; H a r -

grav e, 1931 ; Ha wley -Ell is, 1974).

C o in c id in g w i th t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e f o u r c o m e r s a r e a a n d l a rg e

p o r t i o n s o f t h e s o u t h e r n C o l o r ad o P l a teau b e t w een A D 1 25 0 an d A D 1 32 5,

the p reh i s to r i c Ho p i v illages und erw en t a p rocess o f r ap id expans ion . La rge

towns o rgan ized a round pub l i c and r i t ua l f ac i l i t i es , such as Orayv i , Soon-

goopav i , Old Walp i Qoo t sap tuve l a) , Ho yap i , Musangnu v i , and abo u t 40

more , sp rang up on o r be low the mesa t ops . Popu lous v i l l ages , such as

A w a t o v i , S i k y a t k i , an d K aw a i k a - a , an d n u mer o u s - - a t l e a s t 1 2 5 - - s ma l l e r

towns a l so f l ou r i shed a long the Jedd i to f l oodp la in . A s imi l a r p rocess t ook

p lace i n t he L i t tl e C o lo rado R iver Valley , w he re v i ll ages ma y have r ec e ived

an i n f l u x o f p o p u l a t i o n f r o m t h e ex p an d i n g H o p i v i l l ag es an d f r o m t h e

Si lver Cre ek a reas Adam s , 1996) . Expa ns ion l ike ly con t inued un t i l t he e nd

o f t h e f o u r t een t h cen tu r y , w h en a s eco n d w av e o f i mm i g r a ti o n m ay h av e

resu l t ed f rom the ab and onm ent o f v illages a long the M idd le Li t tl e Co lo -

rado R iver Val l ey and the Mogol lon h igh l ands . Popu la t i on was concen-

t r a t ed i n a f ew en o r m o u s v illages, s o m e u p t o 2 00 0 r o o m s o r mo r e A d a ms ,

1996). M unkap i , an ag r i cu l tu ra l co lony , was fo un de d in t he 1400s and l as t ed

un t i l t he t u rn o f the n in e t een th cen tu ry Haw ley-Ell is , 1974 , p . 44 ).

Severa l l i nes o f ev idence sugges t t ha t , by t he end o f t he f i f t een th cen-

tu ry , Hop i had a t e r r i t o ry o f a si ze s imi l a r t o o r even l a rger t han tha t oc-

cup ied i n t he 1800s . Accord ing to o ra l t r ad i t i on and e thnograph ic sources ,

H o p i ab o r ig i n a l t e rr i to r y in co r p o r a t ed t h e an ces t r a l l an d s o f ma n y c l an s

w h o i n an c i en t t i mes mi g r a t ed i n t o t h e mes as an d j o i n ed t h e l o ca l p o p u -

l a t io n C o u r l an d e r , 1 9 8 7; D o n g o s k e

e t a l .

1993 ; Fewkes , 1897 ; M indel ef f ,

1989 ; S t ephe n , 1936). A l though rec ons t ruc t i ng spec i fi c p reh i s to r i c eve n t s

f rom c l an m igra t i on t rad i ti ons is d i ff i cu lt a t bes t , i n a b road sense t h ese

t r ad i t i ons accord wi th t he mass ive popu la t i on r e loca t ion t ha t t ook p l ace i n

t h e n o r t h e r n S o u t h w es t a t th e en d o f t h e t h i r t e en t h cen t u r y A d am s , 1 98 2,

p . 15 ; Dongoske

e t a l .

1.993, p. 27).

I t was p robab ly dur ing t he f i f t een th cen tu ry t ha t t he Hop i abor ig ina l

ter r i tory , as know n his tor ically, was es tabl i shed. T his i s sugg ested by sev era l

f ac to r s : fi rs t, t he p resen ce o f a he t e rog ene ou s popu la t i on i nhab i t i ng l a rge

fo rm al ly o rgan ized v il lages t ha t com bined hab i t a t i ons wi th pub l ic an d r i t ua l

f ac i li ti es Ad am s , 1982 ; James , 1990 ; Levy , 1992 ; Ru shfo r th and U ph am ,

1992 ; Whi t e l ey , 1988) ; second , t he d eve lopm ent o f a r es i l ien t ag r i cu l tu ra l

eco n o m y t h a t t o o k ad v an t ag e o f t h e a r i d r eg io n a l en v i r o n m en t t h r o u g h a

var i e ty o f p roduct ive t echno log ies and so il and w ater co nserva t ion s t r a t eg i es


