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midsize Chinese cities are turning to BRT to reign in congestion andimprove public transit (2). Jinan, the capital of Shandong Province,is implementing the first phase of a 135-km BRT network. Alongwith BRT, transit-oriented development (TOD) has become a hottopic in Chinese planning and transportation circles. Jinan seeks tounderstand the implications of implementing TOD around itsBRT network stations as well as incorporating it into all levelsof planning and policy.

Along with calls to reduce energy use, Central Government min-istries, such as the Ministry of Construction, which oversees trans-portation infrastructure, have issued a number of edicts and guidelinesto Chinese municipal leaders, stressing the importance of publictransit and providing guidance for public transit development (2).

JINAN, SHANDONG PROVINCE

Jinan, the capital city of Shandong Province, has a population ofabout 6 million, an increase of almost 10% since 1996 (3). Jinan isknown as the City of Springs because of the cluster of springs thatrise to the surface, forming clear, bubbling ponds in the old city. Thesprings are a national tourist site and are an important element ofShandong culture.

Jinan’s GDP has risen steadily in the past 5 years, along with itsvehicle population, particularly small cars. The increase in smallpassenger vehicles includes increased personal car purchases forboth public and private sectors. Figure 1 demonstrates that withevery percentage increase of GDP in Jinan, there has been a steadyincrease in the population of small passenger vehicle. Most cities inChina cannot restrict personal vehicle ownership. Jinan’s own policyis to “limit/manage [personal] vehicle ownership while encouragingvehicle use” (4).

The population of small passenger vehicles has gone from 10%of the total vehicle population to 17% in 2004. Indeed, the total vehi-cle population has seen a dramatic increase. By the end of 2005, ittotaled 929,000; more than one-third is personal cars (5).

Despite the growth in motor vehicle ownership, Jinan still has animpressive bicycle ownership rate and use. There are 527 bicyclesper 1,000 residents, or 1.5 per household, compared to a motor vehi-cle ownership rate of just 56 per 1,000 residents (4, p. 9). However,trends project shifts in bicycle usage, as shown in Figure 2 (4).

The projected increase in vehicle usage to more than one-fifth ofdaily trips by car will result in increased auto-oriented development,as well as an overall reduction in quality of life. To support vehicleusage of this extent requires increased land use and shifts in planningthat could create a cycle of automobile dependency (6).

Land Use Challenges to ImplementingTransit-Oriented Development in ChinaCase Study of Jinan, Shandong Province

Alainna Thomas and Elizabeth Deakin

Several Chinese cities are interested in incorporating transit-orienteddevelopment (TOD) around their subway stations. Few cities, however,have considered incorporating TOD into their bus systems; fewer stillhave included China’s bike population. The midsize Chinese city ofJinan, capital of the northeastern province of Shandong, wants to incor-porate both bus rapid transit (BRT) and TOD within its urban planningframework. Jinan is set to construct a 135-km BRT network and seeksto incorporate TOD initially at the neighborhood level and eventually inthe entire city. As part of an ongoing project between the University ofCalifornia Transportation Center and the Transportation EngineeringDepartment of Shandong University, preliminary land use analysis wasconducted on a proposed BRT corridor, Lishan Road, incorporatingsmart-growth principles as a framework for creating walkable neigh-borhoods. Current land-use challenges, both citywide and street spe-cific, to making the Lishan Road BRT corridor a true transit-orienteddevelopment are presented. The main barriers identified are as fol-lows: (a) Excessive auto-oriented land uses along the corridor result inpedestrian–bike, bike–vehicle, and pedestrian–vehicle conflicts, whichwill increase with the construction of the BRT stations; (b) the land-usepattern manifested in 1-km blocks results in excessive distances betweenpedestrian crossings at intersections; (c) with superblock land use pat-terns and a lack of secondary roads, accessibility is limited for all modes;and (d) parking is inconsistently enforced, and cars are allowed to park onsidewalks, creating unwalkable areas and encouraging driving. Policiesand guidelines that help shift Jinan’s planning to more pedestrian-friendlydesigns are presented.

In the past two decades, China has undergone rapid urbanization,experiencing a significant rise in per-capita gross domestic product(GDP) and increased vehicle ownership. This growth and develop-ment have been accompanied by massive increases in energy use.China now faces a serious environmental and energy crisis. TheCentral Government has challenged all municipalities to cut energyuse by 20% by 2010.

