lacture 2 special construction

8/2/2019 Lacture 2 Special Construction

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Space Frame, Portal Frame, Shell

Structure, Tensile StructureLecture 5


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Introduction

The purpose of any structure in building is

to transfer the loads of buildings plus any

imposed loads to the structure to

suitable foundation


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long span structure

A type of structure as a consequence of the size

of the span, technical considerations that are

placed so high on the list of architecturalpriorities that they significantly affect the

aesthetic treatment of the building


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Historical context

Followed technological progress

Started in the nineteenth century with the advent of

the railways, which generated the need for long span

enclosures At a time when the technology of cast iron

structures was sufficiently advanced

Progress from cast iron to wrought iron to steel inquick succession; means to build longer and larger

structures and created a new architectural

vocabulary.


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Early development: Crystal Palace


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Paxton and Paddington Station,

Brunel


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Early development

The development of largerspanning train sheds of Barlow and

Ordish's St. Pancras Station (span of

74m), the Galerie des Machines for

the 1889 Paris Exhibition byContamin and Dutert (span of

114m)

It innovated the principle of the

three pinned arch, pioneered the

use of structural steel and its

massive proportions.
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Galerie des Machines


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Mid

development

Early twentieth century

technological advances the

development of the airship

The structural requirements werehighly sophisticated, encouraged

the development of lightweight

structures; economical, long span,

large volume.

The largest: Goodyear Airdock at

Akron Ohio, constructed in l 929,

with an elegant parabolic threepinned arch structure spanning

99m. Shape was derived from wind

tunnel tests designed to reduce air

turbulence around the doors.


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Laterdevelopment

The increase in air transported

to further developments in

clear span sheds.

The wartime requirements for

economical, quick to erect, low

profile hangars and later withthe need for clear span hangars

to house the larger passenger

planes.

The jumbo jet (span of 60m)has generated the design of

long span space frame hangars,

cable supported roofs,

cantilevered structures,.


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The largest building in the world, the Boeing

Assembly Building at Everett, Seattle.


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Late development Throughout the twentieth century

the use of long span structures for

industrial and leisure uses.

The introduction of the production-

line assembly for the American carindustry created the need for the

single storey, roof-lit, wide-span

industrial shed

To suit the ever changingrequirements with the design of

more efficient steel structures and

economical cladding systems for

their enclosure.


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The need for large covered spaces to house

swimming pools, indoor sports, conferencecenters and huge arenas challenging architects

and engineers to create efficient economical

and appropriate structural enclosures.


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Structural options

Although it is possible to construct long span

buildings of concrete, timber and aluminum, by far

the most common structural material is steel due to

its strength to weight ratio, ease of fabrication andcost.

It is for this reason that this section concentrates on

structural steel options, although the structural

forms are common to other materials.

Large single volume sheds can be conveniently

classified according to their structural forms


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Structural options

For simplicity, the main types of structural formsused for the design of large single volume sheds can

be classified into the following headings:

Beam Structures


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Structural options

Portals and Arches

Masted Structures


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Structural options

Space frames

Umbrella structures

Many building structures are hybrid forms using a

combination of different systems.


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Beam structure

Simple and commonly used,especially where the

minimum internal volume is

required.

Common usage both in single

span and multi-span form.

Major advantages : they lend

themselves to prefabricationin elements for ease of

transportation and site

erection.


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Beam structure

Flat beam structure is used where the minimumvolume of space is required within the desired clear

height. The achievable span is then directly related to

the depth of the beams; for normal loadings, would

require a depth to span ratio of approximately 1:15for solid web steel beams.

Beams may be solid web or truss forms, offering a

variety of opportunities for architectural design.

They often lose to the trussed solutions in terms of

services co-ordination where the open webs provide

valuable routes for the services.