17/37


8

( B r a d f i e l d , 1 9 7 1 ; H a c k , 1 9 4 2 ; L e v y , 1 9 9 2 ) ; t h i r d , a c c e s s t o a n e x p a n d e d

a r e a w h e r e i n n u m e r o u s r e s o u r c e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n ( F e w k e s ,

1 9 00 ; H a w l e y - E l l is , 1 9 7 4; W h i t i n g , 1 9 39 ); a n d f o u r t h , a r i t u a l c o m p l e x t h a t

c r o s s c u t a ll o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s ( A d a m s , 1 9 9 1 a; F e w k e s , 1 90 0; S t e p h e n ,

1 9 36 ; V o t h , 1 9 05 ). B u t o f a l l t h e s e , I s u g g e s t t h a t i t w a s t h e m u l t i e t h n i c

c h a r a c t e r o f th e H o p i p o p u l a t i o n th a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e s t a b li s h m e n t o f

t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

A c c o r d i n g t o o r a l t r a d i t io n , t h e c l a n s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y j o i n e d t h e l o c a l

H o p i p o p u l a t i o n i m m i g r a t e d f r o m a n u m b e r o f r eg i o n s ( N e q u a t e w a , 1 93 6;

C o u r l a n d e r , 1 9 8 7 ; D o n g o s k e e t a l . 1993 ; Fewkes , 1897 ; M inde le f f , 1989) .

N o r t h e r n c l a n s c a m e f r o m T s e g i C a n y o n a n d N a v a j o M o u n t a i n ; w e s t e r n

c la n s, f r o m t h e G r a n d C a n y o n , t h e S a n F r a n c i s co M o u n t a i n s , a n d W u p a tk i ;

e a s t e r n c l a n s , f r o m t h e C h a m a V a l le y v i a C a n y o n d e C h e l l y ; a n d s o u t h e r n

c l an s , f r o m t h e G i l a -S a l t R i v e r B a s i n , p e r h a p s v i a H o m o l o v i . A l t h o u g h

m o s t o f t h e a n c e s t r a l h o m e l a n d s o f t h e s e c l a n s l i e o u t s i d e H o p i t e r r i t o r y ,

c l a n s d e v e l o p e d t i e s t o t h o s e a r e a s w h e r e , d u r i n g t h e i r m i g r a t i o n t o w a r d

H o p i , t h e y w e r e s a id t o h a v e s t o p p e d , l iv e d , a n d b u r i e d t h e i r d e a d . A s a

r e s u lt , m a n y o f th e s e a r e a s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o H o p i t e r r it o r y o n c e t h e

c l a n s w e r e a d m i t t e d a n d s e t t l e d o n t h e m e s a s a n d a d j a c e n t v a l l e y s .

T h e o r a l h i s t o r y c o n t r i b u t e s c r u c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

p r o c e s s e s o f H o p i t e r r i t o r y f o r m a t i o n , b e c a u s e i t o u t l i n e s g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s

o f p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t a n d i n t e rg r o u p r e l a t io n s h i p s , ty p e s o f s e t tl e m e n t ,

a n d u s e o f t h e l a n d s c a p e . A c c o r d i n g t o H a w l e y - E l l i s ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 5 4 ) , t h e

l o c a t i o n s o f m a n y a n c e s t r a l h o m e s c l a i m e d b y t h e c l a n s c o i n c i d e w i t h a r -

c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s a n d w i t h t h e r a n g e o f c e r a m i c v a r i a t io n f o u n d i n t h ir -

t e e n t h - a n d f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s it es in t h e J e d d i t o V a l le y a n d H o p i m e s a s

( s e e a l s o A d a m s , 1 9 8 2 ; F e w k e s , 1 8 9 7 ; S m i t h , 1 9 7 1 ) . E v i d e n c e f o r m u l t i e t h -

n i c c o m m u n i t i e s c a n a ls o b e f o u n d a t H o m o l o v i ( A d a m s , 1 9 9 1a , b) .

M u l t i p l e o ri g in s a n d a n c e s t r a l c o n n e c t i o n s a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e d i f-

f e r e n t c l a n s a p p a r e n t l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s p e c i f i c h u m a n - l a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s

t h a t c o n t i n u e d i n t o h i s to r i c t im e s . T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n c l u d e d ( 1 ) r e o r g a n i -

z a t io n o f p u b l ic a n d r it u a l s p a c e t o a c c o m m o d a t e c o m p l e x ri tu a l d e v e l o p -

m e n t s t h a t i n t u r n s t i m u l a t e d i n t e g r a t i o n [ e . g . , t h e k a t s i n a c u l t ( A d a m s ,

