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Lake Ontario

For the hydrocarbon lake on Titan, see Ontario Lacus.

Lake Ontario (French:   Lac Ontario) is one of the fiveGreat Lakes of North America. It is bounded on thenorth, west, and southwest by the Canadian province ofOntario, and on the south and east by the American stateof NewYork. Ontario, Canada’s mostpopulousprovince,was named for the lake. In the Wyandot (Huron) lan-guage, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. It is thelast in the Great Lakes chain and serves as the outlet to

the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake On-tario is also the only one of the five Great Lakes not toshare a shoreline with the American state of Michigan.

1 Geography

Lake Ontario Basin

Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes andthe smallest in surface area (7,340 sq mi, 18,960 km2),[1]

although it exceeds   Lake Erie  in volume (393 cu mi,1,639 km3). It is the 14th largest lake in the world. Whenits islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712miles (1,146km) long. As the last lake in theGreat Lakes’hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean sur-face elevation of the lakes at 243 feet (74 m) [2] abovesea level; 326 feet (99 m) lower than its neighbor up-stream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles (311kilometres; 168 nautical miles) and its maximum widthis 53 statute miles (85 km; 46 nmi).[2] The lake’s av-

erage depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot (283 ft; 86 m), witha maximum depth of 133  fathoms 4 feet (802 ft; 244m).[2][3] The lake’s primary source is the Niagara River,

View from Fort Ontario , Oswego, New York 

Historic cannon at  Fort Niagara; Toronto across the lake

draining Lake Erie, with the St. Lawrence River servingas the outlet. The drainage basin covers 24,720 squaremiles (64,030 km2).[1][5] As with all the Great Lakes, wa-

ter levels change both within the year (owing to seasonalchanges in water input) and among years (owing to longerterm trends in precipitation). These water level fluctua-tions are an integral part of lake ecology, and produce andmaintain extensive wetlands.[6][7] The lake also has an im-portant freshwater fishery, although it has been negativelyaffected by factors including over-fishing, water pollutionand invasive species.[8]

Baymouth bars  built by prevailing winds and currentshave created a significant number of lagoons and shel-tered harbors, mostly near (but not limited to) Prince Ed-ward County, Ontario and the easternmost shores. Per-

haps the best-known example is  Toronto Bay, chosenas the site of the   Upper Canada  (Ontario) capital forits strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include

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2   3 HISTORY 

Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presqu'ile Bay, andSodus Bay. The bars themselves are the sites of longbeaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and SandyIsland Beach State Park. These sand bars are often as-sociated with large wetlands, which support large num-bers of plant and animal species, as well as providing

important rest areas for migratory birds.[9][10] Presqu'ile,on the north shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly sig-nificant in this regard. One unique feature of the lakeis the Z-shaped Bay of Quinte which separates PrinceEdward County from the Ontario mainland, save for a2-mile (3.2 km) isthmus near Trenton; this feature alsosupports many wetlands and aquatic plants, as well as as-sociated fisheries.

Major rivers draining into Lake Ontario include the Ni-agara River; Don River; Humber River; Trent River; theCataraqui River; the Genesee River; the Oswego River;the Black River; and the Salmon River.

2 Geology

Lake Ontario  bathymetric   map.[11][12][13] The deepest point is 

marked with "×".[14]

The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak  Silurian-age rocks by the   Wisconsin   ice sheet during the lastice age. The action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial  Ontarian River valley which had approximatelythe same orientation as today’s basin.   Material that was

pushed southward by the ice sheet left landforms suchas drumlins, kames, and moraines, both on the modernland surface and the lake bottom,[15] reorganizing the re-gion’s entire drainage system. As the ice sheet retreatedtoward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence val-ley outlet, so that the lake surface was at a higher level.This stage is known as Lake Iroquois. During that timethe lake drained through present-daySyracuse, NewYorkinto the Mohawk River, thence to the Hudson River andthe Atlantic. The shoreline created during this stage canbe easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave-cut hills 10 to 25 miles (15 to 40 km) from the presentshoreline.

When the ice finally receded from the St. Lawrence val-ley, the outlet was below sea level, and for a short time the

lake became a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, in associationwith the Champlain Sea. Gradually the land reboundedfrom the release of the weight of about 6,500 feet (2,000m) of ice that had been stacked on it. It is still reboundingabout 12 inches (30 cm) per century in the St. Lawrencearea. Since the ice receded from the area last, the most

rapid rebound still occurs there. This means that the lakebed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the southshore and turning river valleys into bays. Both north andsouth shores experience shoreline erosion, but the tiltingamplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss toproperty owners.