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Box girder bridge

A box girder bridge is a bridge in which themain beams comprise girders in the shape of a

hollow box. The box girder normally comprises

eitherprestressed concrete, structural steel, or

a composite of steel and reinforced concrete. The

box is typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross-

section. Box girder bridges are commonly used for

highway flyovers and for modern elevated structuresoflight rail transport. Although normally the box

girder bridge is a form ofbeam bridge, box girders

may also be used on cable-stayed bridges and other

forms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_girderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectanglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectanglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_girderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge


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Box girder

Compared to I-beam girders, box girders have a

number of key advantages and disadvantages. Box

girders offer better resistance to torsion, which is

particularly of benefit if the bridge deck is curved inplan. Additionally, larger girders can be constructed,

because the presence of two webs allows wider and

hence stronger flanges to be used. This in turn allows

longer spans. On the other hand, box girders aremore expensive to fabricate, and they are more

difficult to maintain, because of the need for access

to a confined space inside the box.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confined_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confined_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beam


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Early projects

1950s Mies Van der Rohe'sCrown Hall building on the

Illinois Institute of

Technology campus

1960s Skidmore Owings

and Merrill on a series of

industrial buildings Team 4on the Reliance Controls

plant in 1965 at Swindon


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Steel and concrete


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Trussed Beam

Later, as the level of building services increased withthe introduction of new technology, trussed beam

solutions were more favoured, where the mechanical

and electrical services are co-ordinated within the

roof trusses.


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Modified truss forms Provide improved design solutions.

In some instances the use of triangular beams may

increase the efficiency of the longer span structures as

was found to be the case on the Sainsbury Visual Arts

Centre at the University of East Anglia by FosterAssociates.
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Truss form

Here the 2.5m deep triangulartrussed beams span 35m onto

triangular towers of the same depth.

Has higher fabrication costs but hasthe advantage of being inherently

stable making erection easier and

reducing the need for secondary

bracing. Potential buckling due to compressive

forces can be shared and spans for

cladding support are reduced.
http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=Sainsbury+Visual+Arts+Centre+at+the+University+of+East+Anglia+by+Foster+Associates.&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=503&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=y4f9JuVGdcSnIM:&imgrefurl=http://www.fotolibra.com/gallery/collection/24723/architecture/&imgurl=http://gb.fotolibra.com/images/thumbnails/405395-sainsbury-centre-for-visual-arts-03.jpeg&ei=U7l1TZ70N43fcb3sxfkE&zoom=1&w=144&h=96&iact=hc&vpx=503&vpy=126&dur=766&hovh=76&hovw=115&tx=77&ty=53&oei=U7l1TZ70N43fcb3sxfkE&page=1&tbnh=76&tbnw=115&start=0&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=Sainsbury+Visual+Arts+Centre+at+the+University+of+East+Anglia+by+Foster+Associates.&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=503&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=y4f9JuVGdcSnIM:&imgrefurl=http://www.fotolibra.com/gallery/collection/24723/architecture/&imgurl=http://gb.fotolibra.com/images/thumbnails/405395-sainsbury-centre-for-visual-arts-03.jpeg&ei=U7l1TZ70N43fcb3sxfkE&zoom=1&w=144&h=96


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Construction

Either form of bridge may

also be installed using the

technique ofincremental

launching. Under thismethod, gantry cranes are

often used to place new

segments onto the completed

portions of the bridge untilthe bridge superstructure is

completed.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_launching&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_launching&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gantry_cranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gantry_cranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_launching&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_launching&action=edit&redlink=1


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Cladding and large span

The enclosures to the large sheds require particularattention to achieve performance and economy.

Large uninterrupted areas of wall cladding demand

clear simple statements and precise detailing.

Profiled sheeting can be used in a range of ways tocreate different aspects.

Profiled sheeting is used for cladding large areas

because of the size of sheets which aremanufactured, the weathering qualities and the cost.

Used vertically or horizontally, the depth of profile is

chosen to suit the required span and the shape to

create the preferred visual effect.


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Cladding


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Cladding Panels

Panel systems can also be used

to form the enclosure.

These range from rain screen

systems to bonded panels, andfrom smooth skins to rough

textures.

It is up to the designer to choose

the most appropriate cladding

to suit the particular

requirements.