1 9 9 1 a) ]; ( 2 ) a d j u s t m e n t s in t h e s y s t e m o f l a n d a l l o t m e n t a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n

o f ir r i g a ti o n t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t a l l o w e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o t t o n ; ( 3 ) e x p a n -

s i o n o f h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g , a n d r i tu a l s p a c e i n t o a n c e s t r a l t e r r i t o r ie s o f im -

m i g r a n t g r o u p s ; a n d ( 4 ) e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f o w n e r s h i p r i g h t s to , a n d s t ri c t

b o u n d a r y d e m a r c a t i o n o f , l i v in g s p a c e, r i t u a l f a c i li ti e s a n d p r a c t ic e s , a g r i-

c u l t u r a l f i e ld s , w a t e r s o u r c e s ( n a t u r a l s p r i n g s , c i s t e r n s , a n d r e s e r v o i r s ) , a n d

r i t u a l r e s o u r c e s s u c h a s e a g l e a n d t u r t l e n e s t s . I n h i s t o r i c t i m e s , t i e s w i t h

a n c e s t ra l h o m e s w e r e m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h r e g u l a r v i si ts t o t h e s it es , u se o f


18/37

ede~o

t he r i t ua l f ac i l i t i es a t o r near t hose s i t es , and con t inued exp lo i t a t i on o f

ne arb y resou rces (Hawley-Ell is , 1974, p . 154).

q~vo reasons fo r hav ing m ain t a ined t ies t o ances t r a l hom es a re sug-

g es t ed . F ir s t, t h e a b an d o n me n t p a t t e r n s i n a r ea s w h e r e s o m e o f t h e s e c l an s

m ay ha ve o r ig ina t ed , such as Tseg i Can yon and spec i fi ca ll y Kie t S i e l Ru in ,

sugges t t ha t t he pe op le perhaps i n t en de d to r e tu rn (De an , 1969 , p . 142).

Main t a in ing ownersh ip r i gh t s t o t he i r fo rmer t e r r i t o r i es may have been a

w ay t o en s u r e t h a t t h ey co ul d i n d eed r e t u r n i f e co n o m i c o r p o li ti ca l co n -

d i ti o ns r eq u i r ed t h em t o le av e H o p i . F o r ex am p l e , th e A s a c l an s- p eo p le o f

Walpi, w ho i t is sa id cam e f rom the Ch am a V al ley o f New Mexico v i a Can-

y o n d e C h e l l y , r e t u r n ed t o t h e can y o n d u r i n g a d r o u g h t an d l i v ed amo n g

Nav ajo se t t le r s t here . Acc ord ing to t he o ra l h i s to ry , a f t e r two o r t h re e gen -

e r a t i o n s t h e A s a p eo p l e came b ack t o W a lp i, w h e r e t h ey b ecam e g u a r d i an s

of t he m ain access t r a il (Mindel ef f , 1989 , p . 30 ). A nd second , i n exchan ge

fo r l and and l i v ing space , immigran t c l ans i ncur red r i t ua l ob l iga t i ons t ha t

had to be cons t an t ly fulf illed . M any o f t he r eso urces nece ssary t o con duc t

these r i t ua l s cou ld be found on ly i n t he ances t r a l l ands o f each c l an , t he

resource d i s t r i bu t ion t end ing to co inc ide wi th a rchaeo log ica l s i t es t ha t t he

c l ans c l a imed as t he i r s . For example , t he Snake C lan , one o f t he o ldes t

c l ans o f Walp i , ob t a ined sacred eag l e f ea ther s f rom the i r eag l e nes t s i n

Tokonab i , nea r Navajo Mou nta in (Few kes , 1900 , pp . 693-700; Ho ugh , 1915 ,

p . 1 69 ; S t ephen , 1936 , p . 568) . Th roug h the se m echa n i sm s the c l ans kep t

rege nera t i ng t he i r r igh t s t o t he ances t r a l t e r r i t o r i es wh i l e main t a in ing the i r

ownersh ip r i gh t s i n t he hos t t e r r i t o ry as wel l . Hop i ownersh ip r i gh t s were ,

i n o ther words , con t inuous ly r eaf f i rmed th rough l and-use i n t e rac t i ons and

ac t iv i t i es whose sca l e i ncreased exponen t i a l l y t o r each the f a r thes t a reas

c l a imed as ances t r a l homes .

