KURDISTAN - HOMELAND FOR KURDS

Introduction 1. Kurds can be considered as world’s largest ethnic minority. This nation is divided in five parts and the people at present are located among the states of Turkey , Syria , Iran , Iraq and some parts of former Soviet union. The total population are approximately 20 to 30 million. In all these countries Kurds are unable to live in freedom and in some places cannot speak their own language freely . Due to their very existence over the centuries the Kurds were always the problem creator for the government. For attaining their political aim they had to take help form the enemies of the country in which they live. As these people were unable to receive the proper education they remained as backward people , though presently , their leaders are well educated and some of them received education from abroad. Now they have growing middle class and the lifestyle of these people are different then that of in the mountain dwellers. Inspite of this changes they try to keep strong social and cultural ties with their traditions. From the early history Kurds are suppressed by the powerfull nations around them. In 10 century Arabs massacred lot of Kurdish people , in 1920 British bombed the Kurds, in 1988 Saddam’s Anfal campaign killed lot of Kurds. Nobody can guaranty that these massacres will not be repeated to these people. 2. Kurdistan the homeland of Kurds is a vast mountainous highland which extends in the form of a crescent from the neighbourhood of Persian gulf in the south to the Mediterranean sea in the north west. Kurdish nationalists define Kurdistan as an area bigger than France , extending across the Zagros into Turkey , Syria , Iraq and Iran. In other way we can say that the estimated area of 550000 sq. km of Kurdistan is situated between the Iranian plateau and the Mesopotamia steppe in the east and west , the Armenia tableland in the north , and the Anatolia lowland in the west. It is a region well endowed with oil and minerals , where fast flow streams of water are available for hydro electric project. Centuries of oppression have not succeeded in obliterating Kurds and now their greater numbers and international visibility make their demand for self determination even more difficult to deny. Aim 3. The aim of this paper is to give a brief idea about the Kurdistan and its people and the present situation prevailing there . Scope 4. Following topics are discussed in this paper :

a. Back ground history b. Language

1

c. Kurdistan the home land of Kurds d. Natural resources of Kurdistan, water oil and mineral e. Political awareness for nationalism f. Political parties in Kurdistan and leaders g. Kurds of Turkey h. The Kurds of Iraq j. Kurds in Iran , Syria and CIS k. Future of Kurds hope and dream of freedom.

Back ground history 5. The origin of Kurdish division dates back to the end of first world war when Turkey unconditionally surrendered and allies divided among themselves the vast Ottoman Empire. The kurdish nation and the whole middle eastern region except Iran was under the Ottoman rule for more then three centuries , from 1636 until 1918. In terms of ethnic origin , the Kurds belong to the Indo European family of nations. The origins of the Kurds are uncertain and much disputed . What is clear is that they are amongst the oldest people on earth. In the third millennium BC , there were tribes in the western Iran Known to the Sumerians , the Babylonians , and later the Assyrians , as Guto or Qurti. In the 8th century BC , the Assyrian were conquered by the Medes, who overrun a large part of the territory occupied today by the Kurds. Around 550 BC the Medes were in turn conquered by the Persians , the two population merged together without much difficulty. The Kurds adopted the monotheistic Zoroastrian religion of the Persians. 6. Nomadic Aryan tribes who began to migrate from their original home in central Asia in about 2500 BC . However the Aryan s’ migration accelerated by 1500 BC and spread to Afghanistan , India , to the Zagros highlands, and Europe where , they imposed their language and ethnic characteristics upon the people whom they brought under their control. Some historical records shows that the Kurds have been living continuously in the Kurdistan highlands since the beginning of history in 3000 BC. 7. In the course of long time of ancient history now and then one or another tribe or principality , living in any one of those numerous Zagros district , became prominent and their names appeared in the historical records. At a later date another group of people or tribe might developed into a strong kingdom and became powerful enough to challenge the empires of the plain. Those names that appeared in the ancient historical records are called Zagros group of people or Zagros nation who were ethnically and linguistically related and were branches of the ancient Kurds. Who all were those ancient Kurds ? The ancient Kurds were mountaineer people who were the native inhabitants of the Zagros highlands at the time when Sumarians established themselves in the southern part of Mesopotamia in about 3000 BC. The historians call those mountaineer people of the Zagros highlands ‘Zagros people’ ‘Zagros group of people’ , ‘ Zagros nation’ . In ancient times Zagros was inhabited by mountaineer group of people or tribe who were