Urban cities are critical links in resolving energy and environ-mental issues as half of China’s population is projected to be living inurban areas by 2010 (1). Having seen the success of bus rapid transit(BRT) systems in Curitiba, Brazil, and in Bogota, Colombia, many

University of California Transportation Center, University of California, 2614 DwightWay, Berkeley, CA 94720. Corresponding author: A. Thomas, alliet@berkeley.edu.

Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,No. 2077, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,D.C., 2008, pp. 80–86.DOI: 10.3141/2077-11

Thomas and Deakin 81

Jinan officials want to balance the transportation system byproviding high-quality transit services, in hopes that transit canbecome the motorized mode of choice for many trips. Because ofthe springs that run under the city, Jinan cannot construct subwaysto address its transportation needs. Also, with growth in popula-tion, income, and automobiles, transportation improvements areneeded quickly.

In direct response to its rapid economic development and increas-ing need to strengthen and expand its transport infrastructure, munici-pal leaders have decided to construct a 135-km BRT network by2010. Their efforts have led to Jinan being named by the Central

Government as a Bus Rapid Transit Demonstration City. The JinanPublic Works Department is charged with overseeing the constructionof the BRT network.

Some leaders in the municipal government believe that Jinancould benefit from having a smart-growth planning frameworkthat includes TOD because it links transportation and land use.They believe TOD-like planning could be applied to the entirecity, not just around a specific transit site, modeling Jinan’s devel-opment after Portland, Oregon. They have asked the University ofCalifornia Transportation Center to assist them in implementingTOD and creating policies to support TOD. With a more cohesive

5%

10%

15%

20%

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Year

Small PassengerVehicles

GDP per Capita

FIGURE 1 GDP per capita versus small passenger vehicle population.

25%32%

25% 23%

49% 38%

30%

10% 16%

25%

35%

16% 14%20% 22%

20%

1995 2004 2010 20202010 and 2020 are projections

Car

Public Transit

Bicycle

Walk

FIGURE 2 Shifts in bicycle usage.

82 Transportation Research Record 2077

and comprehensive plan that links transportation and land use,Jinan leaders believe they can manage their growth better. Thispaper reviews Jinan’s TOD and BRT planning efforts to date,identifies key challenges, and presents options for addressing thechallenges.

The analysis is framed by smart growth principles, with a particularfocus on TOD and walkability. The Smart Growth Network devel-oped 10 basic principles for smart growth based on the experiencesof cities across the United States (7 ):

1. Mix land uses.2. Take advantage of compact building design.3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.4. Create walkable neighborhoods.5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense

of place.6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical

environmental areas.7. Strengthen and direct development toward existing com-

munities.8. Provide a variety of transportation choices.9. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-

effective.10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in

development decisions.

These principles are used to assess TOD–BRT efforts along LishanRoad, Jinan’s first BRT segment.

Within a TOD framework, pedestrians are central to making TODwork. The Lowell Department of Transportation in Massachusettsstates it this way: “Transit-oriented development is actuallypedestrian-oriented development, with pedestrian-oriented centersof development around transit stations throughout a region” (8).

In the case of Jinan, pedestrians—and bikes—are key challenges.Jinan already has the necessary density and land use to achieve first-rate TOD, but its pedestrian accessibility and safety are in need ofmuch more attention, and its bike accessibility is being challengedby motor vehicle competition for road space.

The research on Jinan presented here involves both land-use analy-sis and transportation analysis. Most of the data for these analyseshad to be developed through field work, including documentation ofin-place street designs and land uses, observations and measure-ments of transportation flows by mode, surveys of users, and assess-ments of conflicts and opportunities. The field work was a jointeffort of faculty and students from Shandong University’s trans-portation engineering department and students from the Universityof California at Berkeley (UC Berkeley).

The study began by creating an up-to-date street map showingblocks and streets to scale. Shandong University students and fac-ulty spent 6 months updating an AutoCAD map of Jinan’s roadnetwork and block structure, including entry points, and buildingboundaries. Shandong and UC Berkeley students also surveyedmany of the proposed BRT corridors and mapped the land usesalong the streets.

Spaces and voids maps (buildings colored black, roads coloredwhite) were then created to illustrate the extent of the road network inJinan in comparison to San Francisco, California. The maps were basedon aerial photos of the same scale, downloaded from Google Earth.