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Concrete domes In pre industrial age is used

for the widest spans in theform of masonry vault or

dome

19th century=

comprehensive form activetype of structure

Advantages of RC=

capability to resist tension,

compression and bending Thinner construction

Greater efficiency and span

easier for adoption of

improved cross section


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Shells

2 types; made from framing members to which

cladding is applied and monolithic shell either by

casting concrete in place over complex frameworks

or precast sections. Monolithic have a continuous abutments to deal

with higher load associated with concrete

Monocoques refers to a structure and enclosure

which is combined in a single form as found in egg

Shell forms vary from simple shell resembling

extruded arch to complex ribbed structure


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Shell structures


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Skeleton frames

A series of rectangular frames placed at right angles

to one another so that the loads can be transmitted

from member to member until they are transferred

to the foundations Concrete or steel or combination of both

Timber is possible but also considered uneconomical


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Masted structure

Popular as a means of providing lightweightstructures for general use.

Masted structures have been used in bridge

building and tented structures

Compressive form active structures

produced in metal in the form of lattice

arches or vaults.


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Masted structure

The masted structure for East

Croydon Station by Alan Brookes

Associates with YRM/Anthony

Hunt Associates: double columnmasts on the perimeter

supporting pin-jointed beams

which span the 55m across the

railway lines below. Economies are achieved by the

tension supports which allow

the truss depth to be reduced to

only 1.8m.


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Masted structure

Long span metal and cable

A series of 24m square

umbrella modules which

could be grouped in anyconfiguration and this was

achieved with a portalized

structure of undulating

beams supported fromtubular steel masts with

tension rods.


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Mast supported domes

Tensile form active structures in high level efficiency for large

single volume buildings
http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=millenium+dome+london&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=464&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=jdxhcepPeLt_WM:&imgrefurl=http://riversideevents.co.uk/o2-arena-the-transition-of-the-millenium-dome&imgurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/jpgs/o2_arena_hok030108_01.jpg&ei=uNp1Tfn9LYnCsAOwrvW7BA&zoom=1&w=800&h=735&iact=hc&vpx=559&vpy=118&dur=1328&hovh=215&hovw=234&tx=72&ty=93&oei=fdp1TcTJN4brrQeetOy_Cg&page=4&tbnh=143&tbnw=163&start=25&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:25http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=frei+otto+munich+stadium&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=464&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=C3wii_-U6Ns_uM:&imgrefurl=http://www.oobject.com/every-postwar-olympic-stadium/1972-munich-2/2386/&imgurl=http://cache.wists.com/thumbnails/c/b2/cb2a16d2a99d367c4221ccb85c5c6824-orig&ei=c9t1TfyDOcrprQenyqy_Cg&zoom=1&w=425&h=286&iact=hc&vpx=325&vpy=88&dur=2797&hovh=184&hovw=274&tx=78&ty=82&oei=c9t1TfyDOcrprQenyqy_Cg&page=1&tbnh=149&tbnw=187&start=0&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:0


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Cabled network structures

l d For the large single clear span
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Portal and

Arches

For the large single clear span,

the need for internal columns

can be eliminated by the use

of arched vaults or portals. Portal frame structure is when

standardized beams sections

are bolted together with a

range of joints types.