3 History

Map of Lac de Frontenac (now Lake Ontario), showing

Teiaiagon and Lac Taronto (now Lake Simcoe)

Ontario, or 'beautiful great lake' derives its name from theIroquois / Haudenosaunee first nation which inhabited thearea aroundthe lake until about 1700. Thelakewas a bor-der between the Huron and their vassals and the IroquoisConfederacy in pre-European  times. In the 1600s, theIroquois drove out the Huron from southern Ontario andsettled the northern shores of Lake Ontario. When theIroquois withdrew and the Anishnabeg / Ojibwa / Missis-saugas moved in from the north to southern Ontario, theyretained the Iroquois name.[16]

The first documented European to reach the lake wasÉtienne Brûlé   in 1615. As was their practice, the

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French explorers introduced other names for the lake.In 1632 and 1656, the lake was referred to as Lac deSt. Louis or Lake St. Louis by Samuel de Champlainand cartographer Nicolas Sanson respectively (likely forLouis XIV of France)[17] In 1660 Jesuit historian FrancisCreuxius  coined the name   Lacus Ontarius . In a map

drawn in the Relation des Jésuites  (1662–1663), the lakebears the legend “Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois” with thename “Ondiara” in smaller type. A French map pro-duced in 1712 (currently in theCanadian Museum of Civ-ilization[18]), created by military engineer Jean-Baptistede Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as “Lac Frontenac”named after Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et dePalluau. He was a French soldier, courtier, and Gover-nor General of New France from 1672 to 1682 and from1689 to his death in 1698.

Artifacts which are believed to be of Norse origin havebeen found in the area of Sodus Bay, indicating possible

earlier visits by Europeans, but this remains unproven.A series of trading posts was established by both theBritish and French, such as Fort Frontenac (Kingston) in1673, Fort Oswego in 1722,  Fort Rouillé (Toronto) in1750. After the French and Indian War, all forts aroundthe lake were under British control. The United Statesdid not take possession of forts on present-day Americanterritory until the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794. Per-manent, non-military European settlement began duringthe American Revolution. As the easternmost and near-est lake to theAtlantic seaboard of Canadaandthe UnitedStates, population centres here areamong the oldest in the

Great Lakes basin, with Kingston, Ontario, formerly thecapital of Canada, dating to the 1670s (Fort Frontenac).The lake became a hub of commercial activity followingthe War of 1812 with canal building on both sides of theborder and heavy travel by lake steamers. Steamer ac-tivity peaked in the mid-19th century before competitionfrom railway lines.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a type of scowknown as a  stonehooker  was in operation on the north-west shore, particularly around Port Credit and  Bronte.Stonehooking was the practice of raking flat fragmentsof Dundas shale from the shallow lake floor of the area

for use in construction, particularly in the growing city ofToronto.[19]

4 Ecology and environmental con-

cerns

The Great Lakes watershed is a region of high biodi-versity, and Lake Ontario is important for its diversityof birds, fish, reptiles amphibians and plants. Many ofthese special species are associated with shorelines, par-

ticularly sand dunes, lagoons, and wetlands. The impor-tance of wetlands to the lake has been appreciated, andmany of the larger wetlands have protected status. How-

Wetlands on a lakeshore

ever, these wetlands are changing in part because the nat-ural water level fluctuations have been reduced. Many

wetland plants are dependent upon low water levels toreproduce.[20] When water levels are stabilized, the areaand diversity of the marsh is reduced. This is particu-larly true of meadow marsh (also known as wet meadowwetlands); for example, in Eel Bay near Alexandria Bay,regulation of lake levels has resulted in large losses ofwet meadow.[21] Often this is accompanied by invasion bycattails, which displace many of the native plant speciesand reduce plant diversity. Eutrophication may accel-erate this process by providing nitrogen and phospho-rus for the more rapid growth of competitively domi-nant plants.[22] Similar effects are occurring on the north

shore, in wetlands such as Presqu'ile, which have inter-dunal wetlands called pannes, with high plant diversityand many unusual plant species.[23]

Most of the forests around the lake are deciduous forestsdominated by trees including maple, oak, beech, ash andbasswood. These are classified as part of the MixedwoodPlains Ecozone by Environment Canada, or as the EasternGreat Lakes and Hudson Lowlands by the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency, or as the Great LakesEcoregion by The Nature Conservancy. Deforestation inthe vicinity of the lake has had many negative impacts,[24]

including loss of forest birds, extinction of native salmon,

and increased amounts of sediment flowing into the lake.In some areas more than 90 percent of the forest coverhas been removed and replaced by agriculture. Cer-tain tree species, such as hemlock, have also been par-ticularly depleted by past logging activity.[25] Guidelinesfor restoration stress the importance of maintaining andrestoring forest cover, particularly along streams andwetlands.[26][27]

The open water is less-affected by shoreline features, suchas wetlands, and more affected by nutrient levels that con-trol the production of algae. Algae are the basis of theopen water food web, and the source of primary produc-tion that ends up as Lake Trout and Walleye at the top ofthe open water food web.

Like the other Great Lakes, Lake Ontario used to have

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4   5 CLIMATE 

Lake Sturgeon were abundant in 1860 and had been driven to

near extinction by 1960.

an important commercial fishery. It has been largely de-stroyed, mostly by over-fishing. Consider the Lake Stur-geon as but one example. Lake sturgeon are huge fish—they can grow up to three meters long and exceed 190 kgin weight. The females mature slowlyand require decadesto reach sexual maturity. It was once an abundant speciesin Lake Ontario. “In 1860, this species, taken on inciden-tal catches of other fishes, was killed and dumped backin the lake, piled up on shore to dry and be burned, fed

to pigs, or dug into the earth as fertilizer.”