Lishan Road was divided into five segments, each of which isbeing considered a potential transit station location for the BRT.Land uses along each segment were mapped, and pedestrian, bike,and vehicle movements were observed during field visits in July and

December 2006 and January 2007. Berkeley and Shandong studentsthen conducted bike and electric bike (e-bike) volume counts duringmorning peak, off-peak, and evening peak periods in December 2006and January 2007. A parking turnover survey, an origin–destinationpass-by bicycle and e-bike survey, and a qualitative survey comparingbike and e-bike users were also completed.

By using these data, each segment was then analyzed for segment-specific (potential station-specific) barriers to TOD: land uses andtransportation conditions that would hinder or conflict with pedes-trian access and safety. These included auto-oriented land uses, longblocks without or with inadequate midblock crossings, and parkingconflicts.

LISHAN ROAD

Lishan Road is a major north–south arterial that bisects and connectsseveral districts such as the Ancient City and the Education–Culturaldistrict. The typical cross section is two lanes in each direction, withno median in the center but with medians on both sides dividingfaster traffic from the auxiliary–bike lanes. Bus stops are located inthe medians. The majority of on-street parking is in the auxiliarylane. Pedestrians have to cross the auxiliary–bike lane to get to themedian bus stops to board buses.

Lishan Road provides multimodal access to several points ofinterest, including government offices (provincial and municipal),shopping malls, and the public square–Springs Park area. Bike lanesand sidewalks are provided along the study length. The road is oneof the city’s principal routes for bus services, carrying between threeand 15 lines, depending on the road segment. The largest number ofbus lines is found near the northern end at the Carrefour bus hub,which serves long-distance buses as well as local buses. Along theroutes, bus stops are located on the median between the road andthe auxiliary–bike lane.

The stretch of studied road totaled 4.6 km, started at the south atJing Shi Road and ran up to Beiyuan Road in the north. Along thesestretches, land uses within 200 m of the road were analyzed. Theland-use pattern along this corridor is dominated by the traditionaldanwei (work unit) or compound development, with walls and con-tiguous shop and office development along the outer edges and hous-ing and additional small shops along smaller streets in the interior.The danwei typically occupies an entire block, with distances betweenintersections ranging from 600 m to more than 1 km. The danweihas few entries, usually one gate midblock along each edge. Further,most entrance roads at the gates are not through streets, connectingonly to an internal network for the danwei. As a result, there are fewsecondary roads serving the general public, and traffic is concen-trated on the arterials. At the same time, new developments are beingbuilt along this corridor, usually in much taller buildings. Figure 3summarizes the land uses by segment of road analyzed.

Traffic Volumes

Lishan Road is a heavily used arterial, so traffic volumes for allmodes are extremely high. Most commuters are traveling toward thecenter of the city. Table 1 illustrates the high volumes that LishanRoad carries in the morning rush toward the city center, particularlyof pedestrians and bicyclists. Residences are moving from the fur-thest north (Beiyuan Road) south toward other major arterials suchas Jiefang Road or Wenhua Road, which will take them to makeemployment areas.

Segment Length of Segment

Type of Land Use

Beiyuan Road– Huayuan Road

(North end of Lishan Road)

1 kilometer Government and educational institutes, including the Environmental Bureau. The Chinese opera and a movie theater along with dozens of retail stores and restaurants. Access to Lishan Road is limited near the rail line; up to that point there are small retail shops lining the streets.

Huayuan Road–Jiefang Road

1 kilometer Carrefour, a hypermart, with 150+parking spaces on the roof; gasstation near Jiefang intersection.Lots of government institutions andtheir residential housing units.Hospitals, retail, restaurants.

Jiefang Road– Heping Road

600 meters Theater, 10+ story hotel/office building, military base, smaller hospitals, and residential compounds. Many one-story retail stores, restaurants directly adjacent to Lishan Road. A provincial government department takes up ¾ of the west side with its own guesthouses, residential buildings, and institutes but there are small retail shops bordering it.

Heping Road– Wenhua Road

600 meters RT-Mart, a hypermart, located on southwest corner of the corridor with a 150+ space parking lot. Mainly government buildings— Provincial Supreme court building; housing is predominantly older 3–4-story buildings, and a few newer 15+ story housing units. All housing is work unit housing. Retail is mainly one-story small shops clustered together on both sides.