Commonly used for single

storey buildings. Advantage of

speed and economy. Their

simplicity and efficiency

provide good workable

enclosures for manufacturing ,

storage and sport
http://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/images/st-pancras-station-02.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/st-pancras-station-2008.html&h=319&w=425&sz=68&tbnid=1tP7Rx3m98DGsM:&tbnh=95&tbnw=126&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__rBVrPm9QSmMGVW07-WTZS7BZwEE=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEoQ9QEwAwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://ukkid.info/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/st-pancras-international-train-station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ukkid.info/&h=1804&w=1187&sz=306&tbnid=UtqMSRHksDh-TM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__bJcObh8AZpmLz3FT7evu_F8ptHo=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFIQ9QEwBwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/St_Pancras_Station.png&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pancras_Station.png&h=778&w=1336&sz=774&tbnid=47cFc1uhrJ0Q-M:&tbnh=87&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__CXe9ngXceBXyBtB-xVAXoA41-bU=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFAQ9QEwBghttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://static.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/uploaded_files/1325_385%2520St%2520Pancras%2520Station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php%3Ffuseaction%3Dwanappln.projectview%26upload_id%3D1325&h=560&w=385&sz=91&tbnid=esCLXDaPzvUI5M:&tbnh=133&tbnw=91&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__QI6UBYX5SVDsDv_BFVjwqyPoEd8=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CE4Q9QEwBQhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london/st_pancras_station_ct301107_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/st_pancras_station_concourse.htm&h=601&w=800&sz=112&tbnid=NVwe4jdpKyM29M:&tbnh=107&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__v9kWAjtHcE6DIsI-hd3dp8eHVS0=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEwQ9QEwBAhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/images/st-pancras-station-02.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/st-pancras-station-2008.html&h=319&w=425&sz=68&tbnid=1tP7Rx3m98DGsM:&tbnh=95&tbnw=126&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__rBVrPm9QSmMGVW07-WTZS7BZwEE=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEoQ9QEwAwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://ukkid.info/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/st-pancras-international-train-station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ukkid.info/&h=1804&w=1187&sz=306&tbnid=UtqMSRHksDh-TM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__bJcObh8AZpmLz3FT7evu_F8ptHo=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFIQ9QEwBwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/St_Pancras_Station.png&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pancras_Station.png&h=778&w=1336&sz=774&tbnid=47cFc1uhrJ0Q-M:&tbnh=87&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__CXe9ngXceBXyBtB-xVAXoA41-bU=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFAQ9QEwBghttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://static.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/uploaded_files/1325_385%2520St%2520Pancras%2520Station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php%3Ffuseaction%3Dwanappln.projectview%26upload_id%3D1325&h=560&w=385&sz=91&tbnid=esCLXDaPzvUI5M:&tbnh=133&tbnw=91&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__QI6UBYX5SVDsDv_BFVjwqyPoEd8=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CE4Q9QEwBQhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london/st_pancras_station_ct301107_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/st_pancras_station_concourse.htm&h=601&w=800&sz=112&tbnid=NVwe4jdpKyM29M:&tbnh=107&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__v9kWAjtHcE6DIsI-hd3dp8eHVS0=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEwQ9QEwBA