Thu s , by AID 1500 the l imi t s o f H op i abor ig ina l t e r r i t o ry we re m ark ed

by ances t r a l homes , o r what Sch lang er (1992) w ou ld ca ll per s i s t en t p laces ,

wh ich over genera t i ons were v i s i t ed fo r hun t ing , ga ther ing , and r i t ua l pu r -

p o s es . S o me o f t h e s e p e r s i s t en t p l ace s w e r e t h e eag l e n e s t s n ea r N av a j o

Mounta in , Pueb lo Co lo rado , and B lack Fa l l s ; t he sa l t depos i t s , r ed ocher

mi n es , an d eag l e n e s t s a t t h e mo u t h o f t h e L i t t l e C o l o r ad o R i v e r , t h e

s h r i n e s i n N av a j o M o u n t a i n , Lu p t o n P o i n t , G r an d C an y o n , t h e S an F r an -

c i sco Mounta ins , and Bear Spr ings ; t he t u r t l e nes t s near Homol 'ov i ; and

an ces t r a l h o mes s u ch a s B e t a t ak i n R u i n an d C an y o n d e C h e l i y ( H aw l ey -

El l is , 1974, p . 109; Page and Page, 1982, p . 610).

F r o m 1 5 4 0 t o 1 7 00 , H o p i t e r r i to r y ap p a r en t l y u n d e r w en t a p r o ces s o f

conso l ida t i on , wi th f r equen t v i ll age f i ss ion owing to p opu la t i on imbalanc e ,

p o l it ic a l s tr u gg le , an d t h e i mp ac t o f t h e S p an i s h R u l e o n t h e l oca l e co n o m y

( W h i t e l ey , 1 9 8 8 ). Th e d es t r u c ti o n o f F r an c i s can A w a t o v i i n 1 7 0 0 an d t h e

r ea l l o t m en t o f A w a t o v i an ces t r a l l an d s t o t h o s e v i ll ag es an d c l an s t h a t


19/37


85

a d o p t e d A w a t o v i w o m e n i l lu s tr a te t h e p o l it ic a l s tr u g g l e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y

t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f C a t h o l i c i s m M o n t g o m e r y , 1 9 49 ; H a w l e y - E l li s , 1 9 74 , p .

1 0 1 ; C o u r l a n d e r , 1 9 8 7 , p p . 1 7 5 - 1 8 8 ) . A f t e r t h e P u e b l o R e v o l t o f 1 6 8 0 a n d

t h e l a st e p i s o d e o f im m i g r a ti o n o f T e w a p e o p l e f r o m t h e R i o G r a n d e , H o p i

f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r r e m o t e p o s i t i o n s b y m o v i n g a l l t h e v i l l a g e s t o

t h e m e s a t o p s A d a m s , 1 9 82 , p . 1 6) . A s a r e s u l t o f v i o l e n t t h r e a t s , p e r i p h -

e r a l a r e a s m a y h a v e b e e n v a c a t e d , t h u s o p e n i n g t h e w a y f o r c o l o n i z a t i o n

a n d s e t t l e m e n t b y o t h e r g r o u p s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n 1 7 7 6 t h e F r a n c i s c a n m i s -

s io n a r y F r an c i sc o G a r c r s n o t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f S o u t h e r n P a i u te f a r m s t e a d s

s c a t te r e d in th e a r e a b e tw e e n o f M u n q a p i W a s h a n d M a r b l e C a n y o n G a r -

c r s , 1900) s ee F ig . 2 ) .

S i n c e 1 80 0, a g r o w i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e h u n t i n g , c o ll e c ti n g , r a n c h i n g , a n d

r i tu a l a re a s w a s o c c u p i e d b y E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n ts i.e ., M o r m o n c o m m u -

n i ti e s ) a n d N a v a j o s e t tl e rs , fo r c i n g t h e H o p i t o w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e i r f a r t h e s t

a n c e s t r a l t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e f i r s t H o p i r e s e r v a t i o n , a 3 9 0 0 - m i z r e c t a n g l e o f l a n d

d r a w n a r o u n d t h e m e s a s , w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 8 8 2 ;

t h i s a r e a w a s l a t e r p a r t i t i o n e d b e t w e e n t h e H o p i a n d t h e N a v a j o t ri b es . A

l a r g e p o r t i o n o f th i s a r e a i s s ti ll i n d i s p u t e s e e B r u g g e , 1 9 9 4 ; F e r g u s o n

a n d D o n g o s k e , 1 9 9 4) . 3 T h e O r a y v i S p l i t i n 1 9 0 6 i l l u s t r a te s h o w t h e d i s-

t r e ss i n g i n f lu e n c e o f U . S . p o l ic y o n H o p i s o c i e t y a n d t h e i n c r e a s in g i n t e r n a l

t e n s io n s p r o d u c e d b y t h e v a st ly r e d u c e d a c c es s t o l a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e

f i s s io n i n g o f t h i s a n c i e n t H o p i v i l la g e [ L e v y , 1 9 92 ; T i t ie v , 1 9 9 2; s e e W h i t e l e y

1 9 8 8 ) f o r a l t e rn a t i v e v ie w s o f t h is p r o c e s s ]. N e v e r t h e l e s s , m a n y o f t h e a n -

c i e n t l a n d a n d r e s o u r c e u s e s t r a t e g ie s s u r v iv e d i n t o t h e e a r ly t w e n t i e t h c e n -

tu ry .