Wenhua Road–Jingshi Road (South end of Lishan Road)

680 meters Mainly offices, banks, and government buildings at the four corners. New residential and office development is coming up on the west side, with several 15-story buildings; the middle of the east side is a wall bordering Shandong Normal University with no entry point.

Aerial photo downloaded from Google Earth

To city center

To city center

To city center

To city center

FIGURE 3 Land uses along Lishan Road.

TABLE 1 Lishan Road Morning Peak Data

Pedestrians Bikes and Ebikes Motor Vehicles

Beiyuan–HuayuanSouthbound 4,100 3,496 679Northbound 3,500 1,368 504

Huayuan–Jiefang (Carrefour)Southbound 1,340 2,400 676Northbound 1,640 1,260 782

Heping–Wenhua (RT Mart)Southbound 816 1,616 710Northbound 1,108 2,886 739

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Proposed Right-of-Way for BRT

The current right-of-way (ROW) of Lishan Lu is 50 m wide. TheROW will be expanded to 60 m to allow for BRT construction. Thiswill require tearing down some smaller buildings, removing trees,and altering the flow of motorized and nonmotorized transportmodes. Bikes and e-bikes will be allotted 5.5 m of sidewalk space,and pedestrians will be given 4 m of sidewalk space on each side ofthe street. The current proposal is to provide no physical separationbetween bikes and pedestrians.

The BRT corridor is to be built in the center lane, and the currentplan is to have pedestrians board and alight at the intersections. Theexpansion of the ROW also means the removal of more than 200 on-street parking spaces (both unmarked and marked spaces) throughoutLishan Road.

The current plan also recommends moving the bicycles off thestreet and onto the sidewalk with pedestrians. High volumes ofplatooning bikes were observed at intersections where this typeof sidewalk–bike lane is present, particularly Jiefang Road andLishan Road (see Figure 4). At these intersections, bike traffictraveling in an east–west direction does not have to follow a traf-fic signal because it uses the sidewalks. These intersections areespecially dangerous and create serious conflicts. The wide cor-ners help to slow vehicle traffic, but more bicycles are now takingover these areas.

Connectivity Issues

During field visits in December 2006, the team learned that many ofthe small roads leading off of Lishan Road into residential areaswere dead ends. Furthermore, many of the residential streets andsmall alleyways that are through streets are quickly becoming parkinglots with the rise in vehicle ownership.

Walls separate work units and residential compounds; few roadsgo between these areas, forcing most major traffic onto arterials andfeeder roads. With a BRT corridor in the center lane, more trafficwill be forced onto Lishan Road, as making U-turns to reach thenearest intersection will no longer be possible. Because the averageblock size on Lishan Road is 600 m, cars will have to go 1 to 2 kmto reverse direction.

Figure 5 shows a spaces-and-voids analysis of two 1.5-m2 ofland use, one in San Francisco and the other in a comparablydense area of Jinan. The analysis demonstrates Jinan’s compara-tively low level of connectivity, the result of its lack of secondaryroads.

TRANSIT-ORIENTED CHALLENGES

Oversupply of Auto-Oriented Land Uses

Auto-oriented land uses depend on auto access by having productsor services targeting automobiles (e.g., car washes, auto repair shops)or by the number and volume of products they sell that require per-sonal motor vehicles to transport (e.g., hypermarts that depend onbulk sales). Uses may also be auto-oriented by design, such as whena clothing store is provided with a huge storefront parking lot.

Along Lishan Road, despite the high density of development,there is a remarkably high level of auto-orientation. Indeed, oneof the predominant land uses is driveways. In many instances, theentire frontage is available for vehicle access.

Hypermarts are also prevalent on Lishan Road. There are twohypermarts—the French Carrefour and the Taiwanese RT-Mart, whichare less than 1.5 km apart. Both are located in areas where high vol-umes of pedestrian and bike traffic were recorded (see Table 1). Bothstores act as retail anchors, housing several smaller retail stores, includ-ing fast food restaurants (American and Chinese), electronics stores,bakeries, and clothing stores. Carrefour also acts as a bus hub for long-distance and local buses. As a further benefit for vehicle owners, freeparking is available, and there are more than 150 spaces at each store.