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Portal and Arches
http://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/images/st-pancras-station-02.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/st-pancras-station-2008.html&h=319&w=425&sz=68&tbnid=1tP7Rx3m98DGsM:&tbnh=95&tbnw=126&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__rBVrPm9QSmMGVW07-WTZS7BZwEE=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEoQ9QEwAwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://ukkid.info/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/st-pancras-international-train-station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ukkid.info/&h=1804&w=1187&sz=306&tbnid=UtqMSRHksDh-TM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__bJcObh8AZpmLz3FT7evu_F8ptHo=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFIQ9QEwBwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/St_Pancras_Station.png&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pancras_Station.png&h=778&w=1336&sz=774&tbnid=47cFc1uhrJ0Q-M:&tbnh=87&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__CXe9ngXceBXyBtB-xVAXoA41-bU=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFAQ9QEwBghttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://static.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/uploaded_files/1325_385%2520St%2520Pancras%2520Station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php%3Ffuseaction%3Dwanappln.projectview%26upload_id%3D1325&h=560&w=385&sz=91&tbnid=esCLXDaPzvUI5M:&tbnh=133&tbnw=91&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__QI6UBYX5SVDsDv_BFVjwqyPoEd8=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CE4Q9QEwBQhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london/st_pancras_station_ct301107_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/st_pancras_station_concourse.htm&h=601&w=800&sz=112&tbnid=NVwe4jdpKyM29M:&tbnh=107&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__v9kWAjtHcE6DIsI-hd3dp8eHVS0=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEwQ9QEwBAhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/images/st-pancras-station-02.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.urban75.org/london/st-pancras-station-2008.html&h=319&w=425&sz=68&tbnid=1tP7Rx3m98DGsM:&tbnh=95&tbnw=126&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__rBVrPm9QSmMGVW07-WTZS7BZwEE=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEoQ9QEwAwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://ukkid.info/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/st-pancras-international-train-station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ukkid.info/&h=1804&w=1187&sz=306&tbnid=UtqMSRHksDh-TM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__bJcObh8AZpmLz3FT7evu_F8ptHo=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFIQ9QEwBwhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/St_Pancras_Station.png&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pancras_Station.png&h=778&w=1336&sz=774&tbnid=47cFc1uhrJ0Q-M:&tbnh=87&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__CXe9ngXceBXyBtB-xVAXoA41-bU=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CFAQ9QEwBghttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://static.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/uploaded_files/1325_385%2520St%2520Pancras%2520Station.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php%3Ffuseaction%3Dwanappln.projectview%26upload_id%3D1325&h=560&w=385&sz=91&tbnid=esCLXDaPzvUI5M:&tbnh=133&tbnw=91&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__QI6UBYX5SVDsDv_BFVjwqyPoEd8=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CE4Q9QEwBQhttp://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london/st_pancras_station_ct301107_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.e-architect.co.uk/london/st_pancras_station_concourse.htm&h=601&w=800&sz=112&tbnid=NVwe4jdpKyM29M:&tbnh=107&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSt%2BPancras%2BStation&zoom=1&q=St+Pancras+Station&usg=__v9kWAjtHcE6DIsI-hd3dp8eHVS0=&sa=X&ei=Ycd1TeGIH8XsrAfH04G_Cg&ved=0CEwQ9QEwBA


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Portal and Arches

The parabolic arched structure of the airship hangars

at Akron, Sunnyvale and Weeksville, constructed

between the wars in the USA, provided some of the

most elegant long span steel structures ever built


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Space frames

Take a variety of forms.

Space structures are three-dimensional assemblies

of linear members in which the interconnections are

such that a load at any point is distributed in all

directions throughout the assembly.

With the loads spread, member sizes can be

decreased which makes them an efficient andeconomic solution to long spans. They can take the

form of flat double-layer grid structures or braced

domes and vaults.


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Space frame

Generally lightweight space trusses are

manufactured from pre-galvanised steel coil

up to 8.0 mm in thickness which is cold-

formed, using a continuous rolling process, toproduce light weight channel sections and thin

walled tubes.


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Umbrella structure

In umbrella or tree structures, the roofcantilevers from a central column.

The final option for consideration is the umbrella

or tree structure in which the roof cantilevers

from a central column and can be repeated and

joined to other similar assemblies at each or any

side to form a continuous structure.


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Umbrella structureStansted Airport by Foster Associates.Here, a series of umbrellas, or 'steel treesThe 'trees', which are 21m tall, consist of acluster of 457mm diameter steel tubeswhich branch out at the 13m high level tosupport a shallow dome covering an area

of 18mx18m.


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Umbrella structure


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Space grids

An impressive use of space grids

and glazing can be seen in the

atrium wall and roof


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Space grids However, the standard joints

are only produced in two

forms with lugs for the

connection of bracing

members either in line withthe chord members or

alternatively at 45 to the

chords when viewed in plan.

This limits the possible gridconfigurations to variations of

the square on square or

square on diagonal layouts.


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Space grids advantages

All elements of the space grid contribute to the loadcarrying capacity.

Loads are distributed more evenly to the supports. This

can reduce the cost of the supporting structures

especially when heavy moving loads may be applied tothe space grid (e.g. overhead cranes).

Deflections are reduced compared to plane structures

of equivalent span, depth and applied loading.


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advantages

The open nature of the structure between the two

plane grids allows easy installation of mechanical and

electrical services and air-handling ducts within the

structural depth. The statically redundancy of space grids means that,

in general, failure of one or a limited number of

elements, for instance, the buckling of a compression

member, does not lead to overall collapse of thestructure.


