lambert academic publication(lap),germany

Contents

S.No. Particulars Page

No.

1 Air Pollution Impact on Flowers 1.1 Introduction

1.2 Selection and Description of Test Species

1.2.1.1 Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz. (Swartz)

1.2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.

1.2.1.3 Cassia siamea Lamk. Syn.

1.2.1.4 Delonix regia Hook (Bojer ex Hook)

1.2.1.5 Peltophorum inerme Roxb.

1.2.2 Flowering Time

1.2.2.1 Air Pollutants

1.2.2.2 Sources of Air Pollution

1.2.2.3 Sources of Air Pollutants

1.2.2.4 Effects of Air Pollution

1.2.2.6 Need of Air Quality Monitoring

1.2.3 Soil Pollution

1.2.3.1 Types of Soil Pollution

1.2.3.2 Causes of Soil Pollution

1.2.3.3 Pollution Due to Urbanisation

1.2.3.4 Effects of Soil Pollution

1.2.3.5 Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution

1.2.3.6 Control of soil pollution

1.2.4 Noise Pollution

1.2.4.1 Sources of noise

1.2.4.2 Measures of noise

1.2.4.3 Effects of noise pollution

1.2.4.4 Causes and Effects of Noise Pollution

1.3 Results


1.3.2 Floral Morphology

1.3.3 Flower Colour

1.3.4 Floral Biomass

1.3.5 Pollen Germination

1.3.6 Pollen Size

1.3.7 Pollen Tube Length

1.3.8 Pollen Viability

1.4 Discussion

1.4.1 Time of Flowering

1.4.2 Morphology of Flowers

1.4.3 Flower Colour


1.4.5 Pollen Characters

01-24

i

2 Air Pollution Impact on Fruits

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Experimental

2.2.1 Colour of Pods

2.2.2 Size of Pods

2.2.3 Weight of Pods

2.2.4 Seed Count

2.2.5 Seed Viability

2.3 Results


2.3.2 Size of Pods


2.3.4 Seed Count


2.4 Discussion

25-36

3 Air Pollution Impact on Seed Quality and Germination

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Experimental

3.2.1 Seed Colour

3.2.2 Seed Weight

3.2.3 Seed Density

3.2.4 Seed Soundness

3.2.5 Seed Germination

3.3 Results

3.3.1 Seed Colour

3.3.2 Seed Weight

3.3.3 Seed Density



3.4 Discussion

37-47

Acknowledgement 48

References 49-57

ii

Air Pollution Impact on Reproductive Behaviour of Few

Tropical Trees

Dr. Kishore Pawar, Dr. O.P.Joshi and Dr. Hema Swami

Department of Environment

Holkar Science College, Indore – 452 017- India

Air Pollution Impact on Flowers

1.1 Introduction

To survive and do well, flowering plants have to reproduce themselves

successfully. It is beneficial to the species if reproduction is carried out by

sexual means, because this introduces greater variability in to the resulting

offspring‟s, which in turns allow more opportunity for the species to evolve

with its environment. The most colourful and spectacular aspects of plant

growth are associated with development of flowers and fruits. Flower formation

signifies a transition from vegetative to the reproductive phase of development.

The shoot meristem is induced to develop sepals, petals, stamens and carpels

instead of leaves. This transition can only occur at a particular time in the life of

plants, which within certain limits, is determined genetically. Infect

reproductive growth is certainly a complex process and physiologists have

recognized a number of partial processes, which have been intensively studied.

Ordinarily in thinking of reproductive growth, flower formation and fruit

development come to mind. These events are obvious to the naked eye.

However, each of these processes is the culmination of a number of other

events, many of which are microscopic or submicroscopic. The reproductive

growth is complex and encompasses a variety of anatomical, morphological,

physiological and bio-chemical processes.

After the plant attains the ripe to flower condition further progress towards

flower initiation depends on the environment, both temperature and light are

involved. Infect reproductive growth is certainly a complex processes, which

have been intensively studied.

1

In this process two stages must be distinguished from each other, the induction

of flowering and the differentiation of flowers and inflorescence. Everyone is

familiar with flowers. Botanically flower is a modified shoot consisting of

protective leaves, i.e. sepals and decorative coloured petals. These represent the

parts of the flowers that is most familiar and indeed, generally thought of „the

flower‟. Sepals and petals protect essential parts of the flowers, the male and

female organs. The female part of the flower usually forms the central portion

and it consists of one or more carpels, each of which contains one or more egg

or ovules, mounted by a style and stigma. The stigma is the receptive surface on

which pollen grains can land and grow, while the style is simply its stalk.

The male parts are usually found in a ring around the central female parts, and

they consist of pollen bearing stamens. Flowers may be produced singly or in-

group known as inflorescence. The purpose of these aggregations normally

seems to be an aid in attracting potential pollinators. During postembryonic

development in higher plants, the shoot apex undergoes three discernible phases

- juvenile vegetative, adult and reproductive. The transition from the juvenile to

adult phase is usually gradual and involves subtle changes in shoot morphology

and physiology (Poethig 1990). The intermediate developmental patterns are

common during the transition from vegetative to reproductive stages.

Infect, differentiation of the reproductive organ is preceded by formation of

sepals and petals. That has a combination of vegetative and non-vegetative

characters (Shrivastava and Iqbal 1994).

For flowering the size of the shoot is more important than its age. In several

species, shoot undergoes flowering on reaching a certain stage of development

(Robinson and Warening 1969). The regulatory mechanism ensures that the

plant does not flower until it has attained the requisite size. This holds true even

in plants requiring a specific day length or chilling.

1.2. Selection and Description of Test Species

The five tree species selected for the present study belongs to family- Fabaceae.

These trees are of good ornamental value. They are planted on roadside, in

gardens and even in home gardens. They give a good colour effect; attract birds,

bees and butterflies, which pollinate them. They are important component of

2

urban ecosystem and presently facing threat due to harmful and toxic effect of

urban air pollutants. A brief taxonomic description of these plants is presented

below:

1.2.1.1 Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz. (Swartz)

A glabrous shrub or a small tree unarmed or with a few weak prickles,

cultivated in gardens, generally throughout India (Plate 1.1). It is commonly

known as Shankhasur, Gultora, Chhoti-gulmohar and Krishna chura.

Leaves- 15-30 cm. Long, alternate, pinnae 6-8, leaflets, 8-12 in pairs, sessile

and oblong.

Flowers- Scarlet yellow or red in elongate auxiliary and terminal racemes.

Total five petals sub-equal, transversely oblong.

Stamens- 10, free, filament long, petaloid.

Pods- Oblong and flat, glabrescent, narrower and thinner than those of any of

the genus.

Seeds- 8-10 obviate – oblong and glabrous.

Flowering- Nearly throughout the year.

Plate 1.1: Caesalpinia pulcherrima in flowering at Low Pollution Area

1.2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.

A very handsome tree 20-30 feet high, trunk straight, bark smooth and pale gray

when young, rough and dark-brown, when old, branches spreading, slender

(Plate 1.2). This is a well-recognized avenue tree, occasionally found in

deciduous forest also, commonly known as Amaltas.

3

Leaves- 9-16 inches long main rachis pubescent, stipules minute, linear oblong,

obtuse, pubescent.

Leaflets- 4-8 pairs, ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, bright green, glabrous and

silvery-pubescent beneath when young, the midrib densely pubescent at the

underside, base cuneate.

Plate 1.2: Cassia fistula with developing pods showing flowers in inset.

Flowers- In racemes 12-20 inches long, pedicels 1½ - 2 ¼ inches long, slender,

pubescent and glabrous.

Sepals- 5, pubescent, oblong.

Petals- 5, sub-equal obovate, shortly clawed, veined.

Stamens- 10, the 3 longest stamens are much curved and bear large, oblong

curved anthers, the 4 median stamens are straight and 3 remaining are very short

and erect staminode, dehiscing longitudinally by pores.

Pods- 2-3 feet long, 1-3/4 inches in diameter, pendulous, cylindrical, nearly

straight, smooth, shining, brown-black, not torulose, indehiscent with numerous

(40-100) horizontal seeds immersed in a dark coloured sweetish pulp, and

completely separated by transverse partition.

Flowering- April-June.

Fruiting- Persisting throughout the year.

4

1.2.1.3 Cassia siamea Lamk. Syn.

Evergreen tree of moderate size having nearly smooth, gray bark marked with

slight longitudinally fissures (Plate 1.3). The Cassia siamea is a native of South

India and Burma. It is now grown throughout the India planted on roadside and

in gardens for its shade and showy flowers. Its dark green, glossy leaves are

divided into two rows of narrow, pointed leaflet arranged in opposite pairs on

the slender midrib.

Plate 1.3: Cassia siamea with flowers and fruits at Low Pollution Area.

Leaves- Peripinnate about 12 inches long, leaflets 12 to 20, elliptical-oblong,

mucronate, glabrous.

Flowers- Yellow grow in large, open clusters at the ends of the branches about

1 ¼ inches, each of the flower having five almost equal petals and perfect seven

stamens nearly unequal that produce pollen, the remaining three stamens being

wanting, or small and sterile.

Pods- The flat pods are purplish or brown, when ripe and contain a number of

seeds. When young, they are soft, ribbon-like, minutely velvety, 6 to 9 inches

long.

Flowering– Throughout the year, maximum flush is observed in October.

Fruiting- April and throughout the year.

1.2.1.4 Delonix regia Hook (Bojer ex Hook)

Delonix is a quick growing evergreen tree with slightly rough, grayish, brown

bark, and a rather slender trunk, which usually soon divides into a number of

5

spreading, limb, bearing delicate feathery foliage 7-12 meter tall (Plate 1.4). It is

planted in gardens, roadsides and at public places, as an ornamental shade tree.

Plate 1.4: Delonix regia growing in Low Pollution Area with flowers in inset.

Leaves - 15- 40 cm long, alternate, bipinnate compound, pinnae 8-20 pairs,

leaflet 15-20 pairs.

Flowers- 3 to 4 inches across petal, obviate, clawed, in terminal, simple or

branched racemes, flowers red or orange in colour, the upper petal striped with

yellow or white.

Stamens- 10, exerted, red.

Pods- 30-40 x 3 - 4.5 cm broadly linear, flat woody beaked, dark brown in

colour.

Seeds– Numerous, oblong, glabrous, smooth, white or creamy, mottled.

Flowering- April-July.

Fruiting - December.

1.2.1.5 Peltophorum inerme Roxb.

Peltophorum is evergreen tree, 8-20 meter tall, handsome, dark foliaged

younger parts rusty brown or grayish tomentose, panicles of showy yellow

flowers (Plate 1.5). It is usually planted in gardens and along the roadsides as an

ornamental shade tree.

Leaves –12-30 cm long, alternate, pinnae, 6-13 pairs.

6

Leaflets - 6-17 pairs, oblong, glabrous.

Flowers- Bright yellow, in terminal racemose panicles.