Along with hypermarts, there are smaller retail stores that are auto-oriented, either in serving the car consumer market, such as tire storesor car washes, or in the product they sell, such as plastics. Across fromCarrefour are a dozen small stores selling plastics and requiring pickupand delivery within this same area. The activities of these stores dis-rupt pedestrian flows and create traffic conflicts; this will worsen withBRT, which aims to increase pedestrian activity along and across theroad. The auto-oriented uses would be better relocated on a street thatis not so transit focused, because either their auto access will have tobe cut off, reducing their viability, or their continued vehicle accesswill cause serious pedestrian–vehicle conflicts.

Similarly, new car washes, gas stations, and other stores withdrive-in qualities need to be located strategically so that disruptionsto traffic flow are minimized. Also, their access points can be movedto the back or side to reduce contact with pedestrians.

Midblock Crossings

As noted earlier, the distance between intersections along the LishanRoad study area is typically 600 m and can be up to 1 km. (In com-parison, typical block lengths in the San Francisco area depicted

FIGURE 4 Platooning at wide mixed-use corner, Jiefang Road andLishan Road.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5 Spaces-and-voids analysis: (a) San Francisco and (b) Jinan.

earlier are only 130 m.) Despite these long blocks, Lishan Road hasonly one sky bridge and one marked, unsignalized midblock cross-walk (see Figure 6). Since a person in the middle of the block wouldhave to walk about 600 m to the crosswalk and back again, morethan a third of a mile, just to get to the opposite side of the street, itshould not be a surprise that most people jaywalk. People have beenobserved climbing over barriers and low fences on bigger roads withfaster traffic.

During peak hours, when traffic is both heavy and chaotic, pedes-trians use turning cars or other traffic disruptions as shields to crosstraffic. Vehicles do not yield to pedestrians; pedestrians are thenforced to cross at their own risk.

When a BRT is installed in the center of the road, the BRT itselfcould become an added barrier, further cutting off one side of thestreet from the other. This could, of course, have adverse conse-quences for both pedestrian safety and economic development.Avoiding these adverse consequences requires that more attentionbe given to pedestrian needs and pedestrian convenience as designsproceed.

Parking

A critical component of making TOD work is parking management(9). The studied stretch of Lishan Road includes more than 200marked on-street spaces. However, the on-street supply is flexible.Ordinarily, the legal parking spaces are marked as such, but if thereis a need, attendants can allow parking on the left side of the auxil-iary lane in unmarked spaces. Further, according to the parkingattendants, the number of parking spaces in some lots can be dou-bled if necessary. They are authorized to do this by the PublicSecurity Bureau, which oversees these lots. Therefore, the effectiveon-street parking supply is somewhere closer to 300 cars at maxi-mum. This does not include the many illegally parked cars observed,for example, on and often blocking sidewalks (see Figure 7).

The current parking weekday fee throughout the corridor is 2 RMBan hour (about US$0.25), collected by an attendant (see Figure 8).

This is not cost-prohibitive since the average monthly wage ismore than 1,700 RMB (US$226) (3), and few people pay their fullfees. Fees are bargained for, so if someone parks for more than 2 or 3 h, he or she may try to reduce the fee amount. Weekend andholiday parking is free, as is evening parking. Also, most peopleparking along Lishan Road do not pay fees themselves; their workunit or office pays. The turnover rate is relatively low and occursmainly at noon, when most workers go out for lunch, an indica-tion that it is mostly employees who are using this parking duringweekdays.

In tangent with the growth of auto ownership and use, parkingdemand has risen. By 2020, Jinan will have a daily demand formore than 1 million parking spaces to accommodate the expectedpersonal vehicles (4, p. 94). This includes residential, private, andpublic parking spaces.

FIGURE 8 Parking attendant collecting fees.

FIGURE 6 Bicyclist crossing at only midblock.

FIGURE 7 Sidewalk parking on Lishan Road.

Thomas and Deakin 85

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This is equivalent to half of Manhattan, New York City, or 9 km2

of on-street parking. The increased demand for parking will comeinto conflict with the BRT unless steps are taken to provide suffi-cient residential parking and BRT is made attractive to the affluent.Residential parking is falling short of demand along Lishan Road,where increases in income have meant influxes of cars. Relatively fewparking spaces are available in new or old housing. Until very recently,residential units were not built with a car-buying public in mind.