R E C O N S T R U C T I N G T E R R I T O R Y L I F E H I S T O R I E S

T h e g e n e r a l i z e d l if e h is t o ry p r e s e n t e d h e r e b r ie f ly s u m m a r i z e s t h e

p r o c e s s e s o f H o p i t e rr it o ry f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e l a n d - u s e a n d m o d i f i c a ti o n

s t ra t e g i e s l in k e d t o t h e s e p r o c e s s e s. U s i n g H o p i a s a c a s e s t u d y , w e m a y

f u r t h e r s k e t c h a l i f e h i s t o r y o f t e r r i t o r y f o r m a t i o n t h a t c o u l d b e u s e d f o r

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h p r e h i s t o r i c c a s e s .

3The m ajor a rchive of re sea rch f i le s and evident ia ry exhibit s pro duced dur ing the Hop i L and

Cla ims t ria l s i s the John Boyden Col lec t ion in the Special Col lec t ions of the Haro ld B. Lee

Libra ry of Brigham Young Univers ity. O ther d ocum ents a re a rchived in the Jo hn Boyden

Col lec t ion a t the Marr io t t Libra ry of the U nivers i ty of Utah Ferguso n and Dongo ske , 1994,

p . 15). These unpub l i shed sources expla in a t l ength the d i sc repanc ies be tw een the smal l s ize

of the land adjudica ted to the Hopi Tr ibe on the grounds of exc lus ive use in modem t imes

and the fu l l ex tent of th e te r r itory they onc e occupied .


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8 6 Z e d e f i o

Speci f ic tr a j ec to r i es o f t e r r i t o ry fo rma t ion d o no t necessar i l y i nc lude

al l the proce sses speci f ied in th is analysis , no r a re they nece ssary s tages in

i t s l i f e h i s t o r y . A b an d o n men t may o ccu r a t an y p o i n t i n t h e s eq u en ce ,

t h e r eb y i n t e r r u p t i n g t e r r i t o r y f o r ma t i o n an d o p en i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r

o t h e r h u man g r o u p s t o b eg i n t h e i r o w n i n t e r ac t i o n s . F u r t h e r mo r e , t h e r e

are con tex tua l ly spec if ic p rocesses , such as i n s t ances o f wa r o r con ques t ,

t h a t m ay b e b r o u g h t t o li gh t th r o u g h t h e emp i r i ca l ex ami n a ti o n o f t h e a r -

chaeo log ica l r eco rd o f l and use by par t i cu l a r soc i e t i es .

Regard l ess o f con tex tua l spec i f i c i t i es , t hough , t here ex i s t t h ree t ypes

o f h u m an - l a n d i n t e r act io n s th a t , a s s h o w n f o r t h e H o p i ca s e, u n d e r l i e t h e

l if e h i s to ry o f a t e r r i to ry : (1) i n t e rac t i ons be tw een a g iven soc i e ty and the

l andscape , wh ich t r ans l a te i n to e f f ec t ive use o f l and and r esourc es ( e .g .,

A d l e r , 1 99 4; B i n f o r d , 19 82 ; I n g o l d , 1 9 8 6 ; p a p e r s i n R o s s i g n o l an d

W andsn ider , 1992) , (2 ) i n t e rac t ions be twe en sec to r s o f a soc i e ty , wh ich de-

t e r m i n e t h e i n te r n a l f r o n ti e rs o r b o u n d a r i e s o f e f f ec ti v e u s e an d o w n er s h i p

(e.g., Schleg el , 1992; Kopytoff , 1 987; Mills

e t a l .

1996) , and (3) in teract ions

b e t w een t h e s o c ie t y an d i ts n e i g h b o rs , w h i ch d e t e r m i n e t h e ex t e r n a l fr o n -

t i e r s o r boun dar i es o f e f f ec ti ve use and own ersh ip ( e .g ., P e t e r son , 1979 ;

M oreh ouse , 1996 ; paper s i n De At l ey and F ind low, 1984 ; Presco t t , 1978) .