Stamens- 10, free, hairy at base golden-yellow.

Pods- Lanceolate, 5-10 x 1.6 –2.2 cm, oblong, flat, hard, narrowed at both ends,

indehiscent, woody, margin winged, rusty red in colour.

Seeds– Usually 3-5, brown, obovate, oblong, compressed, smooth, flat and

glabrous.

Flowering- April-June.

Fruiting– December- January.


The data of intiating flowering for Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Cassia fistula,

Cassia siamea, Delonix regia and Peltophorum inerme was noted for two

consecutive years 2002 and 2003.


To study the floral morphology flowers were collected in between 9 to 11 AM

from the height of 3 to 5 meters from the ground level. Hundred flowers were

Plate 1.5: Blooming Peltophorum inerme growing in Low Pollution Area

7

collected from each plant species (25 flowers each from four different trees)

from sampling sites in polythene bag sealed with adhesive tape and were

brought to the laboratory. Measurement of length and breadth of sepals, petals,

stamens and carpel were taken with a standard scale.

1.2.4 Flower Colour

The anthocyanin content of flowers, growing in different areas was determined

following Drumm and Mohr (1978). For floral estimation 200 mg of petals were

dipped into 5 cm3

of methanolic HCl (1%) v/v and kept overnight at 5 to 10 C

(Stafford 1966).

After centrifugation, the absorbance of supernatant was measured at 525 nm, in

spectrophotometer. The anthocyanin content was expressed as absorbance per

100 mg fresh weight. Each mean value represent an average of three

independent replicates.


Floral biomass was determined by collecting 100 flowers from each site from

the height of 3 to 5 meters. Sampling was done in the morning hours between 9

to 10 am. Flowers were brought to the laboratory in polythene bags sealed with

adhesive tape. After taking their fresh weight flowers placed in an oven at 80 C

for 24 hours and later on the dry weight was recorded.


Freshly opened flowers were collected during 9 to 10 AM in polythene bags

from Industrial Pollution Area (IPA), Vehicular Pollution Area (VPA) and Low

Pollution Area (LPA) for pollen germination studies. Sucrose and boric acid

solutions of different grades were prepared following Brewbakar and Kwack

(1963). Pollen grains were placed in most suitable concentrations, i.e. (8%

sucrose and 200 g of boric acid) on cavity slides, which were kept in petridish

containing moist filter paper inside to maintain the appropriate relative

humidity. The slides were observed under microscope at every one-hour

interval to record the results. Pollen grains were considered germinated only,

8

when pollen tubes attained a size doubled of the grains. Ten random

microscopic fields (10 x 10 X) in each of the slides were examined to determine

the pollen germination. Pollen tube length and pollen diameter was measured

using an Ocular Micrometer.


Pollen viability was determined by using 1 % TTC [2, 3, 5–Triphenyl-

tetrazolium chloride] following Norton (1966). Pollen grains were incubated in

1 % TTC for 60 minutes at room temperature. The pollen grains were placed in

a drop of this solution on a glass slides, with cover slip and these slides were

kept in petriplates lined with moist filter paper and stored in a dark place. The

numbers of pollen grains, which became reddish in colour, were recorded as

viable.

1.3 Results


A delay in flowering time from 7 to 20 days was observed in all plants species

in both IPA and VPA as compared to LPA. Maximum delayed flowering was

noted in Cassia fistula. However, Caesalpina pulcherrima was found to be

relatively unaffected (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Delay in flowering period of tree species growing in different polluted

areas of Indore city in comparison to Low Pollution Area

Name of plant

species

Industrial Pollution Area

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

Vehicular Pollution Area

TPL 506.81 g/ m3

Delay in

Flowering

Delay in

Flowering

Delay in

Flowering

Delay in

Flowering

2003 2004 2003 2004

C. fistula 12-15 days 14-16 days 11-14 days 15-20 days

C. siamea 15-20 days 16-18 days 10-12 days 8-10 days

C. pulcherrima 7-10 days 5 -7 days 8-11 days 11-14 days

D. regia 10-12 days 15-18 days 12-18 days 10-12 days

P. inerme 8-10 days 9-11 days 15-18 days 18-21 days

*TPL -Total Pollution Load (SO2 + NOx + SPM)


Flowers collected from polluted sites showed reduction in length and breadth of

sepals and petals. Length of stamens and carpel was also noted reduced (Table

9

1.2 to 1.6 and Fig. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). Maximum reduction was found in

Peltophorum inerme, i.e. 26.71 and 59.0 %, 27.48 and 53.30 % in IPA and VPA

respectively in length of sepals and petals. Whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima

showed minimum reduction, i.e. 3.27 % in sepals and 7.84, 13.27 % both in IPA

and VPA.

Table 1.2: Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Cassia fistula

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

% Reduction

Length of

sepals**

1.22

1.23

1.26

1.14

1.11

1.10

1.18

1.14

1.16

Average *** 1.23±0.16 1.11±0.16 9.75 % 1.16±0.16 5.69 %

Breadth of

sepals**

0.48

0.49

0.47

0.27

0.30

0.32

0.32

0.36

0.38

Average*** 0.48±0.08 0.29±0.20 39.58 % 0.35±0.21 27.0 %

Length of

petals**

2.83

2.86

2.84

1.18

1.14

2.20

1.87

1.74

1.69

Average*** 2.84±0.14 2.17±1.16 23.59 % 1.76±0.20 28.87 %

Breadth of

petals**

1.08

1.49

1.08

0.52

0.60

0.94

0.92

0.69

0.84

Average*** 1.21±0.60 0.68±0.57 43.25 % 0.81±0.41 32.25 %

**Length

of stamens

2.15

1.87

2.08

1.11

1.12

1.12

1.98

0.99

1.24

Average*** 2.03±0.46 0.90±0.53 44.82 % 1.40±0.74 30.87 %

Length of

Carpel**

1.97

1.70

1.71

0.96

0.92

0.87

1.43

1.29

1.20

Average*** 1.79±0.35 0.91±0.55 49.16 % 1.30±0.02 27.37 %

*TPL – Total Pollution Load, ** - Average of 100 flowers; *** - Average of 300 flowers LPA - Low Pollution Area, IPA- Industrial Pollution Area; VPA- Vehicular Pollution Area

Table 1.3 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Cassia siamea

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

%

Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

%

Reduction

Length of

sepals**

1.30

1.31

1.33

1.10

0.99

0.96

1.12

1.11

1.18

Average *** 1.31±0.14 1.01±0.20 22.90 % 1.13±0.57 13.74 %

Breadth of

sepals**

0.68

0.67

0.69

0.45

0.46

0.47

0.48

0.47

0.49

Average*** 0.68±0.11 0.46±0.11 32.35 % 0.48±0.11 29.41 %

Length of

petals**

2.43

2.40

2.41

0.97

0.98

1.12

0.99

1.21

1.10

Average*** 2.41±0.14 1.02±2.79 57.67 % 1.10±0.38 54.35 %

10

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

%

Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

%

Reduction

Breadth of

petals**

1.20

1.21

1.19

0.60

0.58

0.59

0.69

0.61

0.59

Average*** 1.20±0.11 0.59±011 50.83 % 0.63±0.08 47.5 %

**Length of

stamens

1.48

1.49

1.48

0.99

0.98

0.97

0.87

0.90

0.90

Average*** 1.48±0.08 0.98±0.11 33.78 % 0.90±0.08 39.18 %

Length of

Carpel**

1.50

1.50

1.49

1.47

1.48

1.46

1.48

1.49

1.48

Average*** 1.50±0.08 1.47±0.11 2.0 % 1.48±0.08 1.33 %

Table 1.4: Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Caesalpinia pulcherrima

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

%

Reduction

Length of

sepals**

1.22

1.26

1.20

1.18

1.17

1.20

1.19

1.18

1.17

Average *** 1.22±0.20 1.18±0.16 3.27 % 1.18±0.11 3.27 %

Breadth of

sepals**

0.58

0.49

0.48

0.48

0.40

0.46

0.38

0.47

0.48

Average*** 0.51±0.20 0.47±0.18 7.84 % 0.44±0.29 13.27 %

Length of

petals**

2.84

2.85

2.82

2.81

2.80

2.82

1.90

1.99

2.00

Average*** 2.83±0.16 2.81±0.11 0.70 % 1.96±0.29 30.74 %

Breadth of

petals**

0.64

0.59

0.62

0.59

0.58

0.60

0.48

0.61

0.49

Average*** 0.61±0.21 0.59±0.11 3.27 % 0.52±0.25 14.75 %

**Length

of stamens

4.6

4.4

4.3

3.9

4.1

3.8

4.00

4.2

3.9

Average*** 4.4±0.16 3.9±0.37 11.36 % 4.0±0.37 8.33 %

Length of

Carpel**

4.2

4.1

3.9

4.0

3.7

3.5

4.1

3.9

3.7

Average*** 4.0±0.57 3.7±0.46 7.5 % 3.9±0.51 2.5 %

Table 1.5 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Delonix regia

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

%

Reduction

Length of

sepals**

2.30

2.33

2.45

2.00

1.99

1.98

2.13

2.00

2.18

Average *** 2.36±0.34 1.99±0.11 15.67 % 2.10±0.37 11.01 %

Breadth of

sepals**

0.88

0.80

0.69

0.70

0.71

0.69

0.72

0.71

0.72

Average*** 0.79±0.85 0.70±0.11 11.39 % 0.71±0.11 10.12 %

11

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

%

Reduction

Length of

petals**

5.27

5.30

5.54

4.12

4.11

4.28

4.25

4.33

4.69

Average*** 5.37±0.47 4.17±0.66 22.34 % 4.42±0.59 17.69 %

Breadth of

petals**

3.72

3.68

3.67

3.10

3.18

3.04

3.41

3.20

3.11

Average*** 3.69±0.20 3.10±0.30 15.98 % 3.57±0.21 3.25 %

**Length

of stamens

3.80

3.70

3.90

2.52

3.60

2.80

3.20

2.99

3.40

Average*** 3.80±0.36 2.97±0.77 21.84 % 3.19±0.40 18.42 %

Length of

Carpel**

4.30

3.90

4.80

4.70

2.87

3.80

4.40

3.80

4.40

Average*** 4.30±0.25 3.79±1.00 11.86 % 4.20±0.36 2.32 %

Table 1.6 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Peltophorum inerme

Parameters

LPA

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

% Reduction

Length of

sepals**

1.31

1.32

1.30

0.99

0.96

0.94

0.98

0.91

0.98

Average *** 1.31±0.11 0.96±0.46 26.71 % 0.95±0.25 27.48 %

Breadth of

sepals**

0.70

0.69

0.67

0.37

0.30

0.32

0.30

0.36

0.25

Average*** 0.68±0.14 0.33±0.20 51.47 % 0.30±0.27 55.88 %

Length of

petals**

2.42

2.41

2.43

1.11

0.99

0.96

1.12

1.11

1.18

Average*** 2.42±0.11 0.99±0.34 59.0 % 1.13±0.23 53.30 %

Breadth of

petals**

1.21

1.19

1.42

0.38

0.45

0.46

0.42

0.47

0.50

Average*** 1.27±0.40 0.43±0.21 66.14 % 0.46±0.24 63.77 %

**Length of

stamens

1.40

1.49

1.50

0.86

0.87

0.88

0.89

0.87

0.96

Average*** 1.46±0.18 0.87±0.11 43.15 % 0.90±0.25 38.35 %

Length of

Carpel**

1.70

1.50

1.50

0.84

0.86

0.99

0.85

0.79

0.95

Average*** 1.56±0.23 0.89±0.34 42.94 % 0.86±0.37 44.87 %

The response of petals to air pollution was also similar to the sepals. The

perusal of tables clearly indicates that there was more reduction in length of

sepals and petals as compared to their width. The size of stamens and carpel

was also affected by pollution stress. Out of five test species maximum

reduction in length of stamens was noted in Cassia fistula, i.e. 44.82 and

30.87% in IPA and VPA respectively followed by Cassia siamea (Table 1.2 and

12

1.3), whereas minimum reduction in stamen size was found in Caesalpinia

pulcherrima, i.e. 11.36 and 8.33 % in IPA and VPA.