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advantages

Space grid structures are resistant to damage caused by fire,

explosion or seismic activity.

Modular space grids are usually factory fabricated (thus

producing accurate components) easily transportable and

simple to assemble on site. Because of their modular naturethey may be extended without difficulty and even taken down

and re-erected elsewhere.

Their cost, which can be high when compared with alternative

structural systems. This is particularly true when space gridsare used for short spans.


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Disadvantages When space grids are used to support floors some form

of fire protection may be required. This is difficult to

achieve economically due to the high number and

relatively large surface area of the space grid elements.

The standardised modular nature of most space gridscan impose a geometric discipline of their own. This

sometimes makes difficult the use of irregular plan

shapes and imposes control on the location of

supports.

Visually, space grid structures are very 'busy'.

The number and complexity of joints can lead to longer

erection times on site.


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Detailing space grids

variety of issues need to be considered in detailing space grid

structures.

The main considerations for the detailed design of bars,

members, modules, nodes and joints are material properties,

element structural behaviour and dimensional accuracy.Other issues which must be considered include support

details, cladding systems, site construction.

The majority of space frame systems for building structures

are manufactured from steel or aluminium although timber,concrete and reinforced plastics are also used.

Although


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Construction requirement

In three-dimensional structures, and long-span structures inparticular, dimensional accuracy is of paramount importance

as small variations in element dimensions may accumulate to

produce gross errors in the dimensions of the final structure.


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Construction requirements

As long span structures, space grids require asuitable set of fixed and sliding bearings to enable

them to resist lateral loads whilst allowing thermal

expansion / contraction to take place.

Space grids form quite rigid plates so it is very

important that any potential movements are

accommodated in the support details. It is necessary

to install the space grid on a combination of fixedand sliding bearings to permit free thermal

movement whilst restraining the lateral movement

caused by wind forces and transmitting these forces

to the supports.

Alternatively the space grid may be rigidly fixed to some or all


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Alternatively, the space grid may be rigidly fixed to some or all

of its supports. In this case, both the space grid and the sub-

structure must be designed to cater for the forces generated by

temperature change. Thermal expansion and contraction was considered to occur

relative to a notional fixed point at the centre of the roof

structure with the tops of the columns being forced to move

out or in as dictated by the change in roof dimensions.


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Rainwater runoff

As most space grid applications are for roofs it is necessary to

provide adequate falls for rainwater run-off and an additional

pre-camber may be applied to counteract the expected

vertical deflection under load.


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Erection

Assembly of the individual space grid elements or

modules on a temporary scaffold support - this is

normally only used when no other method is

possible as the scaffolding is expensive; however, it

may be required in large grids to establish a

structurally stable area for later connection of pre-

assembled sections.
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Erection

Connection in the air, in which space

grid elements or modules are lifted

individually by crane for connection to

areas of the grid that have alreadybeen installed - this is more

appropriate for heavy modular

systems when the site cannot be

obstructed by assembly of the grid atground level.

Assembly of grid elements ord l i t l b f lifti b
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pace-Frame-system.jpg&ei=PtJ1Tc5ghfSzA5O8zLsE&zoom=1&w=445&h=268&iact=hc&vpx=128&vpy=100&dur=1187&hovh=174&hovw=289&tx=36&ty=24&oei=JtF1TZbyDYaIrAeM_J2_Cg&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=213&start=0&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0


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Erectionmodules into panels before lifting by

crane and connection in the air - this

is a good compromise where it would

be difficult to lift the whole space grid

as one piece or where it is not

possible to assemble the whole grid

on the ground, due to lack of space.