2

more or less homogeneous in speech and ethnically related. Among these Zagros groups , the Elamites and Kurds were the most prominent. 8. From the history we can say that the ancient Kurds were the native inhabitants of the Zagros highlands and ethnically and linguistically belonged to the ancient Caucasian race and spoke the ancient Caucasian language the living survival of which still is in use among the Georgian people. The Zagros group whose names appeared in the ancient historical records , such as Lullu, Guti, kashshu (Kassite) , Hurri - Mittani , and Urartu were identified as branches of the same ancient Kurds who appeared on the historical scene at different times and in different parts of the Zagros highland. In the ancient world the ancient Kurds were party to the two-way struggle which was going on between the plain dwellers of the south and the highlanders of the north.. The famous conquerors from Sumerian city state , Akkadian , Babylonian and Assyrian empires carried on campaigns of war and conquest against the ancient Kurds in the Zagros highland. In the Sumarian , Akkadian , Babylonian, cuneiform inscriptions and in the Assyrian annals we find sufficient historical records dealing with these two-way struggle between the plain dwellers of Mesopotamia and the highlanders of Zagros which throw light on Kurdish ancient history. 9. A turning point in kurdish history came in the 7 th century when, Omar the second Caliph , undertook a campaign against the Persians, in the course of which he conquered Armenia and Kurdistan and tried to impose upon them * the new religion of Islam. While the Armenians soon came to accept the new ruler , the Kurds continued to resist . In the year 980 lot of kurdies were crucified by the Arabs. Eventually the Kurds accepted Islam , gaining in return relief from taxation and retains their territories. By this arrangement , continued in the 11th century with the invading Seljuks from Turkey, the Kurds were left to rule themselves more or less independently and over some 300 years developed their own dynastic families. The territory of the Kurds was incorporated into the Ottoman empire at the beginning of the 16 th century , but they appeared to have maintained a fair measure of cultural and economic liberty . 10. Kurdish tribes , individually or in loose alliance opposed the ottoman at various times throughout the period of the empire, but each rebellion was harshly suppressed . By the late 19 th century , a form of kurdish nationalism began to develop. It was much weakened , however by initial rivalries. World war 1 gave Kurds an opportunity to revive the struggle for independence, but many tribes supported the ottoman government. The lake of common sense has been a major factor in preventing the Kurds from achieving the independence. The kurdish habit of fighting among themselves has been acquired over many centuries and persist in these days. The origin of kurdish division dates back to the end of the first world war when turkey unconditionally surrendered and the allies divided themselves the vast domain of the ottoman empire . The kurdish nation is divided into five parts and distributed among the states of turkey , Syria , Iraq , Iran and soviet union. Kurdish population is estimated to be 25 million distributed as follows : In Turkey 12 million, Iran 7 million, Iraq 4 million , Former soviet union 1.15