[28]

It was evenstacked like cordwood and used to fuel steamboats. Onceits value was realized, “They were taken by every avail-able meansfromspearing andjigging to set lines of baitedor unbaited hooks laid on the bottom to trapnets, pound-nets and gillnets.”[28] Over 5 million pounds were takenfrom adjoining Lake Erie in a single year. The fisherycollapsed, largely by 1900. They have never recovered.Like most sturgeons, the lake sturgeon is rare now, andis protected in many areas. Populations in the OswegoRiver are being actively managed for recovery.

SeaLamprey 

Diatoms

Blue-greenalgaeFlagellates Rotifers

Greenalgae

Calanoids CyclopoidsNativewaterea

Zebra/Quagga

mussels

MollusksChironomids  Amphipods

OpossumShrimp

LakeWhitesh

Invasivewaterea

Round Goby 

Rainbow TroutBurbot L ak e T ro ut C hi no ok Salmon SmallmouthBass

Walleye

Lak e Ontario Food Web      N       A       T

                    I      O       N      A

                L    O    C    E   A   N

    I  C 

 A  N  D 

A TMO S P H  E  R  

I   C   A   D   

M    I               N     

I            S      

T        R        A  T  I         O

  N

U    .  S   . D  E   

P   A R  T  M E NT  O F 

 C O  M  M

   E   R   C    E

Coho Salmon

NOAA, GreatLakes EnvironmentalResearch Laboratory, 4840 S. StateRoad, Ann Arbor, MI734-741-2235 - www.glerl.noaa.gov

Foodwebbasedon “Impactofexoticinvertebrateinvaders on foodwebstructureandfunction in theGreatLakes: A network analysis approach” byMason, Krause, andUlanowicz, 2002 -Modications for LakeOntario, 2009.

 Alewife

 Yellow Perch

Slimy Sculpin

Rainbow

Smelt

  Raptorial waterea

BrownTrout

 AtlanticSalmon

 AmericanEel

Lake Ontario food web

This food web has been damaged not only by over-fishing, and changes in nutrient levels, but also by othertypes of polluted from industrial chemicals,  agriculturalfertilizers, untreated sewage,   phosphates, such as fromlaundry detergents, and chemicals. Some pollutant chem-icals that have been found in the lake include   DDT,benzo[a]pyrene  and other pesticides;   PCBs,   aramite,chromium, lead, mirex, mercury, and carbon tetrachlo-ride. The International Joint Commission has identi-

fied areas where pollution is particularly intense (pointsources) and mapped them as Areas of Concern. A Re-medial Action Plan has been developed for each area.

Some Lake Ontario areas of concern include the OswegoRiver and Rochester Embayment on the American side,and   Hamilton Harbour   and Toronto on the CanadianSide.

By the 1960s and 1970s, the increased pollution caused

frequent algal blooms to occur in the summer.

[8]

Theseblooms killed large numbers of  fish, and left decom-posing piles of   filamentous algae   and dead fish alongthe shores.[29] At times the blooms became so thick thatwaves could not break. Fish eating birds such as osprey,bald eagle and cormorant were being poisoned by con-taminated fish. Since the 1960s and 1970s, environmen-tal concerns have forced a cleanup of industrial and mu-nicipal wastes. Cleanup has been accomplished throughbetter treatment plants, tighter environmental regulations,deindustrialization  and increased public awareness. To-day, Lake Ontario hasrecovered some of its pristine qual-ity; for example, walleye, a fish species considered as a

marker of clean water, are now found. However, regionalairshed pollution remains a concern. The lake has alsobecome an important sport fishery, although with intro-duced species (Coho and Chinook salmon) rather thanthe native species. Bald eagle and osprey populations arealso beginning to recover.

Invasive species are a problem for Lake Ontario, particu-larly lamprey and zebra mussels. Lamprey are being con-trolled by poisoning in the juvenile stage in the streamswhere they breed. Zebra mussels in particular are diffi-cult to control, and pose major challenges for the lake andits waterways.

5 Climate

The lake has a natural seiche rhythm of eleven minutes.The seiche effect normally is only about  3 ⁄ 4 inches (2 cm)but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds,and atmospheric pressure changes.

Because of its great depth, the lake as a whole neverfreezes in winter, but an ice sheet covering between 10%and90% of the lake area typically develops, depending on

the severity of the winter. Ice sheets typically form alongthe shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake isnot as deep. During the winters of 1877 and 1878, the icesheet coverage was up to 95–100% in most of the lake.In the winter of 1812, the ice cover was stable enoughthat the American naval commander stationed at SacketsHarbor feared a British attack from Kingston, over theice.