Regarding carpel, maximum reduction was found in Cassia fistula, where the

values were 49.16 and 27.37 % in IPA and VPA respectively. However the

minimum reduction in carpel length was observed in Cassia siamea (Table 1.3).

Overall it can be concluded that reduction in size of stamens and carpel was

more significant than sepals and petals. Flowers growing in IPA found to be

more affected than that of roadside plants (Fig. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3).

length of sepals breadth of sepals

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fig 1.1: % reduction in length and breadth of sepals over LPA

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

IPA VPA

% R

ed

ucti

on

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Fig 1.2 : % reduction in length and breadth of petals over LPA.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

IPA VPA

%

R

ed

ucti

on

IPALength of stamens Length of carpel0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Fig 1.3 : % reduction in length of stamens and carpel over LPA

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

% R

ed

uc

tio

n

IPA VPA Length of Petals Breadth of Petals Length of Petals Breadth of Petals

IPA VPA

Length of Stamens Length of Carpels Length of Stamens Length of Carpels

13

1.3.3 Flower Colour

The anthocyanins are known to impart colour to the flowers along with

carotenoids. In present study, it is visualized that air pollutants affected the

colour of flowers adversely. In general, an overall reducing trend was observed

in the floral colour in all the five test species in both the polluted sites as

compared to the reference area (Table 1.7 to 1.11). The data clearly indicates

that the flowers developing in vehicular pollution areas were affected more

adversely than the Industrially Polluted Area.

It is inferred that there was an overall increment in pigment content in all five

species with their increasing exposure time. However, when compared with the

pigment content of reference area a reduction was noted. The maximum

reduction in anthocyanin content in third day flower stage was observed in P.

inerme in VPA, which was 27.45% followed by C. fistula (18.46%); while it

was minimum in C. siamea, i.e. only 3.15%.

When compared to differently polluted area the floral pigment to be more

sensitive to vehicular pollution than industrial. This is true for all the five

species. Thus it appears that air around road side is more toxic to flower than

other areas in spite of low pollution load as compared to industrial area.

Table 1.7 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Cassia fistula

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

0 day 0.93 0.94 0.87

0.94 0.96 0.88

0.96 0.95 0.87

Average 0.95 0.16 0.00 0.95 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.87 0.08 0.00 8.42

1 day 0.96 0.98 0.94

0.95 0.98 0.96

0.97 0.97 0.95

Average 0.96 0.11 0.01 0.98 0.08 0.03 2.08 0.95 0.11 0.08 1.04

2nd

day 1.24 1.04 1.06

1.22 1.06 1.06

1.23 1.05 1.09

Average 1.23 0.11 0.27 1.05 0.11 0.10 14.63 1.07 0.08 0.20 13.00

3rd

day 1.31 1.20 1.05

1.29 1.21 1.08

1.30 1.20 1.07

Average 1.30 0.11 0.35 1.20 0.08 0.25 7.69 1.06 0.16 0.19 18.46

4th

day 1.29 1.09 0.99

1.26 1.11 1.10

1.27 1.10 0.98

Average 1.27 0.14 0.28 1.10 0.11 0.15 13.38 1.05 0.34 0.13 21.25

*TPL -Total Pollution Load, LPA - Low Pollution Area, IPA- Industrial Pollution Area; VPA- Vehicular Pollution Area

14

Table 1.8 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Cassia siamea

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

0 day 0.89 0.74 0.68

0.88 0.75 0.68

0.89 0.74 0.67

Average 0.89 0.08 0.00 0.74 0.08 0.00 16.85 0.67 0.08 0.00 23.59

1 day 0.89 0.94 0.89

0.91 0.93 0.70

0.90 0.95 0.70

Average 0.90 0.11 0.01 0.94 0.11 0.20 4.4 0.70 0.08 0.02 22.22

2nd

day 0.89 0.94 0.71

0.90 0.96 0.72

0.90 0.95 0.72

Average 0.90 0.08 0.01 0.95 0.11 0.21 5.55 0.72 0.08 0.04 20.00

3rd

day 0.94 0.96 0.98

0.96 0.95 0.98

0.95 0.97 0.97

Average 0.95 0.11 0.06 0.96 0.11 0.22 1.05 0.98 0.08 0.03 3.15

4th

day 1.06 1.04 1.07

1.06 1.06 1.09

1.09 1.03 1.08

Average 1.07 0.12 0.12 1.05 0.14 0.3 1.86 1.08 0.11 0.4 0.93

Table 1.9 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Caesalpinia pulcherrima

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

0 day 0.98 0.89 0.88

0.98 0.91 0.89

0.97 0.90 0.89

Average 0.98 0.08 0.00 0.90 0.11 0.00 8.16 0.89 0.08 0.00 9.18

1 day 1.01 0.91 0.98

1.03 0.91 0.97

1.02 0.90 0.98

Average 1.02 0.11 0.04 0.91 0.08 1.00 1.07 0.98 0.08 0.09 3.92

2nd

day 1.03 1.03 0.98

1.04 1.02 0.99

1.04 1.01 0.99

Average 1.04 0.08 0.06 1.02 0.11 12.0 1.92 0.99 0.08 0.10 4.80

3rd

day 1.06 1.09 0.99

1.06 1.11 0.98

1.07 1.10 0.99

Average 1.07 0.11 0.09 1.10 0.11 20.0 2.80 0.99 0.08 0.10 7.47

4th

day 1.28 1.20 1.20

1.27 1.19 1.21

1.22 1.19 1.20

Average 1.25 0.23 0.27 1.19 0.08 29.0 4.8 1.20 0.08 0.31 4.0

Table 1.10 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Delonix regia

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

0 day 1.01 0.89 0.89

0.02 0.90 0.88

0.03 0.90 0.89

Average 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.90 0.08 0.00 10.78 0.89 0.08 0.00 12.74

1 day 1.03 0.89 0.90

1.05 0.91 0.89

1.04 0.91 0.89

Average 1.04 0.08 0.02 0.91 0.08 0.20 12.5 0.90 0.08 0.01 13.46

2nd

day 1.20 1.19 0.90

1.22 1.20 1.06

1.21 1.21 1.07

Average 1.21 0.08 0.17 1.20 0.11 0.17 0.82 1.08 0.08 0.18 11.5

3rd

day 1.20 1.20 1.01

1.21 1.21 1.02

1.20 1.20 1.02

Average 1.20 0.08 0.16 1.20 0.08 0.16 00 1.02 0.08 0.13 15.0

15

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

4th

day 1.09 1.00 1.00

1.10 1.01 1.01

1.11 1.00 1.00

Average 1.10 0.08 0.08 1.00 0.08 0.08 9.0 1.00 0.08 0.11 9.0

Table 1.11 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Peltophorum inerme

Time

exposure

LPA

TPL*308.02 g/ m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

Increase

(in mg)

Increase over

0 day

%

Reduction

0 day 0.78 0.74 0.67

0.78 0.73 0.68

0.79 0.73 0.68

Average 0.78 0.08 0.00 0.73 0.08 0.00 6.4 0.68 0.08 0.00 12.8

1 day 0.79 0.79 0.69

0.80 0.78 0.70

0.80 0.78 0.70

Average 0.80 0.08 0.02 0.78 0.08 0.05 2.5 0.70 0.08 0.02 12.5

2nd

day 0.98 0.98 0.79

0.99 0.97 0.80

0.99 0.98 0.80

Average 0.99 0.21 0.21 0.980.08 0.25 1.0 0.80 0.08 0.10 19.19

3rd

day 1.01 0.98 0.73

1.02 0.99 0.74

1.03 0.99 0.75

Average 1.02 0.14 0.24 0.99 0.08 0.26 2.94 0.74 0.11 0.06 27.45

4th

day 0.99 0.98 0.74

0.98 0.97 0.76

0.99 0.97 0.75

Average 0.99 0.11 0.21 0.97 0.08 0.24 2.02 0.75 0.11 0.07 24.24


Fresh and dry weights of flowers of different plant species are presented in

Table 1.12 and % reduction is presented in Fig. 1.4. It is evident that maximum

reduction in flower weight has taken place in vehicular area and minimum at

industrial area. Out of five test species, it is observed that flowers of Delonix

Fresh weight IPA

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Fig 1.4 : % Reduction in fresh and dry weight of flower over LPA.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

% R

ED

UC

TIO

N

IPA VPA

Fresh Weight Dry Weight Fresh Weight Dry Weight

16

regia appeared to be more sensitive to air pollution, as regards the biomass, as

there was 35.95 % and 43.77 % reduction in dry weight was noted respectively

in both IPA and VPA. Minimum reduction was noted in Peltophorum inerme

19.40% and 27.53% in both IPA and VPA in dry weight as compared to

unaffected area, i.e. LPA. These results once again proved the toxicity of the air

pollutants (Fig. 1.4).

Table 1.12 : Fresh and Dry weight (g) of 100 flowers

Name of plant

species

Low Pollution Area

TPL*308.02 g/m3


TPL* 539.15 g/m3


TPL* 506.81 g/m3

Fresh wt. Dry

wt.

Fresh wt. %

Red.

Dry wt. %

Red.

Fresh wt. %

Red.

Dry wt. %

Red.