3

million and in Syria 1 million. Tribes of kurdish origin are settled in Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Algiers. An estimated 170,000 Kurds live in different European countries , Canada, USA and Australia. (graph showing population in annex A) Language. 11. The modern Kurdish nation belongs to the Indo European family of nation. The Kurdish language is a branch of the Indo - European (Aryan) family of language which includes Kurdish, Baluchi, Persian, Afghan , Urdu , Russian , German , French and English. All these Indo - European languages have a common root, they all are derives from the original primitive Aryan language which was spoken by actual people called nomadic Aryan tribes who began to migrate from their original home in central Asia in about 2500 BC. However the Aryans migration accelerated by 1500 BC and spread to Afghanistan , India , to the Zagros highlands ,and Europe where they impose their language and ethnic characteristics upon the people whom they brought under their control. 12. The ancient Kurds , however the native inhabitants of the Zagros highlands , belonged to the Caucasian race and spoke the ancient Caucasian language. These changes in the ethnic and linguistic composition of the Kurds were brought about by Median control over Zagros for 150 years (700 BC - 558 BC ) . It was during this period of Median supremacy over Zagros and most part of the middle east when ancient Kurds coalesced with the Medes and changed their ancient Caucasian language into the median dialect. The Median dialect was a branch of the primitive Aryan tongue. In order to explain how these changes in the ethnic and linguistic composition of the ancient Kurds were brought about by mixing with the Medes , it is required to narrate who the Aryan people were how they arrived in the Iranian plateau and the Zagros highlands, and when the great Aryan migration commenced. 13. The Aryan nation was composed of numerous Nomadic tribes who dwelt in the steppe region of central Asia. They called themselves Aryan and spoke a language called Aryan. Their original place of residence must have lain in the great steppe that stretches north and Northeast of the Caspian sea to the oxas and Jaxartes rivers. From the region east and north of Caspian sea , waves of Nomadic Aryan tribes migrated through the steppe into the Iranian plateau. The name Iran is derived from the ancient Iranian genitive plural Aryanam - (land) of the Aryans , the geographical expression Iran , therefore, is a modified form of Aryanam , which means the land of Aryan. 14. Modern historians use the term Indo- European to cover all three branches of the Aryan nations : Indic , Iranic and European families of nation. However , in spite of omitting the use of the Aryan name, the fact remains that the Aryan called themselves Aryans , not Indo- Europeans, the Aryan nation were real living people and spoke the real Aryan language. They called themselves Aryan , meaning the noble people. The meds called themselves Aryans , and were generally known under that name by their neighbours and subjects. The term Indo- European is of recent origin , coined to replace the

4

name of ancient Aryan nation . It seems modern historians have avoided the use of Aryan because the term Aryan has been used in a superior racial connections since the 19 th century. 15. The Median nation. Kurds claims themselves as the successors of the Medes. Ethnically and linguistically the Medes belonged to the Aryan nation and constituted one of its important subdivisions. The Median nomadic tribes emigrated during the time of the Great Aryan Migration through the steppe to the cultivated land of Northern Iran , subsequently the Medes moved Southwest and occupied a tract of land between the eastern edge of the Zagros range and the Iranian plateau , close to the modern district of Hamadan. Medians dominated Zagros for 150 years . It was during this 150 years of Median domination and supremacy over the Zagros highlands and adjacent region when the Kurds coalesced with the Medes and changed their ancient Caucasian language into the Median Aryan language. 16. How the Median nation imposed their Ethnic and Linguistic Characteristics upon the ancient Kurds. The Medes were by far the most successful of the Aryan tribes interms of their ability to assimilate other cultures, perhaps due to the fact that they were hailed as liberators by those who suffered under the Assyrian yoke. The Medes showed mighty military strength when they defeated the Scythians and cleared them out of the Zagrose highland and its adjacent areas . The Medes rose to the position of a great power when they defeated the Assyrian Empire and occupied Nineveh in 612 BC. With the outstanding victories the Medes gained a tremendous fame and prestige which simulated many different groups living in Zagros to enter willingly under their banner to affiliate themselves with them. By the Aryans of Zagros , The Medes were welcomed as champions come to deliver them from grievances and oppression. The Medians power and influence had a unified effect among the Aryan tribes who were living in the Zagros highlands. Aryan tribes united under Medes command , and lead intern to increase of median power and helped them to establish their supremacy over Zagros. Subsequently the name Mede became an appellation for all Aryan tribes living in Zagros highlands 17. The Medes and Ancient Kurds. Among the ancient Kurds , the Medes were regarded as heroes and liberators for leading anti - Assyrian opposition. when the Medes arrived in eastern Zagros, they found themselves among the settled communities of ancient Kurds. During that time they were a weak and were under the threat of Assyrian aggression. In 700 BC when Medes emerged as a nation it began to offer resistance to the Assyrians , the ancient Kurds sided with the Medes. The alliance with the ancient Kurds contributed to the economic resources and the military powers of the Medes. As the Medes advanced westward along the Zagros chain they came into control of ancient grain belt which added to their food supply. Metal which Medes could easily obtain adds to their arms. The Kurds provided the Median army with a solid fighting force. During 150 years period (700 BC - 550 BC ) of Median rule over the Zagros highlands and its adjacent area, the ancient Kurds coalesced with the Medes and changed their ancient Caucasian language into Median language. One of the unique and amazing attributes of the Indo