In observations of such residential areas bordering Lishan Road,it was found that many courtyards are becoming parking lots. Thesame is true for most commercial buildings; few have providedparking for staff, and courtyards and other open spaces around thebuildings are increasingly being used for parking. Even new multi-story buildings, exceeding 10 stories, have insufficient parking,and their residents and workers deposit their cars in the residen-tial streets and alleys near their homes and workplaces or on smallroads connecting to Lishan.

With the implementation of the BRT corridor, all on-street parkingspaces—marked and unmarked—on Lishan Road will be removed.This will create a significantly tighter supply of parking at the sametime that car ownership and use is growing. Enforcement is fairlylax, and parking on the sidewalk is a common sight. This clearlycontradicts the goals of TOD, however, and enforcement will needto be more active in the future if TOD is to be successful. Withouthigh fees, more vigorous enforcement, and controlled, well-locatedparking spaces, the BRT and thus the goal of TOD could be caughtin a tangle of cars.

CONCLUSIONS

Transit-oriented development is pedestrian-oriented development.Above all else, the BRT corridor must be designed and built withthis principle in mind—from how pedestrians access the BRT itselfto what they do once they get off the BRT. Lishan corridor has manyadvantages and high-traffic volumes, but without consideration ofthe impacts of BRT on pedestrians, the corridor may result in moreproblems than solutions.

Many of the issues outlined in this paper are critical to all roadsin Jinan. Overall, roads in Jinan, particularly those in the inner city,need to be pedestrian friendly. It is even more critical within the con-text of implementing a BRT network. Accessibility to the BRT sta-tions will be a main issue. BRT stations should be thought of inthe same vein as subway stations in major cities, such as Shanghai,which have fostered economic development opportunities aroundthem. Continued studies are needed to recommend the exact distancebetween stations that provides the best accessibility.

In the long term, BRT corridors will be safer and more pedestrianfriendly if policies and design guidelines are in places that requirevehicle entrances and driveways for businesses to be located in theback and not facing the road, which is the predominant pattern onLishan Road.

Many of the areas cannot provide access roads in the future becauseof the sensitive nature of the land use, such as for military bases.

This means that land use is limited and with roads at capacity, it ismore logical to manage vehicle usage. With the lack of accessibility,policies that discourage automobile dependence, partnered withstrong implementation, would reduce the number of vehicles oncrowded streets. Parking fees are one type of policy measure to limituse. Vehicle owners need to be discouraged from bargaining forlower parking prices.

The street and sidewalk need to be places with the fewest con-flicts. Segregating uses will provide better traffic flow for all. Furtherstudies need to be done on streets with mixed bike and pedestrianlanes. In the best-case scenario, if the corridor is eventually servedby only the BRT line, if bikes have their own lane, and if all street-facing driveways are removed, the street will attract more peopleand develop well economically.

New access roads could help alleviate congestion on the arterialsas well as address the need to make U-turns. As new developmentsare planned, planning policies could shift the responsibility to devel-opers by requiring them to provide secondary road space throughtheir lots. Several new developments will be constructed over thenext 5 years throughout Jinan, and they provide opportunities forincreasing access roads.

Because of the lack of accessibility and mobility, bicycles andelectric bicycles will play a crucial role in connecting to the BRTcorridor. Many of the residential areas adjacent to Lishan Road aswell as Beiyuan Road are dense areas that are accessible only byfoot or bike. New policies could encourage and preserve bicyclingto link riders to other modes of transportation, such as increasingthe number of bike parking facilities located near BRT corridorsand stations.

REFERENCES

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2. Darido, G. Bus Rapid Transit Developments in China, Perspectives fromResearch, Meetings, and Site Visits in April 2006. FTA-FL-26-7104.02.FTA, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2006.

3. Jinan Statistical Yearbooks 1996–2004. China Data Online Database.sunsite2.berkeley.edu:8088/ERF/servlet/ERFmain. Accessed March 2007.

4. Jinan Municipal Comprehensive Transportation Planning Report (inChinese). Jinan Planning Bureau, 2006.

5. Jinan Municipal Government. www.jinan.gov.cn. Accessed April 2007.6. Litman, T. Evaluating Transportation Land Use Impacts. Victoria Trans-

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J. Boroski, J. Smith-Heimer, R. Golem, P. Peninger, E. Nakajima,E. Chui, R. Dunphy, M. Myers, and S. McKay. TCRP Report 102: Tran-sit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experiences, Challenges,and Prospects. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies,Washington, D.C., 2004.

The Transportation and Land Development Committee sponsored publicationof this paper.