C. fistula 60.00

65.50

68.00

6.75

7.36

7.65

58.60

54.00

56.30

12.71

5.30

4.88

5.09

29.78

56.98

54.05

55.51

13.93

4.60

4.36

4.48

38.20

Average 64.50±3.26 7.25 ±0.37 56.30±1.75 5.09±0.52 55.51±1.39 4.48±1.37

C. siamea 32.00

35.50

37.50

5.30

5.87

6.21

31.07

28.00

30.00

15.17

4.13

3.72

3.98

31.84

33.34

28.50

30.00

12.53

3.74

3.19

3.36

40.72

Average 35.00±2.00 5.79±0.81 29.69±1.49 3.94±0.54 30.61±1.90 3.43±0.61

C. pulcherrima 25.00 28.50

31.00

3.19 3.63

3.95

24.61 28.00

26.30

6.59

2.62 2.98

2.79

22.09

24.82 22.00

20.00

20.91

2.50 2.21

2.01

37.56

Average 28.16±2.05 3.59±1.00 26.30±1.50 2.79±.43 22.27±3.79 2.24±0.20

D. regia 200.0

215.0

211.0

43.72

46.99

46.12

198.01

195.05

196.53

5.18

29.43

28.99

29.21

35.95

197.82

175.00

180.00

11.68

27.53

24.35

25.05

43.77

Average 208.66±2.90 45.61±1.35 196.53±1.40 29.21±0.54 184.27±3.51 25.64±1.67

P. inerme 35.00

40.50

42.50

11.64

13.46

14.13

33.46

30.00

31.73

19.32

11.11

9.96

10.53

19.40

33.92

28.00

31.00

21.24

10.42

8.60

9.52

27.20

Average 39.33±2.40 13.07±1.35 31.73±1.51 10.53±0.87 30.97±1.99 9.51±1.10


Air pollution has also been found to affect pollen germination adversely in all

test species (Table 1.13 and Fig. 1.5). The maximum reduction in percent

germination of pollen grains was noted in Cassia siamea i.e. 31.51 in VPA, and

minimum in Cistula fistula 19.15 % in IPA. Whereas maximum reduction was

noted in C. pulcherrima 17.08% and minimum in Cassia siamea 0.97%. Thus

different species respond differently two types of pollution.

Table 1.13 : Pollen germination of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of plant

species

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/m3

% Reduction

C. fistula 74.33 2.03 60.09 1.93 19.15 % 63.00 4.66 15.24 %

C. siamea 67.91 2.33 46.51 2.3 31.51 % 67.25 1.99 0.97 %

C. pulcherrima 65.83 1.23 51.58 1.95 21.64 % 54.58 2.1 17.08 %

D. regia 84.04 7.08 63.68 4.33 24.22 % 73.11 7.08 13.00 %

P. inerme 84.98 1.34 62.72 3.46 26.19 % 73.28 5.38 13.76 %

17

1.3.6 Pollen Size

The size of pollen grains was found to be affected by pollution stress. (Table

1.14 and Fig.1.6). Higher percentage reduction was noted in IPA than in

roadside plants. Maximum reduction in pollen size was observed in Delonix

regia, i.e. 48.83 and 42.48 % respectively in IPA and VPA sites. While

minimum reduction was noted in Peltophorum inerme 15.54 and 13.26 %

respectively at IPA and VPA sites. It is evident from data presented in Table

1.6. that in IPA, air was more harmful for the pollens growth and development

than VPA. A size wise reduction was also noted. The greater the size of the

pollen, more was the reduction irrespective of the pollution area. Smaller size

pollens were least affected like P. inerme.

Table 1.14 : Pollen diameter () in plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of plant

species

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/m3

% Reduction

C. fistula 53.1± 1.24 43.5 ± 1.25 18.07 % 45.2 ± 1.23 14.87 %

C. siamea 57 ± 1.30 38.1 ± 1.39 33.15 % 38.8 ± 1.28 31.92 %

C. pulcherrima 54 ± 1.20 37.1 ± 1.38 31.29 % 38.7 ± 1.27 28.33 %

D. regia 64.5 ± 1.27 33.0 ± 1.27 48.83 % 37.1 ± 1.38 42.48 %

P. inerme 52.1 ± 1.24 44 ± 1.25 15.54 % 45.0 ± 1.22 13.62 %

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fig. 1.6 : % reduction in Pollen size over control.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

IPA

%

Re

du

cti

on

IPA VPA

18

1.3.7 Pollen Tube Length

Pollen tube length was found to be much lower in IPA as compared to VPA. A

general reducing trend in pollen tube length in both polluted sites was recorded.

(Table 1.15 and Fig. 1.7). The maximum reduction in pollen tube length was

noted in Cassia siamea, i.e. 52.98, 46.51 % in IPA and VPA respectively.

Whereas minimum reduction in IPA in Caesalpinia pulcherrima 19.17% and

Delonix regia 16.16% in VPA respectively as compared to unaffected area.

D. regia was least affected by pollution stress.

Table 1.15 : Pollen tube length () of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of Plant

species

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/m3

% Reduction

C. fistula 176.1 ± 21.22 137.1 ± 19.08 22.20 % 138.5 ± 19.03 21.35 %

C. siamea 218.0 ± 7.06 102.5 ± 8.23 52.98 % 116.6 ± 19.61 46.51 %

C. pulcherrima 182.5 ± 30.41 147.5 ± 29.18 19.17 % 138.5 ± 15.80 31.67 %

D. regia 177.5 ± 30.76 143.3 ± 12.11 19.26 % 148.0 ± 19.86 16.61 %

P. inerme 182.6 ± 33.58 126.5 ± 22.76 30.72 % 138.5 ± 22.5 24.15 %

C.fistula C.siamea C.pulcherrima D.regia P.inerme

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fig 1.7 : % reduction in pollen tube length over LPA.

IPA

VPA

%

Re

du

cti

on


Pollen viability is a very important character to assess reproductive behaviour of

plants. In present study it was noted to be reduced in both the polluted sites

(Table 1.16 and Fig. 1.8). There was more reduction in pollen viability in VPA

as compared to IPA. The maximum reduction in pollen viability was found in

Peltophorum inerme 38.27 % and Caesalpinia pulcherrima, i.e. 38.29% in IPA

and VPA and minimum reduction was recorded in Cassia siamea, i.e. 20.73 %

19

and 17.07 % in both IPA and VPA. Thus it appears that to urban air pollutants

the least affected pollens grains were of Cassia siamea.

Table 1.16 : Percent viable pollens of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of

plant species

Low Pollution Area

TPL*308.02 g/ m3


TPL* 539.15 g/ m3


TPL* 506.81 g/ m3 Total no.

of pollens

Viable

pollens

Non-

viable

pollens

Total no.

of pollens

Viable

pollens

Non-viable

pollens

% Red. in

viable

pollens

Total no.

of pollens

Viable

pollens

Non-viable

pollens

% Red. in

viable

pollens

C. fistula 96 83 13 79 63 16 24.09 69 61 08 26.50

C. siamea 90 82 08 74 65 09 20.73 79 68 11 17.07

C. pulcherrima 98 94 04 76 67 09 28.72 64 58 06 38.29

D. regia 84 73 11 70 55 15 31.50 70 57 13 21.91

P. inerme 88 81 07 60 50 10 38.27 71 61 10 24.69

IPA0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fig 1.8 : % reduction in pollen viabilty over LPA.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

% R

ed

ucti

on

1.4 Discussion

1.4.1 Time of Flowering

Air pollutants are influencing the plants in various ways. Apart from vegetative

parts, reproductive parts are also showing significant variations under pollution

stress. One of the most prominent features is delayed flowering in plants

growing in polluted habitats. Pawar (1983) and Dubey (1985) have reported this

in Mangferia indica, Delonix regia and Acacia arabica trees growing in

industrially polluted area with predominance of SO2. Recently Chauhan et al.

(2004) has also reported delayed flowering and reduced floral density in Cassia

siamea growing along road side of Agra one of the highly polluted cities of our

country. Thus the present findings are in confirmation with these earlier reports.

Pawar and Dubey (1985) correlate this delay with air pollution stress because

due to many physiological and bio-chemical alterations, less photosynthate is

available for reproductive growth and development.

IPA VPA

20

1.4.2 Morphology of Flowers

Higher value of Length and Breadth ratio (L/B) clearly indicated that there was

more reduction in length of sepals and petals as compared to their width.

Generally reduction in length of both floral parts, i.e. sepals and petals results

has been noted maximum.

The reduction in number of flower size and cone development due to the air

pollution specially SO2 has been reported by many workers (Houston and

Dochinger 1977, Beda 1982 and Ernst et al. 1985) Flower size reduction in

calendula due to SO2 exposure has been reported (Singh et al. 1985 and Yunus

et al. 1985).

Joshi and Sikka (2002) have reported reduced fresh and dry weight in flowers of

Cassia fistula, Delonix regia and Peltophorum inerme growing in differently

polluted are of Indore city. Pollution induced changes in floral morphology of

Cassia siamea has been reported recently by Chauhan et al. (2004).

Higher reduction in size of stamens and carpel in comparison to sepals and

petals can be attributed to their more complex physiological and biochemical

requirements. Maximum flower size reduction in C. fistula as compared to other

species is a result of its higher sensitivity to air pollution, which has been

reported earlier on the basis of various morphological and phytochemical

observations by many workers (Pawar 1982, Joshi 1989, Singh and Rao 1983,

Agrawal 1986). Thus it is obvious that C. fistula is a very sensitive plant to

urban air pollution not only regarding its vegetative and biochemical aspects but

reproductive behaviour as well.

1.4.3 Flower Colour

Increment in floral pigment with their age can be attributed to the effect of light.

Exposure of plants to white light increases the anthocyanin content in flowers

resulted in their darkening (Stafford 1965 and Drumm and Mohr 1978). In the

present study also the same pattern was observed. However the higher rates of

reduction in anthocyanin pigment of flowers growing in polluted sites with their

exposure time in comparison to low polluted area can be attributed to the

phytotoxic activity of air pollutants. The decrease in floral colour in polluted

21

areas appears to be enzymatic in nature. Increased activities of glucosidase and

poly-phenolonidase in the plant growing in mixed pollution area (Godzite 1967)

and glycosidase (Bucher 1979) have been reported, which are known to reduce

their pigments (Goodwin 1976). One of the reasons for plant wise variation in

anthocyanin content reduction can be related to the thickness of petals. More

reduction in P. inerme and C. fistula may be due their thin and delicates petals.

Since the bright colour of flowers serve to attract the pollinators and thus ensure

the pollination effectively. Fading of the flowers in such polluted habitats may

also results in less fruiting and seed setting especially in entomophyllous

flowers.


Decrease flower weight in polluted sites is related to reduction in floral size.

Such changes in floral biomass can be either indirect effect of air pollution due

to less allocation of photosynthates (Lechowicz 1987) or a direct effect of toxic

gases on floral parts during their growth and development. There observations

are in confirmation with earlier reports (Joshi and Sikka 2002). Higher

sensitivity of Cassia fistula flower in comparison to rest of the species can be

attributed to its overall sensitivity of plant, and can be accounted to the delicacy

of floral parts, which remained totally exposed to pollutants to right from their

initiation to full bloom in absence of leaves. Minimum alteration in C. siamea

and P. inerme can be account on their resistant nature of their plants. These two

plants have also been reported to have higher value of Air pollution Tolerance

Index (Singh and Rao 1983 and Agrawal 1986).