An important advantage may be

gained from assembling the grid at or

slightly above ground level prior to

lifting it to its final position. Theinstallation of services and/or

cladding is facilitated as this can be

carried out from the ground.
http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=space+frame+erection&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=464&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=rBWSuwAZvEeD8M:&imgrefurl=http://www.civilengineergroup.com/examples-space-grids.html&imgurl=http://www.civilengineergroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/CUBIC-Space-Frame-system.jpg&ei=PtJ1Tc5ghfSzA5O8zLsE&zoom=1&w=445&h=268&iact=hc&vpx=128&vpy=100&dur=1187&hovh=174&hovw=289&tx=36&ty=24&oei=JtF1TZbyDYaIrAeM_J2_Cg&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=213&start=0&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=space+frame+erection&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=464&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=C4DhgkqvjMItbM:&imgrefurl=http://www.frameandform.com/en/2011/02/07/celosias-espaciales-y-sistema-pantadome/&imgurl=http://www.frameandform.com/images/2011/02/Cupula-Fernando-Buesa-Arena02-600x450.jpg&ei=pending&zoom=1&w=600&h=450&iact=hc&vpx=531&vpy=90&dur=1328&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=76&ty=67&oei=JtF1TZbyDYaIrAeM_J2_Cg&page=2&tbnh=144&tbnw=192&start=8&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:8http://www.google.com.my/imgres?q=space+frame+erection&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1T4HPND_enMY316MY248&biw=1003&bih=464&tbs=isch:1&tbnid=rBWSuwAZvEeD8M:&imgrefurl=http://www.civilengineergroup.com/examples-space-grids.html&imgurl=http://www.civilengineergroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/CUBIC-Space-Frame-system.jpg&ei=PtJ1Tc5ghfSzA5O8zLsE&zoom=1&w=445&h=268&iact=hc&vpx=128&vpy=100&dur=1187&hovh=174&hovw=289&tx=36&ty=24&oei=JtF1TZbyDYaIrAeM_J2_Cg&page=1&tbnh=128&tbnw=213&start=0&ndsp=8&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0


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Grid configuration In square grids the grid lines can be parallel to the

edges of the grid or set on the diagonal, usually at

45 to the edges. Both of these are two-way grids

having members orientated in two directions, however,

plane grids of triangles and hexagons produce three-way grids with members orientated in three directions.

More complex grid geometries may be produced by

combining the regular polygons or by using them in

combination with other polygonal shapes (e.g.triangles and squares, triangles and hexagons, squares

and octagons).


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Single layer grids

D bl l idd


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Double layer grids More open grid geometriesare often possible in the

lower layer of a double-

layer grid because themembers are generally in

tension, i.e. not subject to

buckling, and may be

longer than the uppercompression members.

In modular systems it is

often possible to omit

complete modules in a

regular pattern to produce

a more open geometry and

reduce the self-weight of

the structure.


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Space framing

S f d d il


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Space frame edges details the architect is not

limited to theseprofiles as special edge

details can be

manufactured to order

and fixed to the

standard nodes ormodules but there will

obviously be a cost

penalty.


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Latest technology

A recent development in space grid structures

has been the use of deployable, folding and

retractable systems.
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Tunnel Building construction

Can be found in densely populated urban areaswith limited land available for development.

Tunnel form buildings have also been the choice for

rebuilding earthquake-affected towns and urban

areas because they fulfill the requirements of easy

and rapid construction, and because their

acknowledged excellent earthquake performance

that makes them popular with occupants.

Commonly found in both sub-urban and urban

areas.


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The vertical load-resisting system is reinforced

concrete structural walls (with frame). The walls and

the slab carry all gravity loads. Gravity loads aretransferred uniformly to the walls by slabs. A mat

foundation is commonly used to transmit the gravity

loads to the soil.

The lateral load-resisting system is reinforced

concrete structural walls (with frame). Structural

walls provide the lateral-load resistance. The walls

and the slab are cast in a single operation usingspecially designed half-tunnel-steel forms (upside

down U shape) that maintains a certain size as


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Diaphragm Walls


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Diaphragm Walls

A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall

constructed in the ground using underslurrytechniques. Walls with widths of between 300mm and

1500mm can be formed in this way to depths in excess

of 60 meters

Walls can be installed to considerable depths

Walls with substantial thickness can be formed

The system is flexible in plan layout

The wall can easily be incorporated into the

permanent works

The wall, or certain sections, can be designed to carry

vertical load


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Diaphragm wall is a kind of retaining wall which

appropriate for using in a limited area of work andbetter protection than the "Sheet Pile" type.