When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer wa-ter of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it as  lake-

effect  snow. Since the prevailing winter winds are fromthe northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of

the lake is referred to as the snowbelt . In some winters thearea between Oswego and Pulaski may receive twenty ormore feet (600 cm) of snowfall. Also impacted by lake-

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effect snow is the Tug Hill Plateau, an area of elevatedland that is about 20 miles (32 km) east of Lake Ontario,creating ideal conditions for lake-effect snowfall. The“Hill”, as it is often referred to, typically receives moresnow than any other region in the eastern United States.As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter en-

thusiasts, such as snow-mobilers and cross-country skiers.Lake-effect snow often extends inland as far as Syracuse,with that city often recording the most winter snowfall ac-cumulation of any large city in the United States. Othercities in the world receive more snow annually, such asQuebec City, which averages 135 inches (340 cm), andSapporo, Japan, which receives 250 inches (640 cm) eachyear and is often regarded as the snowiest city in theworld. Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be cre-ated by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment forrecreational boaters. In a normal winter, Lake Ontariowill be at most one quarter ice-covered, in a mild win-

ter almost completely unfrozen. Lake Ontario has com-pletely frozenover on five recorded occasions: from aboutJanuary 20 to about March 20, 1830;[30] in 1874;[31] in1893;[31] in 1912;[31] and in February 1934.[31]

Lake breezes in spring tend to retard fruit bloom until thefrost danger is past, and in the autumn delay the onset offall frost, particularly on the south shore. Cool onshorewinds also retard early bloom of plants and flowers untillater in the spring season, protecting them from possiblefrost damage. Such microclimatic effects have enabledtender fruit production in a continental climate, with thesouthwest shore supporting a major fruit-growing area.

Apples, cherries, pears, plums, and peaches are grown inmany commercial orchards around Rochester. BetweenStoney Creek and  Niagara-on-the-Lake on the NiagaraPeninsula is a major fruit-growing and wine-making area.The wine-growing region extends over the internationalborder into Niagara and  Orleans counties. Apple vari-eties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown onthe lake’s north shore, around Cobourg.

6 Settlements

A large conurbation called the Golden Horseshoe occu-pies the lake’s westernmost shores, anchored by the citiesof Toronto and Hamilton. Ports on the Canadian side in-clude St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston,near the St. Lawrence River outlet. Close to 9 mil-lion people or over a quarter of Canada’s population liveswithin the watershed of Lake Ontario. The Americanshore is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester andthe much smaller ports at Oswego and Sackets Harbor.The city of Syracuse is 40 miles (64 km) inland, con-nected to the lake by the New York State Canal System.Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario’s Americanwatershed.

A high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry, the  Spirit of On-

tario I , operated between Toronto and Rochester from

Winter scene on Toronto Bay in 1835

Marina in Port Dalhousie, Ontario

Victoria Beach, Cobourg , Ontario

June 17, 2004, to January 10, 2006, when the servicewas cancelled. The Crystal Lynn II, out of Irondequoit,New York, has been operating between Irondequoit Bayand Henderson, New York since May 2000, operated byCapt. Bob Tein.

Ontario, Canada

•   Toronto

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6   6 SETTLEMENTS 

•   Mississauga

•  Hamilton

•  Burlington

•  Oshawa

•  Kingston

•   Whitby

•  Stoney Creek

•   Grimsby

•  Oakville

•  St. Catharines

•  Port Hope

•   Cobourg

•   Brighton

•   Pickering

•   Ajax

•   Bowmanville

•   Belleville

•   Trenton

•   Niagara-on-the-Lake

New York, U.S.A.

•   Rochester

•   Greece

•   Irondequoit

•  Webster

•   Oswego

•  Fair Haven

•  Sackets Harbor

•  Cape Vincent

•  Three Mile Bay

•   Wilson

•   Chaumont

Fishing at  Pierhead Light  in  Oswego, New York  , c. 1900.   Fort 

Ontario behind.

Olcott Light  , Olcott, New York 

6.1 Ocean and lake navigation

The Great Lakes Waterway connects the lake sidestreamto the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence Seaway, andupstream to the other rivers in the chain via the WellandCanal  and to Lake Erie. The  Trent-Severn Waterwayfor pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay ofQuinte to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron), via Lake Simcoe.The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to theNew York State Canal System, with outlets to the HudsonRiver, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain.

The Rideau Canal, also for pleasure boats, connects LakeOntario at Kingston to the  Ottawa River  in downtown

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6.4 Other topics    7

Sodus Point Light  , Sodus Point, New York 

Ottawa.

6.2 Lighthouses

•  Beach Canal Lighthouse

•  Braddock Point Light

•   Charlotte-Genesee Lighthouse

•   Gibraltar Point Lighthouse

•  Oswego Harbor West Pierhead Light

•   Presqu'ile Lighthouse

•   Selkirk Lighthouse

•   Sodus Point Light

•  Stony Point Light

•   Thirty Mile Point Light

6.3 Islands

Nearly all of Lake Ontario’s islands are located on theeastern and north-eastern shores, between the Prince Ed-ward County headland and the lake’s outlet at Kingston.

The Toronto Islands on the north-western shore arethe remnants of a sand spit formed by coastal erosion,whereas the mostly larger eastern islands are underlain

by the basement rock found throughout the region. WolfeIsland, located near Kingston at the St. Lawrence outlet,is the largest island in the basin. It is accessible by ferryfrom both Canada and the U.S.