5

European tribes was their capacity to assimilate the people they dominated and with this quality they changed or assimilated all the peoples living in the Zagros including Kurds within them. 18. Who are the Kurds ? The logical place to begin the search for a truly Kurdish spirituality is at the origin of the Kurdish nation which can be traced back to the ancient Zagros mountain people and in particular , to the Kassites. Though little is known of the Kassites , the name of some of their gods have survived. Significantly , these names are Indo - Iranian in origin even though the Kassites were not of Aryan stock and spoke a semetic language. It also explains the readiness of the Kassites to be assimilated by the north Iranian speaking Medes in the early to middle seventh century BC , and their subsequent adoption of the Median language. Kurdistan the homeland for Kurds. 19. Kurdistan as a geographical expression means the home land for Kurds. It is a compound noun made up of two words , the ethnological Kurds , plus the territorial suffix .ISTAN. In Avesta , the holy book of Zoroaster , it signifies the place where people are bound to the soil from which they obtain their livelihood. Literally it means the dwelling place. By adding the suffix istan to the collective name of any people , a compound noun was formed to denote the homeland of that particular people. Kurdistan is a mountainous country located in the north west of Asia . In size Kurdistan is equal to France with an area of approximately 530,000 square kilometres. When gen. outline of Kurdistan was drawn automatically Zagros mountain comes in the picture. This vast elevated highland was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Zagros, while in modern geography it bears the name of Kurdistan and Luristan. (Map of ethno geographical boundary in annex B) 20. Kurdistan is basically a mountainous highland which rises above its surrounding. In the north , Kurdistan is located between Iskanderon gulf ,anti Taurus range , Ararat mountain , and the Caucasian plain, where the Kurdistan frontier crosses the Armenian border and enters Transcaucasus. The western and northern mountain ranges of Kurdistan skirt the Anatolian lowland. In the west and east Kurdistan is confined between the eastern end of the Mesopotamian plain and the western edge of the arid high Iranian plateau. The eastern limit of Kurdistan is drawn by the Aras river which runs along its north-eastern extremely and the eastern shore of lake Urmia , and a line that runs like an ARC in a south-easterly direction along the Bakhtiari and Luristan mountains to the Northeast of the Persian gulf. In the Northwest the Sinjar range encloses the deserts of the Northwest of Iraq, which lies to its south. The hills of Jezirah , The Euphrates river , and the Kurdish mountain ( Jabel Akrad) , overhanging Aleppo, separate Kurdistan high tableland from the desert steppe of the east and Northwest of Syria. Due to its geographical formation Kurdistan is a highland elevated from its surroundings. (Areas of kurdish land is shown in annex C) 21. The shape of Kurdistan has been described by a number of writers. To geographers its mountain system forms the backbone of the middle east , with