Diaphragm wall can deep penetrate vertically and

perform as a pile in carrying the weight. Then this

wall is best for the building which has a deepfoundation or many storeys of underground level.

With selected and carefully quality control for

materials used such as concrete, steel bar, and

bentonite for stronger and better reinforcement


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Basement construction time can be reduced Economical, positive solution for large, deep

basements in saturated and unstable soil profiles

Noise levels limited to engine noise only No vibration during installation

Under certain conditions diaphragm walls may be

used as cantilever, braced or tie-back walls.


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Aerated construction

Autoclaved aerated concrete
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclave


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Autoclaved aerated concrete

(AAC),

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), also known as

autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC) or autoclaved

lightweight concrete (ALC),[1] was invented in the

mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventorJohan Axel Eriksson.[2][3] It is a lightweight, precast

building material that simultaneously provides

structure, insulation, and fire and mold resistance.

AAC products include blocks, wall panels, floor and

roof panels, and lintels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclave


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Highly thermally insulating concrete-based

material used for both internal and external

construction. Besides AAC's insulating

capability, one of its advantages inconstruction is its quick and easy installation,

for the material can be routed, sanded, and

cut to size on site using standard carbon steelbandsaws, hand saws, and drills.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandsawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandsawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation


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aerated lightweight concrete


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aerated lightweight concrete

blocks

lightweight tilt-up panels foamed concrete floor

screeds,

sound and thermal

insulation,

geotechnical and

ornamental concrete

applications.

Building Construction: Lightweight


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g g g

Steel Framing

Steel studs are manufactured in thesame sizes as dimensional lumber: 2

4 and 2 6.

For floor joists and roof rafters, they

are available in 2 8, 2 10, and 2 12.

These studs, joists, and rafters are

manufactured for use in both non

load-bearing partitions and load-

bearing walls. The studs used in

partition walls are usually 25-gauge

galvanized steel;


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Steel-frame walls can be assembled as units, tipped

up, plumbed and leveled, and attached to the floorand top supports.

The bottom and top channels can also be attached to

the floor and ceiling, and the studs can be attached

individually to them.

Studs for load-bearing partitions will run from the

floor deck to the underside of the floor or roof

structure above. Fire-rated partitions will run from the floor deck to

the underside of the floor or roof deck


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Sheathing


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g

Exterior walls will be sheathed with one of the

fiberglass-faced gypsum sheathing materials or fireretardant-treated plywood (photo 12).

Sheathing is usually attached with bugle-head, self-

drilling drywall screws. The code may require a layer

of house wrap over the sheathing, and the exterior

can be finished with a variety of exterior finishes

such as aluminum, vinyl, or cement board siding;

brick veneer; cultured stone; or another surfaceselected by the owner


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This steel stud curtain wall was sheathed withfiberglass-faced gypsum board and finished with

an exterior insulating foam system3 made up oflayers of polystyrene insulating board and layersof troweled-on plastic coating in different colors.The roofing material is colored aluminum panelsjoined with standing seams, installed over aninsulated wood deck.


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Doubled steel joists support a steelroof deck with extruded foaminsulating board, a rubber roofmembrane, and stone ballast.

They are supported by studs andstructural steel. Note the row of

steel X-braces at the right in thephoto; they were installed toprevent the joists from twistingunder loads.


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Steel trusses built from galvanized steel

members designed in dimensional lumbersizes to be used specifically for trusses. Asteel stud is a channel with one long sidemissing; a truss member is a channel withone short side missing

Five steel trusses were assembled onthe ground with both permanent andtemporary bracing. The completed unit

will be set as one piece on top of thesteel stud walls and attached with self-drilling screws. The temporary braceswill be removed, and the roof sheathingwill be attached with self-drilling bugle-head screws.

lacture 2 special construction

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