•  Toronto Islands – only islands on the western end ofthe lake

•   Association Island

•  Galloo Island - and nearby Little Galloo Island, CalfIsland, and Stony Island

•  Amherst Island

•  Simcoe Island

•  Garden Island

•  Grenadier Island

•  Waupoos Island

•  Nicholson Island

•  Big Island

6.4 Other topics

Toronto fire boats  and  police marine unit 

The Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway at Hamilton, Ontario

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8   10 SEE ALSO 

The Great Lakes Circle Tour and Seaway Trail are des-ignated scenic road systems connecting all of the GreatLakes and the St. Lawrence River.[32] As the SeawayTrail is posted on the U.S. side only, Lake Ontario is theonly of the five Great Lakes to have no posted bi-nationalcircle tour.

In the 1800s, there were reports of an alleged creaturesimilar to the so-called Loch Ness Monster being sightedin the lake. The creature is described as large with a longneck, green in colour, and generally causes a break in thesurface waves.[33][34][35]

7 Swims across the lake

As of 2012, nearly 50 people have successfully swumacross the lake.[36] The first person who accomplished the

feat was Marilyn Bell, who did it in 1954 at the age of16.   Toronto's Marilyn Bell Park is named in her honor.The park opened in 1984, and is located just to the eastof the spot where Bell completed her swim.[37] In 1974,Diana Nyad became the first person who swam acrossthe lake against the current (from north to south). [38]

On August 28, 2007, 14-year-old Natalie Lambert fromKingston, Ontario made the swim leaving Sackets Har-bor, NY and reaching Kingston’s Confederation basinless than 24 hours after she entered the lake.[39] On Au-gust 19, 2012, 14-year-old Annaleise Carr became theyoungest person to swim across the lake. She completed

the 32-mile (52-km) crossing from Niagara-on-the-Laketo Marilyn Bell Park in just under 27 hours.[40]

8 Industrialisation

The  government of Ontario, which holds the lakebedrights of the Canadian portion of the lake under theBeds of Navigable Waters Act,[41] currently does not per-mit off-shore wind power to be generated offshore.[42] InTrillium Power Wind Corporation  v. Ontario (NaturalResources),[41] the Superior Court of Justice held that

Trillium Power—since 2004 an “Applicant of Record”who had invested $35,000 in fees and, when in 2011the Crown made a policy decision against offshore wind-farms, claimed an injury of $2.25 billion—disclosed noreasonable cause of action.

While the Great Lakes once supported an industrial-scale fishery, with record hauls in 1899, overfishing laterblighted the industry.[43] Today only recreational fisheryactivities exist.

9 Images

•   Satellite image during late autumn

•  The lake seen from dead end of Dutch St.; Huron,New York (A sparsely populated neighboring townof Wolcott, New York)

•  Sandbanks Provincial Park

•   Bathers at   Southwick Beach State Park, easternshore of Lake Ontario, New York State

•  Sodus Outer Light, Sodus Bay, New York

•  View of Lake Ontario from Toronto’s  CN Tower,showing   Toronto Harbour,   Toronto Islands, andBilly Bishop Toronto City Airport

•  Pier in Oakville, Ontario

•  Sculpture at top of Scarborough Bluffs

•  Scarborough Bluffs

10 See also

•  Bay of Quinte

•  Charity Shoal Crater

•   Engagements on Lake Ontario

•  Fort Niagara

•  Glacial Lake Admiralty

•  Glacial Lake Iroquois

•   Iroquois Confederacy

•  Iroquois settlement of the northern shores of LakeOntario

•  Lake Ontario Waterkeeper

•  Niagara River

•   Ontario Lacus, a hydrocarbon-lake on   Saturn'smoon Titan named after Lake Ontario

•  St. Lawrence River

•  United Empire Loyalist

•  Welland Canal

•  Wyandot people

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10.1 Great Lakes in general

•  Great Lakes

•  Great Lakes Areas of Concern

•  Great Lakes census statistical areas

•  Great Lakes Commission

•  Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

•  Great Storm of 1913

•   International Boundary Waters Treaty

•   List of cities along the Great Lakes

•  Seiche

•  Sixty Years’ War for control of the Great Lakes

•  Third Coast

•   Snowbelt

11 References

[1]  “Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts”. U.S.Government. May 25, 2011. Retrieved November 12,2011.

[2]   “Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1”   (in English andFrench). United States Environmental Protection Agency.April 11, 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2011.

[3]  Wright 2006, p. 64.

[4]  Shorelines of the Great Lakes

[5]   A Report on Water Resources and Local Watershed Man-agement Programs. The State of the New York Lake On-tario Basin (2000)

[6] Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., andNicholas, J.R.. 2007. Lake-level variability and wateravailability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological SurveyCircular 1311, 25 p.

[7] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles andConservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK. Chapter 2.

[8] Christie, W. J. (1974). Changes in the fish species com-position of the Great Lakes. Journal of the Fisheries Re-search Board of Canada, 31, 827–54.

[9] Maynard, L., and Wilcox, D.A., 1997, Coastal wetlandsof the Great Lakes—State of the Lakes Ecosystem Con-ference 1996 background paper: Environment Canadaand U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 905–R–97–015b, 99 p.

[10] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles andConservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK.497 p.

[11]   National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetryof Lake Ontario. National Geophysical Data Center,NOAA. doi:10.7289/V56H4FBH [access date: 2015-03-23].