6

the old Zagros chain running from Ararat in the north along the present Iraq - Iran border southward to join the southern ranges near Kaaniqin, this forms its spinal and the parallel ridges which are connected with it from the west and east , constitute its ribs, to some writers ,Kurdistan resembles a crescent , the southern and northern ends of which touch the Persian gulf and the Mediterranean sea . To others the shape of Kurdistan resembles a sickle. More frequently Kurdistan has been described as the heart of the region because almost all the water supply of the area comes from Kurdistan. In the hills , valleys , and mountain sides of Kurdistan almost all the rivers of the area have their origin. The Euphrates , Tigris, Khabour , great Zab, Lesser Zab, Diyala, Alwand ( Halwan ) Aras, Kizli Uzan or Safid Rud , Kerkha river and Dizful headwaters, all have their sources in Kurdistan which churns out water. ‘a life giving element in the dry region of the middle east, like a heart through which these rivers resembles arteries. Other writers considers Kurdistan to be the ‘cradle of mankind” because here at the foot of some of its southern outer ranges the earliest farming villages developed around 7000 BC. Having certain degree of culture and social organisation. These communities contrasted with southern Iraq, with its natural beauty, grand scenery , flowing plains , misty valleys , and fair weather Kurdistan is said to be like the Garden of Eden which was described in the Bible. Indeed to those who come from the bare desert steppe of Iraq , Syria, and arid bare plateau of Iran , Kurdistan look like a perfect paradise. 22. Colonel W G Elohineson , chief of British military intelligent during the second world war , draws the ethnic boundaries of Kurdistan as follows ; Kurdistan the country of Kurds may be described as resembling the arc stretching from Luristan in the Southeast to Malatia in the west. This area is bounded in the north by a line which runs approximately through Erivan, Erzurum, Erzinjan, Malatia, and Marash. On the south west , the boundary is drawn along the southern fringe of the Turkish foothills to the Tigris and then through the Jebel Hamrin to the neighbour hood of Khaniqin. The eastern limit lies in Persia and running in a south easterly direction from Everan includes the districts of Urmia , Sauj Bulaq, Saqqiz, Sinneh and Kermanshah. South -east of the highroad from Khaniqin to Kermanshah live the Lakks and Lurs who are sometimes classified as Kurds. (British source) 23. A land without frontier , Kurdistan is , it goes without saying , that country inhabited by the Kurds. This name in the course of centuries has been given to those areas. more or less extensive , which have altered from epoch to epoch. Today officially , it no longer figures on maps printed on Turkey , although it did appear during the time of the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand the map indicates in Iran a Kurdish western province which is far from containing all the Kurds , even those of Iran . ‘Kurdistan forms the backbone of the middle east . Situated in the heart of Asia minor , it occupies the greater part of that mountainous region which extends between the black sea and the steppes of Mesopotamia on one side, and the Anti Taurus range and the Iranian Plateau , on the other. Its territory , which has the shape of a sickle or crescent , according to one’s imaginative taste, is nearly as large as France and forms large parts of Turkey , Iran and Iraq. Despite this , its inhabitants are clearly distinguished by race, language and history from the Turks,

7

Persians and Arabs. The Kurds ethnic boundaries with the Arabs can be accurately traced . There is a natural demarcation line separating Kurdish highland from the semi desert lowland inhabited by Arabs. The Kurds share about 2000 km of border with the Arabs, commencing from the Persian gulf and extending to the Mediterranean sea . Along their long frontier the Arab tribes have in some places , crossed beyond the Kurdish ethnic line and have established enclaves and communities on the kurdish land.(French sources). (Percentage of total area Kurdistan in the countries as per annex D) 24. A fairly large number of Kurds are distributed outside of the Kurdistan border, or outside the border of Turkey , Iran , and Iraq, especially in Syria and in the Soviet Union ( in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and other provinces) . There are kurdish colonies located outside of the real Kurdistan of Turkey and also outside of Iranian Kurdistan (especially in Mazindaran ,Near Kilon Abdo and around Kazvin.) This phenomenon is explained by the exile policy which was followed by the Shahs of Fars with the Kurds. From all these we can say that Kurds In Turkey at present time, represent the absolute majority in the wilayets of Erzurum, Sivas , Kars, Akri, Van,Mush , Sorat, Diarbakir, Mardin , Arafa, and Alaziz. In Iran they occupy completely the vilayet of Azerbaizan . In Iraq the Kurds concentrates in the four northern provinces of suleimaniyah , Arbil , kirkuk, and Mosul., and also in the Khaniqin area of the Diyala province. The Suleimaniyah province is purely a Kurdish province as is Arbil province except for an Arab tribe of Tai which inhabits the district of Kuer or the Turkoman of Erbil. In the two provinces of kirkuk and mosul almost half of the population are Kurds. Natural resources of Kurdistan , water oil and minerals. 25. After centuries of decline Kurdistan is once again becoming an important economic region. Its mineral and water resources , its agricultural potential and its position as a communication link between Turkey , Syria, Iraq, Iran and central Asia have combined to give a new twist to the old story of Kurdistan’s fight for independence. In the days when silk route passed through Kurdistan , it was a prosperous area . Now despite its wealth of natural resources , its people are among the poorest in the middle east. In Turkey the south east provinces have a standard of living far below that of the western part of the country. The guerrilla warfare which has plagued Kurdistan for decades has prevented the modernisation which is so desperately needed . The presence of rebellious Kurdish tribe has been and still is a great inconvenience to economic planners . Yet it ought to be clear by now that no amount of repression will eliminate Kurdish nationalism and the desire for free use of language and culture. 26. Kurdistan is considered to be one of the richest countries in the middle east. Nature has endowed the Kurdish homeland with all the elements necessary for prosperity and progress. Among the parallel chains of Kurdish highlands lie numerous broad and productive valleys. There are a number of undulating fertile plains which depends on rain for cultivation. Kurdish life reflects the typical image of a Middle Eastern agrarian society. Only a third of the population work in the secondary and tertiary sector in the towns, although