I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e ma t e r i a l r e co r d o f man y s u ch i n t e r ac t i o n s may b e d o cu -

m en ted a rchaeo log ica l ly . Th e p rocesses ou t l i ned be low (F ig . 4 ) p rov ide a

f r ame w o r k fo r o rg an iz i ng th e m a t e r i a l r e co r d o f a b r o ad r an g e o f h u m an -

land in teract ions in h is tor ical perspect ive. Al though th is schemat ic l i fe h is-

t o ry i s d i rec t l y app l icab l e t o s em iseden tary and sed en ta ry soci e ti es , a s imi l a r

ap p r o ach may b e u s ed t o r eco n s t r u c t t e r r i t o r y f o r ma t i o n t r a j ec t o r i e s f o r

mo b i l e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s o c ie ti e s ( s ee B i n fo r d , 1 9 8 3 , H u n t e r s i n a Lan d -

scape ) .

E S T A B L IS H M E N T ~ M A I N T E N A N C E - = T R A N S F O R M A T I O N

E x p l o r a t i o n ~ E x p a n s i o n U s e C h a n g e

P e r s i s t e n t

C o l o n i z a t i o n

C o n s o l i d a t io n A b a n d o n m e n t ~ P l ac e s

S e t t l e m e n t F i s s i o n R e c l a m a t i o n

F i g 4 A s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t e r r i t o r y li f e h i s t o r y


21/37

H i s t o r y o f T e r r i t o r y Fo r m a t i o n 8 7

Terri tory stabl i shment

A ter r i t o ry l if e h i s to ry beg ins wi th t he es t ab l i shm en t o f a g roup o f

peo p le i n a par t i cu l a r a rea ( l~b le I ) . Th ree assoc i a t ed p rocesses m ay be

ou t l ined : exp lo ra t ion , co lon iza t ion , and se t t l em en t (Fig . 5 ) . Th ese p rocesses

co r r e s p o n d t o t h e ea r l y p r eh i s to r y o f t h e H o p i m es as a n d ad j acen t r eg i on s ,

w h e r e P u eb l o g r o u ps e x p e r i men t ed w i t h ag r icu l tu r a l t e ch n o lo g i e s an d r e -

source exp lo i t a t i on i n marg ina l env i ronment s .

xploration

Explo ra t i on i s a r econnai ssanc e o f po t en t i a l r esou rce a reas , t hese be ing

e i the r em pty l ands o r j o in t-use l ands , by scou t s , task g roups , o r e ven smal l

suprafam i ly g roups . Exp lo ra t i on gene ra l l y invo lves t emp orar y l and a nd r e -

s o u r ce u s e an d m ay b e l im i t ed t o ( 1 ) ex p l o it a ti o n o f f o o d an d n o n f o o d

resources fo r immedia t e use , (2 ) l og i s t i c exp lo i t a t i on o f r esources o f r e -

s t r icted d is t r ibut ion, (3) marking of speci f ic p laces for fu ture use wi th in-

s c r i p t i o n s o r c a i r n s , ( 4 ) co n s t r u c t i o n o f ep h emer a l s h e l t e r s an d w ar mt h

fea tu res , and (5 ) cach ing o f r esources fo r fu tu re use [ see B in fo rd (1982)

for a detai le d d iscussion of these activi ties]. Ex plor ed a reas are logis tic ter -

r i t o r i es i n t he i r own r igh t and can be i ncorpora t ed i n to a p reex i s t i ng t e r -

r i tory , through ei ther exclusive or jo in t exploi tat ion of cer tain resources .

Table I Ter ri to ry Es tab l i shme nt

Associated Material

Process activities cor rela tes

Explora t ion Reconnaissance Eph em era l she l t e rs

Temporary uses Cac hes

Res tr ic t ed resource exp lo i t a t ion M ark ings /ca lms

Co l o n i za t i o n

Se t t l emen t

P r o l on g ed u s e s P r em an en t / s emi p e r m an en t

A n n u a l r an g es h o u s i n g

Sem i p e r man en t A g r i cu l t u ra l f e a tu r e s

set t lem ents Ri tu al facil it ies

Fixed ranges

Pe r m an en t s e t tl emen t

Formal ized par t i t ion o f space

u n c t i o n a l l y d i v e r s e s t r u c t u r es

a n d s i te s

P r o d u c t i v e f a c i l i t i e s

I n t e g r a t i v e f a ci l i ti e s

Bo u n d a r y mar k e r s


22/37

88

Zede~o

EXPLORATION

COLONIZED

TERRITORIES ~ ~

SETTLEMENTS

Logistic

Territories

Peripheral

Areas

~ Jo in t Use

Fixed

/ R a n g e s ~ E x clu siv e

Use

Permanent

Tenures

Fig. 5. Territory establishment.