1.4.5 Pollen Characters

The pollen grains are very sensitive to air pollution and thus have been used for

monitoring of atmospheric pollution (Rosen 1983). The sensitivity of pollens to

SO2 (Karmosky and Stairs 1974 and Varshney and Varshney 1981) and

fluorides (Facteau and Rowe 1977) has been reported as poor germination and

reduced tube growth.

In present study also reduction in pollen grains size, viability, germination and

tube length has been noted in all the plant species studied. These effects are

22

considered to be the influence of various air pollution combinations of IPA and

VPA sites, effect of other pollutants cannot be denied too.

Increased SO2 concentration is reported to reduce pollen germination

significantly (Dubey 1983 and Varshney and Varshney 1981, 1986). Similarly

Krishnayya and Bedi (1986) have reported reduced pollen germination and seed

viability in two species of Cassia growing near highways as a function of lead

accumulation thought they mainly consider it as an effect of lead. Reduction in

pollen size, viability and shape reduction in pine pollens have been reported by

Fedatov et al. (1983). Reduced pollen viability in some vegetables as a function

of SO2 pollution in the vicinity of Mathura refinery was also reported by

Bhardwaj and Chauhan (1990). The present findings regarding the interaction of

pollen characteristics and urban pollutants are in confirmation with findings of

Joshi and Sikka (2002) and Chauhan et al. (2004). The highest reduction in

pollen size in D. regia as compared to other fours species can be attributed to

the pollen size. Because D. regia pollens are bigger in their size and thus they

require more photosynthate to maintain it, which is poorly available under

pollution stress. This might have resulted in higher reduction in size. Reduction

in pollen size due to high pollution in Pinus sylvestris have been reported

(Mamajev and Shkarlet 1972). Recently Chauhan et al. (2004) has also reported

change in morphology especially in ornamentations of pollen grains of C.

siamea pollen collected from high vehicular load. Such pollen grains failed to

show distinct colpi and reticulate sculpturing with comparison to less polluted

sites. They opined that this is due to the deposition of pollutants particularly,

suspended particulates matter due to heavy movement of automobiles.

But this interpretation does not seem to be logical because change in surface

characteristic might be a result of overall pollution load. Actually during

development stage; pollen grains are concealed in anther lobe. Hence these are

not coming in direct contact with particulate matter. Ornamentation and other

morphological features have been taken shape prior to anthesis. So these

changes might have occurred before anthesis.

In most of the studies carried out in areas exposed to industrially polluted, yet in

most instance it is accompanied by other pollutants and additive effects must be

reckoned with Bonte (1982). Nakada et al. (1976) showed the in vitro studies

23

indicates that the addition of SO2 to NO2 or O3 or HCHO, considerably increase

the percentage inhibition compared with the action of each product examined

separately.

There is little information available on the mechanism of action of SO2 on the

pollen tube. However Ma et al. (1973) have measured the pollen mitotic index

of Tradescantia paludosa treated in vitro by SO2 they assumed the SO2 broke

down the chromosomes of the pollen tube. Delayed and reduced floral yield of

carnation and geranium species have been reported along with vegetative

growth retardation (Feder 1970). Ozone induced inhibition in pollen

germination and pollen tube growth has been observed (Feder 1981). Work

done by Mumford et al. (1972) suggests that O3 induces the autolysis of

structural glycoproteins and stimulates amino-acid synthesis in pollen and

inhibited germination by 40-90 %.

Thus it can be concluded that the changes observed in present study in flowers

and pollens grains are the results of cumulative effect of urban air pollutants, i.e.

SO2, NOX and Photochemical oxidants along with particulates.

24

Air Pollution Impact on Fruits

2.1 Introduction

The union of the male and female generative cells, after pollination, to form the

fertilized egg leads to the formation of fruits and seeds. A fruit is the mature

female part specially ovary which may or may not include other parts of the

flower. The seed is the ripened ovule contained within the fruit. Later on in due

course of time germination of seeds give rise to new plants.

Seeds are typically composed of three parts the embryo, endosperm and the

seed coat. Fruits may contain one to several seeds. The term „fruit‟ and „seed‟

are often used loosely, for example the so called „seeds‟ of many members of

poaceae are actually one seeded fruits. There are different types of fruits,

depending on how they are derived. They may be fleshy, dry indehiscent,

dehiscent, aggregate etc. The fruits of Leguminoceae are derived from single

carpel with marginal placentation having one to many seeds. These fruits are

dry dehiscent or indehiscent and commonly called Pods.

Most angiospermic seeds have a seed coat derived from either two integuments

or single integument of the ovule. In bitegmic seeds the term „testa‟ is applied

only to the outer layer, formed from outer integument, the part formed from the

inner integument being the tegment.

Seed coat may be complex multilayered tissue or simply enlarged ovule wall.

This generally includes a hard, protective layer formed from all or part of the

testa. Corner (1976) has classified seed coat according to the position of this

mechanical layer. In exotestal seedcoat the mechanical layer is formed from

the outer epidermis of the outer integument and in endotegmic seed coat, it is

derived from the inner wall of the inner integument. Some times the mechanical

layer consists of one or more rows of elongated, palisade like cells, such as the

macrosclerides in the exotesta of many leguminoceae, which is the family under

study during the present research work.

Apart from the obvious mechanical protective function, to prevent destruction

of the seed by dehydration or predation, the seed coat often has important

subsidiary functions, usually related to dispersal. These may bear corresponding

25

specialized structures. Like presence of wings in wind dispersal seeds and

fleshy seeds for dispersal by animals.

Of the many seeds produced by a plant, only a small proportion survives.

Predation, rotting, falling in the wrong place or any of the many other natural

and man made hazards besetting a seed. Those that do survive will sooner or

later germinate.

While the seed is dormant, all its processes are slowed down so as to utilize

available limited food resources very economically to keep the embryo alive.

When the dormancy is broken and the conditions are favorable for germination,

the seed rapidly takes in water and the respiration rate rises back to normal as

cell starts to grow and divide. The area of greatest growth at first is the root

initial and young root soon pushes its way out through the seed coat. Such seeds

are called as germinated.

At germination the testa is ruptured and the radicle emerges through the

micropyle. The seedling is the most Juvenile stage of the plant, immediately

after germination, seedlings have a root (radicle) and a hypocotyls, which bears

the cotyledons and plumules bud. This bud produces the stem and leaves, which

soon resemble those of the mature plant. The cotyledons or seed leaves usually

differ from the first foliage leaves. In large seeded dicotyledons such as the

legumes the cotyledons are fleshy and swollen, with a food storage function.

The overall physiology and biochemistry of sexual reproduction i.e. flowering,

fruiting, seed setting and seed germination is influenced by various

environmental constrains of which air pollution is one of the most significant

factors. Looking to the deteriorating air quality the present study was planned to

assess the impact of urban air pollution on fruits and seeds of the selected plant

species.

2.2 Experimental

Apart from foliar injury plants also show changes in their reproductive parts

too, in response to polluted air. This study was aimed to know the effects of air

pollution on fruit morphology and seed quality. The colour, size and weight of

fruits and seeds along with seed count and viability were studied.

26


Mature pods of C. fistula, C. siamea, C. pulcherrima, D. regia and P. inerme

were collected during 2002, 2003and 2004 from the selected areas of Indore

city from a height of 3 to 4 meter. Colour of pods and injury symptoms on them

were recorded visually and compared with reference area.

2.2.1 Size of Pods

Pod size measurement was performed by taking 20 pods from five trees of each

test species brought to the laboratory in polythene bags. Thus 100 pods from

each species from every study area were collected. Length and Breadth of pods

were recorded with the help of a standards measuring tape. In case of C. fistula

in place of breadth diameter was measured.

2.2.3. Weight of Pods

Hundred pods each for year 2002, 2003 and 2004 were collected from different

pollution areas along with Low pollution area were dried in oven at 80º C for 24

hours and their dry weight was recorded using an electronic balance. The results

are presented as grams per pod.

2.2.4 Seed Count

The effect of airborne pollutants on seed per fruit of selected tree species was

also studied. For this purpose seeds were taken out from the pods collected or

dry weight measurement and seed number per pod was also recorded.


Seed viability was tested following Cottrell (1947) to test the viability imbibed

seed were cut, so that the embryo is bisected and then seed were placed in a

1.0% solution of 2,3,5 Triphenyl -2 H-tetrazolium chloride (TTC). Viable

embryo releases hydrogen ion during respiration, which combines with TTC,

imparting red or pink colour to seeds. The seeds in which embryo turned pink or

red after 24 hours were considered as viable and their number were recorded.

The test was conducted in petri plates containing filter paper. Four replicates of

27

25 seeds per petri plates were used for the study. The results are presented as

percent viability.

Like other aerial parts of the plant fruit are also remain exposed to polluted air

throughout their developmental span. This ranges from few months to years

depending upon the nature of plants. During this prolonged exposure they

interact with air pollutants resulting in the variation in various morphological

features like shape, size and colour.

2.3 Results


Like leaves the fruit also remain exposed to the ambient air during their

developmental period, thus they too showed response to polluted air. The pods

of all the test species collected from polluted sites appeared dark in colour as

compared to the pods collected from low pollution area, which were less dark

and shiny.

It was also observed that the colour of the pods growing in Industrial Pollution

area affected more than pods collected from Vehicular Pollution Area. In most

of pods their normal dark brown colour has turned in to dark brown to black due

to the interaction of pollutants and deposition of particulate matter on them.

Chlorotic and necrotic spots with tip burn were also observed in some pods of

C. pulcherrima in the polluted areas (Table 2.1, Plate-2.1 to 2.5).

Table 2.1: Colour of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of Plant

species

Low Pollution Area

TPL* 308.02 g/m3

Industrial Pollution

Area

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3

Vehicular Pollution

Area

TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

C. fistula Blackish-brown Dark black brown Dark black brown

C. siamea Brownish Light brown Light brown

C. pulcherrima Brown Dark brown Dark brown

D. regia Dark black Dark black brown Dark black brown

P. inerme Shiny blackish-brown Blackish brown Blackish brown

*TPL -Total Pollution Load

28

2.3.2. Size of Pods

The polluted air has affected the size of the pods. There was a reduction in

length as well as breadth of the pods in plants growing in different polluted

sites. It is evident from the data presented in Table 2.2 and Fig. 2.1 that the

reduction in pod length was more in Industrial Polluted Area as compared to

Vehicular Polluted Area.

Plate-2.1: Cassia fistula pods showing

colour change and size reduction. Plate-2.2: Cassia siamea pods showing

colour change and size reduction.

Plate-2.3: Caesalpinia pulcherrima pods

showing colour change and size

reduction.

Plate-2.4: Peltoforum inerme pods

showing colour change and size

reduction.