[12]   National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry ofLake Erie and Lake Saint Clair. National GeophysicalData Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5KS6PHK [accessdate: 2015-03-23]. (only small portion of this map)

[13] National Geophysical Data Center, 1999.   Global LandOne-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1.   Hastings,D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center,NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: 2015-03-16].

[14]  “About Our Great Lakes: Tour”. National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) - Great Lakes En-vironmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved2 April 2015. Google Earth Great Lakes Tour

GreatLakesTour_Merged.kmz[15]  Origin of drumlins on the floor of Lake Ontario and in

upper New York State; Quaternary geology; bridging thegap between East and West — Department of Geology,University of Toronto. Geology.utoronto.ca (November17, 2011). Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

[16]  Smith 1987, p. 10.

[17]  Lake Ontario Facts and Figures. Great-lakes.net (Febru-ary 28, 2005). Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

[18]  Museum of Civilization

[19] Snider, Charles Henry Jeremiah, Townsend, Robert B.Tales from the Great Lakes. Toronto: Dundurn PressLimited, 1995, pp. 25.

[20] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles andConservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Chapters 1 and 2.

[21] Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., andNicholas, J.R. 2007. Lake-level variability and wateravailability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological SurveyCircular 1311.Box 4

[22] Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles andConservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, UK. 497 p.

[23] Moore, D. R. J. andKeddy, P. A. (1989). The relationshipbetween species richness and standing crop in wetlands:the importance of scale. Vegetation, 79, 99–106.

[24] Williams, M. 1989. Americans and Their Forests: A His-torical Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

[25] Keddy, C.J. 1993. Forest History of Eastern Ontario. Areport prepared for the Eastern Ontario Forest Group.

[26] Environment Canada. 2004. How Much Habitat isEnough? A Framework for Guiding Habitat Rehabilita-tion in Great Lakes Areas of Concern. 2nd ed. 81 p.

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10   12 EXTERNAL LINKS 

[27] Keddy, P.A. and C. G.Drummond. 1996. Ecologicalproperties for the evaluation, management, and restora-tion of temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. Ecologi-cal Applications 6: 748–762.

[28] Scott, W.B. and E.J. Crossman. 1972. Freshwater Fish-eries of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada,Department of the Environment, Ottawa. p. 88.

[29] Vallentyne, J. R. (1974). The Algal Bowl: Lakes andMan, Miscellaneous Special Publication No. 22. Ottawa,ON: Department of the Environment, Fisheries and Ma-rine Service.

[30]  Kingston Chronicle, January 30, 1830, 2, col. 6 (“For sev-eral yearspast we have notbeen visited with so much snowas has fallen here within the last fortnight. The storm ofWednesday and yesterday could only be equalled by suchvisitations as are familiar to our Lower Canada friends.The thermometer has ranged from 10° below, to 20°above 0, for the last ten days. The Lake is firmly frozen,

and a cheap and safe style of travelling has revived the in-tercourse with our brethren of the  independent  portion ofthe world”);  Republican Compiler   [newspaper], February23, 1830, p. 2, col. 5 (“At Kingston, Upper Canada, thequantity of snow which had fallen had not been equalledfor several years.—The Lake (Ontario) was frozen, andcrossing had become general”); Perry, Kenneth A,   The

Fitch Gazetteer: An Annotated Indexto the Manuscript His-

tory of Washington County, New York,   4 vols. (Bowie,Md.: Heritage Books, 1999), 4:565 (“Kingston, UpperCanada, [experiencing] the deepset [sic ] snow in severalyrs., & Lake Ontario frozen over”);   Kingston Chronicle

[newspaper], January 9, 1830, 2, col. 1 (“the Bay was

frozen across this morning”); see also Vermont Chronicle,(Bellows Falls, Vt.) Friday, February 19, 1830, p. 31, colD, quoting the Quebec Gazette: “The Lake (Ontario) wasfrozen, and crossing had become general.”

[31]  May 2008.

[32]  Great Lakes Circle Tour. Great-lakes.net (July 5, 2005).Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

[33] The Morning Post (London, England), Saturday, July 25,1835; p. 6 “Sea Serpent in Lake Ontario”

[34] Glasgow Herald (Glasgow, Scotland), Friday, June 28,1867 “Another Sea Serpent Sensation: A hideous mon-

ster discovered in Lake Ontario”

[35] Pinkwater, Daniel. The Monster of Lake Ontario. NewYork: Houghton Mifflin Publishing, 2010, pp. 46–47.

[36] CNN Wire Staff (August 20, 2012). “14-year-old swimssolo across Lake Ontario”.   CNN . Retrieved August 20,2012.

[37]  “Plaque in Marilyn Bell Park”.  YouTube. Retrieved Au-gust 21, 2012.

[38] Pitock, Todd.  “The Unsinkable Diana Nyad”.   Reader’s 

Digest  (November 2011). Retrieved August 20, 2012.

[39]  http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/kingston-teen-becomes-youngest-to-swim-lake-ontario-1.643621

[40] Alamenciak, Tim.   “Exhausted, but jubilant AnnaleiseCarr completes Lake Ontario crossing”. thespec.com.Retrieved August 20, 2012.