olonization

Colon iza t ion en ta i l s the in i t i a l movemen t o f a g roup , u sua l ly a s cou t

g rou p o f a f ew fami l ie s , i n to a newly exp lo red a rea . C o lon iza t ion i s f i r st

a n d f o r e m o s t a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d o f ex p e r i m e n t a ti o n , w h e n a g r o u p i s a b l e

to eva lua te the l if e - suppor t ing capab i l i ti e s o f the na tu ra l l andscape . D ur ing

t h is p r o c e s s d e ci si o n s a r e m a d e a s t o w h e t h e r t h e a r e a n o w o c c u p i e d c o u l d

b e m o r e p e r m a n e n t l y s e t t l e d o r, i n t h e c a s e o f m o b i l e p o p u l a ti o n s , r e p e a t -

e d l y u s e d a s a h o m e b a s e a n d a s s o c i a te d r an g e . L a n d m o d i f i c a ti o n s m a y

inc lude the e s t ab l ishmen t o f 1 ) pe r m ane n t o r s em ipe rm anen t living qua r -

te rs , 2) agr icul tura l f ie lds , hunt ing , graz ing, and col lec ting ranges , 3) ex-

ped ien t so i l conse rva t ion and wa te r con t ro l f ac i li ti es , and 4 ) exp lo i t a t ion

of raw ma te r i a l s fo r too l s , con ta ine rs , and o the r needs . R i tua l f ac i l i t i e s a re

l ike ly pre sen t and m ay involve shr ines , a l ta rs , caches , and b ur ia ls . Marg ina l

t e r r i to r i e s unde r co lon iza t ion can be inco rpora ted in to p reex i s t ing t e r r i to -

r ie s . Th e p reh i s to r i c reco rd o f hu m an l and use ac ros s the H op i ances t ra l

t e r r i to ry sugges t s tha t , because o f the h igh mob i l i ty o f p reh i s to r i c Pueb lo

soc ie t i e s s ee Cam eron , 1995; De an , 1996), sma l l g roups o f peo p le m ay

h a v e e n g a g e d i n p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s o f c o l o n i za t io n t h a t d i d n o t a lw a y s l e a d

t o s u c c e s sf u l s e t t le m e n t o r t h a t l i m i te d t h e d u r a t i o n o f s e t t le m e n t p r o c e s s e s

t o n o m o r e t h a n o n e o r t w o g e n e r a t i o n s .


23/37

History

of erritory

Formation

9

ettlement

I f r esource po t en t i a l i n t he co lon i zed a rea fu l f i l l s min imum requ i re -

men t s , a g r o u p may d ec i d e e i t h e r t o s e t t le p e r m an en t l y o r t o t u r n t h e a r ea

i n to a f i x ed r an g e o r a r ea r ep ea t ed l y in h ab i t ed an d ex p l o it ed b y a mo b i l e

grou p Binford , 1982, p . 12). I t is dur in g the se t t lem en t proce ss that l iv ing

s p ace m ay b e p e r m an en t l y o r g an ized , b eg i n n i n g w i th t h e p a r t it i o n o f s p ace

fo r bu i ld ing and p roduct ion . L on g- t e rm r i t ua l an d in t eg ra ti ve f ac il it ies ap -

pear wi th v i l l age cons t ruc t i on . S imi l a r ly , l ong- t e rm modi f i ca t i ons t o t he

l andscape r esu l t f rom c on t inu ed exp lo i t a t i on and co ns t ruc t i on o f assoc i a t ed

fac i l i t i es . The se t t l emen t p rocess may inc lude t he demarca t ion o f i n t e rna l

an d ex t e r n a l u s e an d o w n er s h i p b o u n d a r i e s .

Th e s p ec if ic f o r ms t h a t t h e s e t h r ee p r o ces s e s ac tu a ll y t ak e d ep en d o n

w he the r t here is l and ava i l ab l e fo r es t ab l i sh ing a t e r r it o ry . I f a soc i e ty a t -

t empt s t o se t t l e i n an a rea a l r eady occup ied by o ther g roups , as was t he

cas e i n t h e H o p i a r ea a f t e r A D 7 00 , t h en d i f f e r en t mech a n i s ms fo r o b t a in -

i n g lan d an d f o r ex p l oi ti n g r e s o u r ces co u l d d ev e l o p . Th es e mec h an i s ms ma y

r an g e f r o m p eace f u l n eg o t i a t i o n o f u s e an d o w n er s h i p r i g h t s t o w a r an d

co n q u es t . Th e a r ch aeo l o g i ca l r eco r d o f l a t e p r eh i s t o r i c s o c i e t i e s i n t h e

A mer i can S o u t h w es t , w h e r e mas s i v e p o p u l a t i o n mo v emen t an d r eo r g an i -

za t io n o ccu r r ed b e t w een A D 1 2 8 5 an d A D 1 4 5 0 , co n t a in s ab u n d an t evi-

d en c e f o r d o cu m en t i n g t h e ex p l o r a t io n , co l o n iza t io n , an d s e t t l emen t o f

occup ied t e r r i t o r i es by immigran t g roups .