Plate-2.5: Delonix regia pods showing

size reduction.

29

Table 2.2 : Length and Breadth Ratio of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of

Plant

species

Y

E

A

R

Low Pollution Area

TPL*308.02 g/m3


TPL* 539.15 g/m3


TPL* 506.81 g/m3

L B L/B

Ratio

L B L/B

Ratio

%

Red

(L)

% Red

(B) L B L/B

Ratio

%

Red

(L)

% Red

(B)

C.

fistula

S1

S2

S3

41.00

40.32

41.24

8.00

7.99

8.09

5.12

5.04

5.09

34.85

38.92

37.99

7.34

7.54

7.42

4.74

5.16

5.11

37.87

36.45

39.20

7.87

7.33

8.13

4.81

4.71

4.82

A 40.85

±0.24

8.02

±0.10

5.09

±0.20

37.25

0.20

7.43

±1.10

5.01

±0.48

8.81 7.35 37.84

±0.52

7.91

±0.68

4.78

±0.49

7.36 1.37

C.

siamea

S1

S2

S3

17.42

17.36

17.28

1.20

1.30

1.20

14.51

13.35

14.40

15.24

14.74

16.40

1.1

0.9

0.8

13.85

16.37

20.50

16.27

16.98

16.54

1.20

1.10

1.10

13.5

15.4

15.0

A 17.35

±0.10

1.20

±0.01

14.08

±0.08

15.46

±1.48

0.9

±0.01

16.90

±3.25

10.89 18.18 16.59

±0.59

1.10

±0.01

14.67

±0.67

4.38 8.33

C.

pulche-

rrima

S1

S2

S3

10.1

9.74

10.3

1.5

1.4

1.6

6.73

6.95

6.27

9.54

8.99

9.39

1.1

1.3

1.5

6.81

6.91

6.26

9.62

9.70

9.02

1.40

1.32

1.20

6.87

7.34

7.51

A 10.04

±1.29

1.5

±1.11

6.65

±1.35

9.30

±1.29

1.4

±1.10

6.66

±1.54

7.37 6.66 9.44

±1.78

1.30

±1.15

7.2

±1.29

5.97 13.3

D.

regia

S1

S2

S3

39.25

38.00

37.75

3.15

3.50

3.60

12.46

10.85

10.48

37.46

37.89

38.20

3.10

3.48

3.56

12.08

10.88

10.73

38.24

38.43

37.09

3.12

3.34

3.52

12.25

11.50

10.70

A 38.33

±0.83

3.48

±0.41

11.05

±0.56

37.85

±1.20

3.43

±1.38

11.06

±1.06

1.25 1.45 37.42

±0.42

3.31

±0.08

11.5

±1.08

1.06

4.88

P.

inerme

S1

S2

S3

9.60

9.77

9.82

2.2

2.0

2.1

4.36

4.88

4.67

7.43

8.24

9.47

1.7

2.00

1.9

4.36

4.12

4.98

8.29

8.74

9.59

1.9

2.1

1.9

4.36

4.16

5.04

A 9.73

±0.43

2.1

±0.02

4.64

±0.58

8.38

±1.28

1.85

0.42

4.60

0.28

14.40 11.90 8.87

±0.93

1.9

0.20

4.44

0.43

8.83 9.52

*TPL -Total Pollution Load, L – Length, B – Breadth, Red – Reduction,

Sampling year - S1 –2002, S2 –2003, S3–2004 ; A – Average Values

Maximum reduction in pod length was noted in P. inerme where it was 14.40 %

and 8.83% respectively in IPA and VPA with reference to LPA. Whereas

minimum reduction was recorded in D. regia where the values were 1.25 % and

1.06% respectively in IPA and VPA. The rest of two species of Cassia appeared

more or less affected similarly at both sites.

The breadths of the pods were also found decreased in all the species.

Maximum reduction in breadth of the pod was recorded in C. siamea (18.18%)

and C. pulcherrima (13.30%) respectively in IPA and VPA. Regarding breadth

of pod C. fistula found to be affected least in VPA.

30

The L/B ratio of pods was also changed (Table 2.2). There was a slight increase

in the ratio for C. siamea, C. pulcherrima and D. regia. However this ratio

decreased in P. inerme and C. fistula showed that the pods breadth was

comparatively more affected than length in most of the species studied. Thus it

can be concluded that there was overall growth retardation in pods of all the test

species growing in polluted areas.


Dry weight of pods is presented in Table 2.3. It can be seen from the table that

dry weight of pods has also been reduced in all the plant species. The maximum

reduction was observed in C. siamea i.e. 44.0 % in IPA and 30.30 % in VPA

and minimum in C. pulcherrima, i.e 8.96% in IPA and 8.79% in VPA

respectively. Whereas D. regia and P. inerme showed more than 20 % reduction

in dry weight. Areas wise there was more reduction in pod dry weight in

Industrial area than Vehicular area (Fig. 2.3).

Table 2.3 : Dry weight of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of

Plant

species

Year

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15

g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL* 506.81

g/m3

% Reduction

C. fistula

2002

2003

2004

67.92

65.70

63.82

51.78

54.48

52.72

50.88

53.74

55.34

Avg. 65.81±2.80 52.99 ± 1.25 19.48 % 53.32 ± 3.40 18.97 %

C. pulcherrima

2002

2003

2004

12.37

11.69

10.42

11.98

10.23

9.17

9.09

10.87

11.48

Avg. 11.49±0.65 10.46 ± 1.34 8.96 % 10.48 ± 1.02 8.97%

C. siamea

2002

2003

2004

12.97

13.11

13.53

7.28

7.39

7.47

8.98

9.59

9.04

Avg. 13.20±0.05 7.38±0.006 44.0 % 9.20 ±0.05 30.30%

D. regia

2002

2003

2004

77.93

68.43

67.71

51.27

54.25

56.79

57.64

51.37

58.45

Avg. 71.35±2.95 54.10±5.08 24.17% 55.82 2.95 21.76%

P. inerme

2002

2003

2004

10.37

10.87

9.24

8.52

6.56

7.88

8.63

7.48

7.69

Avg. 10.16±0.09 7.65±0.66 24.70% 7.93 0.15 21.91%

* TPL - Total Pollution Load, ** Avg. - Average of 100 pods

31

IPA VPA

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Fig. 2.3 : % reduction in dry weight of pods over LPA.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

%

R

ed

ucti

on

2.3.4. Seed count

A perusal of Table 2.4 to 2.8 indicates that there was a reduction in seed

number, which ranges from 20.55 % to 3.15 %. The maximum lowering in seed

per pod was noted in C. siamea in Industrial area, while the minimum reduction

was recorded for C. pulcherrima in VPA. The response of C. fistula, D. regia

and P. inerme was almost same in both the polluted sites (Fig. 2.4).

0

5

10

15

20

25

Fig. 2.4 : % reduction in Seed/pod over LPA.

C.fistula

C.siamea

C.pulcherrima

D.regia

P.inerme

IPA VPA

%

Re

du

cti

on

Further it is also evident that number of unhealthy seeds per pod is high in both

the polluted sites in comparison with reference area. It clearly indicates that

whatever be the nature of the pollutant it adversely influenced the seed number

and quality.

On the overall basis it can be stated that the colour, size, shape, weight and

number of seeds per pod all were adversely affected by air pollution prevailing

32

in the area. Higher reduction in industrial pollution area in above parameters in

comparison to vehicular pollution area corresponds to the preventing pollution.

Table 2.4 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Cassia fistula growing in different

polluted areas of Indore city

Year

Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3

No. of

seed per

pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed per

pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed per

pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

2002 46.44 46.00 0.44 46.00 44.87 1.13 45.80 44.68 1.12

2003 46.96 46.28 0.68 45.98 44.88 1.10 45.00 43.96 1.04

2004 62.09 51.51 0.68 45.04 43.89 1.15 46.12 45.03 1.09

51.83

3.69

47.93

2.18

0.60

0.46

45.67

0.92

44.54

0.93

1.12

0.20

45.64

.92

44.55

0.89

1.08

0.65

#11.88 % #11.94%

*TPL -Total Pollution Load, # % Reduction

Table 2.5 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Cassia siamea growing in different


Year


No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed per

pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

2002 23.88 22.64 0.16 17.20 16.96 0.20 19.48 18.52 19.38

2003 20.12 19.88 0.16 17.08 17.00 0.08 22.36 21.84 0.28

2004 21.96 21.72 0.24 17.06 17.04 0.20 20.92 20.02 0.72

21.65

1.64

21.41

1.43

0.18

0.17

17.20

0.41

17.12

0.41

0.16

0.32

20.92

1.38

20.18

1.52

6.79

2.94

#5.08% #3.37%

Table 2.6 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Caesalpinia pulcherrima growing in

different polluted areas of Indore city

Year


No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

2002 8.20 8.12 0.12 7.96 7.44 0.52 7.90 7.34 0.56

2003 8.28 8.16 0.12 8.00 7.60 0.56 7.99 7.51 0.48

2004 824 8.16 0.08 7.80 7.32 0.48 8.05 7.46 0.59

8.24

0.23

8.14

0.20

0.10

0.20

7.92

0.49

7.45

0.49

0.52

0.23

7.98

0.32

7.43

0.28

0.54

0.29

#3.88% #3.15%

Table 2.7 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Delonix regia growing in different


Year


No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

2002 24.40 24.28 0.12 20.24 20.00 0.24 21.24 20.80 0.36

2003 23.28 22.96 0.32 20.36 20.04 0.32 23.08 22.28 0.08

2004 23.20 22.36 0.34 20.44 20.02 0.24 22.25 21.75 0.45 23.96

0.48

22.84

0.84

0.42

0.46

20.34

0.38

20.02

0.16

0.26

0.25

22.28

0.43

21.94

0.53

0.29

1.15 #15.10% #7.01%

33

Table 2.8 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Peltophorum inerme growing in

different polluted areas of Indore city

Year


No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed per

pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

No. of

seed

per pod

No. of

healthy

seed

No. of

unhealthy

seed

2002 2.24 2.05 0.19 2.12 1.80 0.32 2.18 1.90 0.28

2003 2.48 2.28 0.20 2.22 1.84 0.38 2.23 1.89 0.34

2004 2.01 2.17 0.24 2.27 1.83 0.44 2.29 1.81 0.48

2.57

0.80

2.36

0.60

0.21

0.20

2.20

0.33

1.82

0.18

0.38

0.28

2.23

0.27

1.86

0.25

0.36

0.17

#14.39% #13.22%

*TPL -Total Pollution Load, # % Reduction


Perusal of Table 2.9 and Fig. 2.5 revealed that air pollution has adversely

affected seed viability. The seed viability was more reduced in Industrial

Polluted Area than Vehicular Pollution Area. Maximum reduction in seed

viability was observed in D. regia i.e. 8.04% in IPA, and minimum reduction in

seed viability was recorded in C. pulcherrima, i.e. 2.22% in IPA. While in VPA

maximum reduction in seed viability was noted in C. siamea, i.e. 6.3 and

minimum in C. fistula 3.29%.