[41]   Trillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (NaturalResources), 2012 ONSC 5619 (CanLII)

[42]  “Ontario’s off-shore wind turbine moratorium unresolvedtwo years later”, Toronto Star, Spears, Feb 15 2013

[43] Author unknown (1972).   The Great Lakes: An Environ-

mental Atlas and Resource Book . Bi-national (U.S. andCanadian) resource book.

Bibliography

•   May, Gary (2008). “The Day the Lake Froze Over”.Watershed Magazine (Winter 2008/2009).

•  Smith, Donald B. (1987).  Sacred Feather . Univer-

sity of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6732-8.

•   Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The

New York Times  (2006).   The New York Times Al-

manac  (2007 ed.). New York, New York: PenguinBooks. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.

12 External links

•   Lake Ontario NOAA nautical chart #14820 online

•  EPA’s Great Lakes Atlas

•  Great Lakes Coast Watch

•   Lake Ontario Bathymetry

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11

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

•   Lake Ontario  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Ontario?oldid=672279385  Contributors:  AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, BryanDerksen, Rmhermen, Christian List, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Ichelhof, Montrealais, Ewen, Edward, Docu, Big iron, Andres, Jiang,Samw, Edmilne, Hike395, Jengod, Wik, Thadk, Indefatigable, Oaktree b, Pollinator, Bearcat, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jredmond, RedWolf,Moncrief, Radagast, Bkonrad, Foryst, Foobar, Chowbok, SarekOfVulcan, Sleep pilot, The Singing Badger, Robert Brockway, Balcer, Ge-oGreg, Avihu, Dcandeto, Kate, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Zaphod-Swe, Mjuarez, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,Ffirehorse, Qutezuce, John FitzGerald, Vsmith, El C, Bletch, Kwamikagami, .:Ajvol:., Helix84, SPUI, Alansohn, Revmachine21, Fat pig73,Versageek, Ceyockey, Anderskin, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Etacar11, JeremyA, MONGO, BD2412, Jorunn, Susan Davis, WCFrancis,Alaney2k, Tcwd, SeanMack, Lairor, Sango123, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, AdnanSa, Latka, RexNL, Ahunt, Chobot, Marc pasquin, 334a,YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, Mr Frosty, Pigman, Epolk, Bachrach44, Joelr31, Brian Crawford, StevieY19, Raven4x4x, Bota47, Some-ones life, Sandstein, KGasso, BorgQueen, Jsp3970, Eog1916, Blastwizard, SmackBot, ILBobby, C.Löser, Skeezix1000, Toofast, Shoy,Unyoyega, Gjs238, Steam5, Ohnoitsjamie, Phizzy, Hmains, Durova, Amatulic, Jprg1966, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ryan-lock2u, MJCdetroit, VMS Mosaic, Paul H., Liddelr, Morio, ArglebargleIV, Robomaeyhem, EMU CPA, John, Snincr, J 1982, Cicero1991,Smalkin, Ckatz, Korovioff, Anonymous anonymous, Darry2385, TJ Spyke, Alan.ca, D.A., Doggydoo, Xxplosive, Ofsevit, Civil EngineerIII, Fvasconcellos, Nutster, Ale jrb, MarcosFenn, Em3rald, Devatipan, Bardiak, Cydebot, Jimmykaw, Greenboxed, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,Puppybarf, JustAGal, Jbl1975, Gubbagubbaba, Nhl4hamilton, AntiVandalBot, Paste, JimDunning, Spencer, Kariteh, Mikenorton, JAnD-bot, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, VoABot II, HaltonRattlesnake, Chemical Engineer, Daarznieks, User86654, Dtheweather9, Vssun, GregU,Thorin III~enwiki, Stupefaction, Dajd987, MartinBot, Genghiskhanviet, Peter2212, AlexiusHoratius, RaccoonFox, Zeete, J.delanoy, Os-mer, Abhijitsathe, LordAnubisBOT, Sundar1, Touch Of Light, Miskwito, Antepenultimate, STBotD, Hbayat, RobertKafarski, DASon-