As d i scussed in t he p rev ious sec t i on , peac efu l nego t i a t i on o f c l an l and

an d r e s o u r ce o w n er s h ip ap p ea r s a s a k e y mech an i s m i n t h e e s t ab l is h men t

o f t he Ho p i abor ig ina l t e r r i to ry as i t is kno wn h i sto ri ca ll y . How ever , com -

pet i t i on and v io l en t conf l ic t bo th w i th in Hop i soc i e ty i .e ., t h e de s t ruc t i on

of Awatov i , t he O rayv i sp li t) and b e tw een the H op i and o ther g roups i .e .,

H o p i - N av a j o l an d d i s p u te ) a l so p l ay ed a d o m i n an t r o le i n t h e ma i n t en an ce

and t r ans fo rmat ion o f t h i s abor ig ina l t e r r i t o ry .

T e r r i t o r y a i n t e n a n c e

Set t l ed t e r r it o r ies can be m ain t a ined success fu l ly t h roug h a v ar i e ty o f

p rocesses , depend ing on spec i f i c r equ i remen t s o f t he se t t l ed popu la t i on ,

p resence o f ne ighbor ing g roups , l ong- t e rm p roduct iv i t y o f t he l andscape ,

o r me chan i sm s o f i n t eg ra t i on Table I I ) . Thr ee bas i c p rocesses a re ou t l i ned

here : expansion, conso l idat ion , an d f i ssion Fig . 6) . As de scr ib ed above, al l

t h r ee p r o ces s e s w e r e ac ti v e a t d i f f e r en t ti mes t h r o u g h o u t f o r ma t i o n o f t h e

Ho pi t e r r it o ry , bu t par t i cu l a r ly s ince t he f i f t een th cen tu ry . Th ese p rocesses

r e s u l t ed i n t h e d ev e l o p men t o f i n t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s o r f r o n t i e r s b e t w een


24/37

90

Table H Terr itory M aintenan ce

Azsociated Materia l

Process activities cor relate s

Expa ns i on Use o f ma rg i na l l a nds Appe a ra nc e o f

Exp loita t ion of sate l l i te vi llages

dive rse ecozones Inc rease in volum e and

Bo und ary shifts diversi ty of food

Ad jus tmen t of l iv ing and non food s tuffs

space Expans ion of dom est ic

Expans ion of and in tegra t ive

communicat ion faci l i t ies

ne tworks Expans ion of road and

t r ia l ne tworks

e d e ~ o

Consol ida t ion

Fiss ion

Increase in r i tua l / Expans ion/m odi f ica t ion

in tegra tive of in tegra t ive

activities facilities

Inc rease in pol i ti ca l Defens ive a rchi tec ture

control/bellic Soil/water co ntr ol

activities features

Inc rease in popu la t ion S low growth of

and resource contro l dom estic facil it ies

F ra gme n t a t i on o f P a r ti a l a ba nd onm e n t o f

com mu nit ies dom estic facil it ies

C o l on i z at ion o f Ab a ndo nm e n t o f

dis tant a reas pe r iphera l l ands

Consol ida t ion Rapid growth of

activities in dista nt sate llite

f r a gme n te d c omm uni t y c omm uni t i es

Coloniza t ion begins

outs ide f ragmented

terri tory

c l a n , l i n e a g e , a n d v i l la g e l a n d s a n d r e s o u r c e s S c h l e g e l , 19 9 2; L e v y , 1 9 92 ;

W h i t e le y , 1 9 8 8) a s w e l l a s e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e H o p i a n d n e i g h -

b o r i n g g r o u p s .

xpansion

S e t t l e d t e r r i t o r i e s t e n d t o e x p a n d w h e n o c c u p i e d i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l l y

o r i n le s s t i m e i f t h e y a re o p e n t o i m m i g r a t i o n a n d a s s i m i la t io n o f n e w -

c o m e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e H o p i t e r r i t o r y a f t e r A D

1 3 0 0 li k e ly r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e c o m p l e x s y s te

landscapes, land use and the history

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