2.4 Discussion

Significant morphological and physiological changes in the leaves exposed to

air pollutants have been extensively worked out by many workers (Jacbson and

Hill 1970, Chaphekar 1972, Sharma 1976, Pawar and Dubey 1983, Pandya and

Bedi 1986 and Rangrajan et al. 1979).

These alterations are not restricted to vegetative parts only but greatly influence

reproductive structures too. Changes in pod colour, size and dry weight were

noticed during the present study this has also affected the overall fruit and seed

quality.

The darkening of the pods observed in plants facing air pollution may be due to

the impact of various gaseous as well as particulates present in the air. Pods of

plants such as D. regia and C. fistula remain exposed to air for months together.

Thus interacting with pollutants for longer duration, which result in alteration in

the physiological processes of fruit ripening, which may cause deviation in the

normal colour of the fruit. The darkening of the colour of pods may be

34

attributed to the loss of photosynthetic pigments as a result of harmful effects of

pollutants during their developmental stage and deposition of chemically active

particulates on them.

Table 2.9 : Seed viability of plant species collected from different polluted areas of

Indore city

Name of

plant

species

Year

LPA

TPL* 308.08 g/m3

IPA

TPL* 539.15 g/m3

VPA

TPL* 506.81 g/m3

% of viable seeds# % of viable

seeds#

% Reduction % of viable

seeds#

% Reduction

C. fistula

2002

2003

2004

92

88

90

80

84

88

84

88

92

Avg. 91.01.82 842.30 7.69 % 882.16 3.29 %

C. siamea

2002

2003

2004

96

92

94

92

88

90

88

92

84

Avg. 941.63 901.63 4.25% 882.30 6.38%

C. pulcherrima

2002

2003

2004

93

89

88

88

92

94

82

92

84

Avg. 902.30 883.05 2.22% 862.44 4.44%

D. regia

2002

2003

2004

92

87

84

84

76

80

80

84

80

Avg. 872.30 802.30 8.04% 842.30 3.44%

P. inerme

2002

2003

2004

96

92

88

91

89

87

92

88

80

Avg. 922.30 891.63 3.33% 860.26 8.69%

*TPL - Total Pollution Load, #- Average of 300 seeds

Reduction in fruit size, seed number and dry weight as a function of different

pollutants has been reported earlier (Houston and Dochinger 1977, Murdy 1979,

Murdy and Ragsdale 1980). These findings are in confirmation with present

study. Further Claussen (1970) and Cluster (1982) held responsible automobile

exhaust with NO2 and CO for such changes. Murdy and Ragsdale (1980) have

also shown that in Gernanium SO2 damages sexual reproduction in terms of

decreased seed set. SO2 induced fertility changes in Lepidium virginicum have

been reported (Murdy 1979).

35

Khan and Khan (1991) working on the impact of air pollution has also observed

reduced fruiting, smaller size and low weight of Tomato fruits. Reduction in

fruit per plant, seed out put and seed per fruit in Brassica juncia growing near a

thermal power plant have been reported by Saquib and Khan (1999). All these

reports support present findings.

Plants growing in Industrially polluted air with predominance of SO2 showed

reduced flowering and fruiting up to the extent of total absence of flowers and

fruits in some cases has also been reported earlier (Pawar 1982). Khan and

Khan (1991) and Saquib and Khan (1999) concentrated their studies on

vegetables only. However, no such work has been conducted with tree species

except (Rao 1972, Pawar 1982, Pawar and Dubey 1983 and Sikka and Joshi

2002). The result of the present study also reveals a reduction in fruit size, and

seed per pod, which agrees with earlier observations.

Recently Chauhan et al. (2004) has reported at Agra reduction in fruit length,

fruit number and seed per fruit in Cassia siamea and accounted it to automobile

pollution. More damage in fruits and seeds in industrially polluted area as

compared to Vehicular pollution area can be attributed to the total higher

pollution load in the ambient air of preceding area.

Reduction in pod number and mean pod weight in Cicer arietinum exposed to

80 ppb ozone has been reported by Singh and Rao (1982). Since the urban air

contains a mixture of gaseous and particulate pollutants. The effects observed

on fruits and seed morphology in present study are cumulative in which the role

of ozone cannot be ignored, which has became a common air pollutant of urban

areas.

In total the reducing trend in fruit size, seed quality and seed number is a result

of cumulative effect of various air pollutants present in ambient air of Indore

city of which many of them can not be monitored due to the lack of facilities.

36

Air Pollution Impact on Seed Quality and

Germination

3.1 Introduction

Ever since the origin of a species, the inherent capacity of reproduction has

resulted in its spread thus making the distribution a dynamic process (Ridley

1930). When a plant has reached a certain stage of development, its growing

point may under certain conditions, changes from the vegetative to reproductive

phase. The success of a species in propagating itself by seeds depends primarily

on the number and viability of the seeds produced by parents, provided that

those seeds find conditions suitable for germination and subsequent growth.

Morphologically seed is a mature integumented megasporangium. The size and

shape of the seed depends on the form of ovary, conditions under which the

parent plant grows during seed formation and obviously, on the species.

Other factors, which determine the size and shape of seeds, are the size of the

embryo, the amount of endosperm present and to what extent other tissues

participate in the seed structure (Mayer and Mayber 1963).

The seed according to Berlyn (1972), is a packet of energy, some of which is in

the form of information, it is the state of minimum entropy in the life cycle of

angiosperm and gymnosperms. A viable seed is one, which can germinate under

favorable conditions provided that any dormancy if present may be removed

(Roberts 1972).

The state of dormancy is overtly terminated when active metabolism, synthesis

and finally growth are resumed. In seeds the resumption of these activities is

identified with the initiation of various metabolic activities leading to

germination. Such post germinative activities can only take place in

environments within which the parent plant could function properly. One of the

requirements for germination is an adequate moisture supply yet which would

not interfere with the gaseous exchange, which is essential for aerobic

respiration and adequate supply of metabolic energy. Another such requirement

is for “normal” temperature, i.e. within the range, which is suitable for growth

of more mature seedling. Ostensibly, therefore exposure of seeds to

37

environment consisting of adequate moisture, aeration and „normal‟

temperature, should suffice for germination to take place.

Angiospermic seed may appear simple externally but possesses a complex eco-

physiology for its further resumption of growth, primarily its germination. Most

of the authors called seed germination as “the sprouting of seeds, or resumption

of growth by dormant embryo”. It is that group of processes which cause the

sudden transformation of dry seed in to the young seedling (Mayer 1953).

Thus germination is the period during which physiological processes are

initiated in the seed, leading to the elongation of cells and the formation of new

cells, tissues and organs, i.e. the period between hydration and the onset of

meristematic activities and finally differentiation of cell and organogensis.

Hence, the germination of seed may be defined as the sequential series of

morphogenetic events that result in the transformation of an embryo into

seedling. It is a half closed system i.e. initiated when quiescent embryo is

reactivated, but the terminal end of the system is open because the point where

germination ends and seedling growth commences is undefined (Mayer and

Mayber 1963).

Seeds with special germination requirements are said to be dormant or blocked

(Toole 1961). It has to be recognized that internal conditions of the seed may

also be considered as important factor in determining its germination (Stiles and

cocking 1961). According to Amen (1966), seed dormancy is an adaptive

mechanism of growth cessation. Since the environmental conditions before and

during seed development are very important. The present study was conducted

to know the effects of air pollution on morphological and physiological aspects

of seed and their germination.

3.2 Experimental

In order to study the effects of urban air pollution on the seed quality, quantity

and physiology, the following parameters were studied:

38

3.2.1 Seed Colour

Seed from the pods of C. fistula, C. siamea, C. pulcherrima, D. regia and P.

inerme were collected from different study areas of Indore city and seed colour

was observed and recorded with reference to low pollution area.

3.2.2 Seed Weight

For seed weight measurement seeds from the pods of test plants collected from

various sampling stations were taken out in distinct lots from each lot 100 seeds

were drawn randomly in three replicates and weighed in grams. The seed lot

with high seed weight is considered as Vigorous.

3.2.3 Seed Density

Seed density is a very important parameter to know their quality. To determine

the density of the seeds, a definite quantity of kerosene oil is poured in a

measuring cylinder and then initial level was noted. There after pre weighed

seed sample was added to the measuring cylinder and the rise in level of the

kerosene was noted.

The seed density was calculated as

Seed density = Weight of the seeds

Volume of the seeds


This is another test to know about the vigor of the seed. If the number of

shriveled, under-sized, under-developed, discolored and insect damaged seeds

are more in a seed lot it is considered poor. To study the soundness of seeds

collected from various polluted sites the above-mentioned characters were

observed in lots of 100 seed in triplicates.


Since the seed of the entire five test plants are known to possess physical

dormancy (Cassia fistula, Athayia 1990 and Todaria and Negi 1992, Cassia

siamea, Todaria and Negi 1992, Delonix regia, Gill et al. 1981, Peltophorum

inerme, Anoliefo and Gill 1992, Caesalpina pulcherrima, Jones and Geneve

39

1995). They were subjected to mechanical scarification by rubbing them on a

sand paper no.10 before placing them for germination test. The germination test

was conducted at National Soybean Research Center (NRCS), Khandwa Road,

Indore. For the test germination paper was soaked in distilled water than 50

seeds in three replicates each were placed on the paper. Thiarm is used in small

quantity to protect seeds from fungal contamination during germination. All

seed lots were placed in a seed germinator. The seed were grown in four

replicates of 50 seeds. Numbers of germinated seed were counted daily.

3.3. RESULTS

3.3.1 Seed Colour

Like pods, which were exposed to air pollution, the seed colour was also found

to be changed. In both the polluted areas the seed colour became dark, were as

seeds of reference area were light in colour and shiny (Table 3.1). This was true

for all five species. The maximum colour darkening was noted in C. fistula,

while minimum colour change was recorded in D. regia and P. inerme as

compared to seeds collected from Low pollution area.