nenfeld, The Behnam, Idioma-bot, Montchav, VolkovBot, Canopus27, TXiKiBoT, Melsaran, Modal Jig, Onore Baka Sama, Entirelybs,Truthanado, Wavehunter, Larryfordthomas, SieBot, 1013-josh, Thelittlebluegoat, Chris Light, Alaskoko, Samus link, Flyer22, AngelOf-Sadness, Android Mouse Bot 3, John Leech, Lightmouse, OKBot, Altzinn, Brave warrior, Denisarona, Finetooth, Angel caboodle, Sfan00IMG, ClueBot, Kennvido, Shadows Princess, Mild Bill Hiccup, Puchiko, Rinzertanz, 7&6=thirteen, Cookiehead, SteelMariner, Vanisheduser k3rmwkdmn4tjna3d, Rror, Good Olfactory, Jhendin, Addbot, Sidsizzle, AkhtaBot, Jim10701, 37ophiuchi, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot,Legobot, Luckas-bot, Vedran12, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Wikipedian Penguin, Madeline1914, VerticalDrop, AnomieBOT, Ujjwalkumar, Ul-ric1313, B137, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Eja2k, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Jeffrey Mall, Chongo713,PhilthyBear, Drdpw, Moxy, Fotaun, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, MastiBot, Full-date unlinking bot,Jugni, FoxBot, Fanfardon, Tbhotch, Stratshaw, Natbug123, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Waleed.mughal, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, Wabbdb,Racerx11, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Akerans, SporkBot, Rcsprinter123, UnknownFork, Mappetop, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, Morgankevinjhuggle, Frietjes, Parcly Taxel, BG19bot, Spookyrabbit, Hadifn, Insidiae, DignitySun53, Khazar2, NahidSultan, Darekk2, Darylbender, Lu-gia2453, The Anonymouse, Acetotyce, Magnolia677, Asesorestecnicos, Thewikiguru1, Epic Failure, Monkbot, Ahanford1234, Reval416,Vaselineeeeeeee, Cynulliad, Gaudenjer08, KasparBot, Lake Ontario Wind, That Guy You Know4567 and Anonymous: 273

13.2 Images

•   File:Acipenser_fulvescens_GLERL.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Acipenser_fulvescens_GLERL.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?

•  File:Braddockpoint.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Braddockpoint.JPG  License:  Public domainContributors:  US Coast Guard - http://www.uscg.mil/history/weblighthouses/LHNY.asp Original artist:  Unknown

•   File:Burlington_Bay_James_N._Allan_Skyway_-_Hamilton,_Ontario,_Canada.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Burlington_Bay_James_N._Allan_Skyway_-_Hamilton%2C_Ontario%2C_Canada.jpg   License:    CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Magnolia677

•   File:Commons-logo.svg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License:  ?  Contributors:  ?  Original 

artist:  ?

•   File:Fort_Niagara_aiming_at_Toronto.jpg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Fort_Niagara_aiming_at_Toronto.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Ad Meskens

•  File:Fort_Ontario_5.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Fort_Ontario_5.jpg  License:  CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Ad Meskens

•   File:Great_Lakes_from_space.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Great_Lakes_from_space.jpg   Li-

cense:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=793  Original artist:  SeaWiFS Project, NASA/GoddardSpace Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE.

•   File:Lake_Ontario_Cobourg_Apr2006.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Lake_Ontario_Cobourg_Apr2006.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Paulo Maurício

•   File:Lake_Ontario_Watershed.png Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Lake_Ontario_Watershed.png Li-

cense:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Drdpw

•   File:Lake_Ontario_bathymetry_map.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Lake_Ontario_bathymetry_map.png  License:  CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: 

•   Great Lakes Bathymetryfrom NationalGeophysicalData Center http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html. Credits:  Orig-

inal artist:  Darekk2 using the Great Lakes Bathymetry and GLOBE tiles

•   File:Lake_Ontario_food_web.pdf   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Lake_Ontario_food_web.pdf   Li-

cense:  Public domain  Contributors:  NOAA Great Lakes Food Web Diagrams direct  Original artist:  NOAA, Great Lakes Environmental

Research Laboratory: Mason, Krause, and Ulanowicz, 2002 - Modifications for Lake Ontario, 2009.•   File:Olcott_lighthouse_with_rainfall.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Olcott_lighthouse_with_

rainfall.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Ad Meskens

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12   13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

•   File:Oswego_NY_Fort_Ontario_LOC_det_4a07737.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Oswego_NY_Fort_Ontario_LOC_det_4a07737.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?

•   File:Rrl_top_floor_view_lake_ontario_and_marina.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Rrl_top_floor_view_lake_ontario_and_marina.jpg License:  CC BY 3.0  Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Achim Hering

•  File:Soduspoint.JPG Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Soduspoint.JPG License:  Public domain Contribu-

tors:  US Coast Guard - http://www.uscg.mil/history/weblighthouses/LHNY.asp Original artist:  Unknown

• File:Toronto_fireboats_Sora_and_William_Lyon_Mackenzie_-a.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Toronto_fireboats_Sora_and_William_Lyon_Mackenzie_-a.jpg  License:  CC BY 2.0  Contributors:  Toronto Fireboats Sora and Wm.Lyon Mackenzie_4765 Original artist:  Robert Taylor from Stirling, ON, Canada

•  File:USGS_image_cropped.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/USGS_image_cropped.jpg   License: 

Public domain  Contributors:  USGS Document, Circular 1311, Lake-Level Variability and Water Availability in the Great Lakes  Origi-

nal artist:  Douglas A. Wilcox, Todd A. Thompson, Robert K. Booth, and J.R. Nicholas

•   File:Upper_Canada_and_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Upper_Canada_and_the_Iroquois_Confederacy.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors: 

This image is available from the City of Toronto Archives, listed under the archival citation Fonds 1231, Item 173.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist:  Unknown

•   File:Winter_scene_on_Toronto_Bay.jpg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Winter_scene_on_Toronto_Bay.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:  This image is available from the Toronto Public Library under the reference number  TRL,

Acc. JRR 842This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal  copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist:  William Armstrong (1822 - 1914)

13.3 Content license

•   Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0