Table 3.1: Colour of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of plant

species

Low Pollution Area

TPL*

308.02 g/ m3


Area

TPL*

539.15 g/ m3

Vehicular Pollution

Area

TPL*

506.81 g/ m3

C. fistula Light brown and

shiny

Dark blackish- brown Dark blackish- brown

C. siamea Blackish-brown and

shiny

Blackish-brown Blackish-brown

C. pulcherrima Greenish-brown Dark greenish and

blackish-brown

Dark greenish and

blackish- brown

D. regia Ivory-greenish Dark greenish Dark greenish

P. inerme Light brown Light brown and

some darker

Light brown and

some darker

*TPL -Total Pollution Load

40

Table 3.2: Weight of 100 seeds (g) collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of plant

species

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/m3

% Reduction

C. fistula 17.080

17.110

17.150

16.00

15.125

15.075

10.00

12.125

13.080

13.110

25.37 Avg. 17.113 0.025 15.40 0.89 12.771 .925

C. siamea 4.500

4.350

4.600

4.180

4.200

4.250

12.45

4.100

4.080

4.115

14.54 Avg. 15.451 0.619 13.526 1.034 13.203 0.98

C. pulcherrima 15.739

15.200

15.415

13.150

13.100

14.330

12.45

13.286

12.600

13.725

14.54 Avg. 15.451 0.619 13.526 1.034 13.203 0.98

D. regia 36.670

35.500

36.200

31.680

32.320

31.983

11.43

33.320

32.870

32.995

8.47 Avg. 36.123 0.911 31.994 0.647 33.061 0.505

P. inerme 5.105

5.250

5.360

4.500

4.420

4.330

15.69

4.100

4.050

4.085

22.14 Avg. 5.238 0.421 4.416 0.036 4.078 0.194

TPL – Total Pollution Load

41

Table 3.3 : Density of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of Plant

species

LPA

TPL* 308.02

g/m3

IPA

TPL*

539.15 g/m3

% Reduction

VPA

TPL*

506.81 g/m3

%

Reduction

C. fistula 1.73

1.70

1.65

1.47

1.40

1.35

17.15

1.60

1 .65

1.60

4.73 Avg. 1.69 0.08 1.40 0.33 1.61 0.20

C. siamea 1.09

1.05

1.09

1.08

1.08

1.00

21.83

1.08

1.00

1.08

1.86 Avg. 1.07 0.20 1.05 0.27 1.05 0.27

C. pulcherrima 1.32

1.30

1.25

1.12

1.10

1.13

13.95

1.11

1.10

1.15

13.17 Avg. 1.29 0.23 1.11 0.01 1.12 0.20

D. regia 1.43

1.400

1.45

1.13

1.10

1.12

21.83

1.15

1.10

1.12

21.12 Avg. 1.42 0.20 1.11 0.16 1.12 0.18

P. inerme 1.31

1.20

1.28

1.05

1.00

1.05

18.25

1.20

1.30

1.25

0.793 Avg. 1.26 0.29 1.03 0.21 1.25 0.25

TPL – Total Pollution Load

Table 3.4: Soundness of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of Plant

species

Low Pollution Area

TPL* 308.02 g/m3


TPL* 539.15 g/m3


TPL* 506.81 g/m3

No. of

healthy

seeds**

No. of un-

healthy

seeds

No. of

healthy

seeds

%

Decrease

No. of un-

healthy

seeds

No. of

healthy

seeds

%

Decrease

No. of un-

healthy

seeds

C. fistula 92 08 82 10.86 18 86 6.52 14

C. siamea 93 07 78 16.12 22 82 11.82 18

C. pulcherrima 93 07 88 4.16 12 84 9.67 16

D. regia 94 06 88 6.38 12 91 3.19 09

P. inerme 96 04 90 6.25 10 93 3.12 07

*TPL – Total Pollution Load

** Total number of unhealthy seeds = (a + b + c + d + e)

Where, Shriveled seeds (a), Under-sized seeds (b), Under-developed seeds (c), Discoloured

seeds (d) and Insect damaged seeds (e).

42

Table 3.5: % Reduction in seed germination in different polluted areas of Indore city

Name of plant

species

Y

E

A

R

Low Pollution

Area

TPL* 308.02

g/m3


Area

TPL* 539.15 g/ m3


TPL* 506.81 g/ m3

% Germination %

Germination

%

Reduction

%

Germination

%

Reduction

C. fistula S1

S2

S3

S4

80

92

88

92

76

80

76

68

12.79%

74

76

80

84

8.72% A 86.0 3.16 75.0±2.64 78.50 2.64

C. siamea S1

S2

S3

S4

84

92

96

92

92

76

80

84

8.79%

76

80

84

92

8.79% A 91.0 2.64 83.0 3.16 83.0 3.16

C. pulche-rrima S1

S2

S3

S4

96

92

96

88

80

68

76

84

17.20%

92

84

80

81

9.40% A 93.0 2.44 77.0±3.16 84.25 2.12

D. regia S1

S2

S3

S4

90

96

84

96

70

76

68

72

21.85%

83

81

83

82

10.10% A 91.5±2.95 71.50±2.23 82.25±+1.17

P. inerme S1

S2

S3

S4

96

80

84

88

72

68

64

76

19.54%

84

76

78

82

8.04% A 87.0 3.16 70.0 2.82 80.0 2.64

*TPL -Total Pollution Load, Sampling year - S1 –2002, S2 –2003, S3–2004 ; A – Average Values,

Samples of 100 seeds each.

3.3.2 Seed Weight

The results presented in Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.1 clearly indicates a reduction in

weight as compared to Low pollution area. Maximum reduction in seed weight

was recorded in P. inerme (15.69%) followed by C. pulcherrima (12.45%) and

minimum in C. fistula (10.00%) in Industrial Pollution Area. While in Vehicular

Pollution Area maximum reduction was recorded in C. fistula (25.37%)

followed by P. inerme (22.14%) and minimum in D. regia (8.45%). Obviously

the seeds of P. inerme, C. pulcherrima and C. fistula affected more than other

species due to air pollutants.

43

3.3.3 Seed Density

Seed density is an important characteristics related to seed quality and seed

vigor. Seeds collected from polluted sites showed poor density. In this

connection the air of IPA was found to be more damaging than VPA (Table 3.3,

Fig. 3.2). As for as different species are concerned D. regia was more affected

in both the sites as there was more than 21 % reduction noted, while minimum

reduction was observed in IPA for C. pulcherrima, i.e. 13.95 and 0.79 for P.

inerme at VPA.


The data pertaining to soundness of seeds are presented in Table 3.4 and Fig.

3.3. A seed lot with higher proportion of shriveled, under-sized, under-

developed, discoloured and insect damage seed is considered as poor. It is

evident that the percentage of unhealthy seeds in comparison to Low pollution

area was higher in both the polluted sites. Higher proportion of poor seed was

found in C.siamea, whereas lower proportion of poor seed was recorded in

P.inerme IPA and VPA respectively (Fig. 3.1 to 3.5).


The data presented in Table 3.3.5 and Fig. 3.5 clearly indicates that the seed

collected from polluted areas germinated poorly than the reference area. It was

also observed that the seeds of reference area germinated 10-15 days early than

the seeds of polluted areas.

In IPA maximum reduction in seed germination was observed in D. regia

(21.85%) followed by P. inerme (19.54%) and minimum reduction was noted in

44

C. siamea (8.79%). In VPA also maximum reduction was observed in D. regia

(10.10%) and C. pulcherrima (8.045%) respectively. Thus it is clear that D.

regia affected more irrespective of pollution site indicating its sensitivity to air

pollution.

The maximum reduction in seedling growth was recorded in P. inerme, i.e.

5.01 % in VPA followed by D. regia, i.e. 3.29% in IPA (Table 3.6) and

minimum reduction in seedling growth was recorded in C. fistula for VPA and

P. inerme for IPA as compared to Low pollution area.

3.4 DISCUSSION

Air pollution resulting from industrial and urban development has resulted in

localized and regional damage to plants. The main air pollutants toxic to plants

are Ozone, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide. Presently Ozone is

considered to cause more worldwide damage to vegetation than all the other air

pollutants combined (Heagle 1989). There is ample evidence that gaseous air

pollutants has adverse effects on leaves and total yield and that these effects

vary enormously among genotype and environments. However, less research

has been directed to the correlation of leaf injury and its associated

photosynthesis impairment with air pollution effects on flowering, pollination

and seed set and on carbon allocation from leaves to developing fruit (Ormord

1996).

Significant reduction in fruit length, percent fruit setting and seed per fruit in C.

siamea growing along road side in Agra has been recently reported by Chauhan

et al. (2004) which further support the present finding. The present observations

are supported by several workers (Dubey and Pawar 1985, Rout and Varshney

1996 and Awasthy 1998). According to these workers there is a mark reduction

in fruit numbers, size, colour, quality and consumer acceptability in the

presence of air pollutants and automobile exhaust.

The phase of germination for a plant is an important aspect from its growth and

production point of view. Seed collected from variously polluted sites were

subjected to germination and vigour test showed reduction in these values.

Similar observations have been noted in C. tora and C. occindentalis seeds

45

collected from automobile polluted sites by Krishnayya and Bedi (1986). They

have also reported reduced seed viability as a function of lead pollution.

The present findings are also in confirmations with the work of Houston and

Dochinger (1979) and Murdy and Ragasdale (1980). Degradation of both seed

quality and quantity in Wheat grown in SO2 polluted Industrial area has been

reported (Pawar 1982). Seed quality in terms of crude protein and oil content

was reduced by elevated ozone level in ambient air (Ollerenshow et al. 1999).

However the individual pods borne on their branches were heavier and

contained more seeds perhaps as a consequence of compensatory response

(Ollerenshow et al. 1999).

Reduced seed germination, less vigour and poor seedling growth observed in all

the study plants can be attributed to air pollutants prevailing in those sites from

where these samples had been collected. Early germination of seeds of reference

area in comparison to seeds of polluted sites can be a function of their good

health, high vigour and vitality, on account of their higher values of seed weight

and density. This clearly indicates their good quality over polluted site seeds.

Maximum reduction in seed germination in C. fistula and P. inerme indicates

that pollutants affected seeds of these trees more. The maximum reduction in

germination of C. fistula seeds is in confirmation with the maximum loss in

seed weight and seed density of the same plant. Thus it is clear that seeds of C.

fistula were affected more by pollution than rest of tree species. Which is

further confirmed through its poor seedling performance. All these alterations

might have resulted due to the combined effect of mixture of gaseous as well as

particulate pollution on the vegetative as well as reproductive parts of the plants

during the course of their developmental stages.

Change in seed colour reduction in seed weight, seed density, soundness and

germination in plants growing in Industrial and Vehicular Pollution Areas can

be attributed to the prevailing air pollution in these sites from where the samples

were collected. Obviously the change in seed colour is an indirect effect of air

pollutants on them. During the course of development the seeds were not

exposed directly to the pollutants as the fruits. Thus the change in colour of the

seeds appears to be an indirect indication of seed quality.

46

On the basis of overall assessment of all the five tree species with reference to

their sensitivity to air pollution they can be arranged as:

C. fistula > C. siamea > D. regia > P. inerme > C. pulcherrima

Thus it is suggested that C. fistula is more sensitive to urban air pollution and C.

pulcherrima the least, while D. regia is moderately affected.

47

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge help extended by Dr. Dilip Wagela, Scientist, M.P.

Pollution Control Board, Indore (India) and Professor Dr. Bholeshwar Dube, Head,

Department of Botany, Mata Jijabai Girls P.G. College, Indore (India) in the course of

research and preparation of the book.

48

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