8

that proportion is increasing rapidly as Kurds are driven from the countryside by unemployment and the repressive policies of their rulers. The rural Kurdish population has always subsisted on an economy combining cultivation and pasture, and the nomadic way of life has never been the predominant one. The most common crops are wheat barley and lentils . The cultivation of vegetables and fruit varies from region to region . Although a substantial economy predominates in the mountain regions a surplus of grain is produced in the plains of Iraq and Syria. Cotton has recently begun to grow for the first time in some parts of Turkish Kurdistan. 27. In Kurdistan , there are two vast grain belts for the production of grain and cereal which depends solely on rain for cultivation. The western grain belt alone is about twice the size of England . An excellent pasturland and grazing ground exists for raising folks of goat sheep and cattle. Kurdish society is basically agrarian. Its economy is based on agriculture and animal husbandry. It should be observed that the Kurdistan highland is the natural habitat for grain and serial. They are still grown naturally on the hill sides and slopes of the mountains. Prior to the present political termoil in the middle east Iraq was exporting large quantities of grain and cereal grown in Kurdistan. Iraq exported one million tons of barley annually to Europe. About two million tons of wheat and cereal were sold annually to Iran , Syria, Lebanon and central Europe. Summer crops such as rice , corn , cotton, beets are produced in large quantities by means of irrigation. Kurdish tobacco , considered to be a good quality , is sold throughout the middle east or delivered to cigarette factories. There are one cigarette factory in Suleimaniyah , one in Mosul and two in Baghdad, which consume tobacco cultivated in Kurdistan in Iraq. 28. Animal Husbandry is one of the important sources of income in Kurdistan. Thanks to suitable climate and sufficient amounts of rainfall , extensive pasture and excellent grazing ground exist throughout Kurdistan. The Kurdish nomads who formed 30 % of Kurdish population before they dispersed after 1921 were engaged solely in raising flocks of sheep, goats, cattle, horse and mules. Poultry such as chicken , *Turkey goose and duck are part of every household in the country and with eggs , they constitute articles of internal trade. Fruit and vegetables are produced in large quantity as well. Traditionally , the Kurds are very fond of orchards. The Kurdish ideal house is one surrounded with orchard . All families who own land in the country built their own orchard. Good qualities of apple , pears , peaches and grapes were produced in large quantities. The grapes are grown on the hillsides , mountain slopes and in the valleys. Kurdistan is considered to be the natural habitat for grapes. Important economic vegetables such as melons , cucumbers and pumpkins are produced in large quantities. Because of the close proximity of Kurdistan to the European market , fruits ,vegetables and grapes could bring a big revenue to the country. A special freight train could take fresh fruit and vegetables from Kurdistan to Berlin, Amsterdam and London in a matter of days. 29. These agricultural elements of the Kurdish economy have been joined in the 20th century by oil and water . Much of Iraq’s oil reserves appear to lie in the Kurdish areas around Kirkuk and Mosul. Most of the Turkey’s oil has

9

been found in Kurdistan. In the fields near Adiyaman ,Batman, and Diyarbakir . Syria has oil in its north eastern corner , close to the areas claimed by Kurdish nationalists. In short Kurdistan is rich in oil- a fact which would help to make an independent Kurdistan viable but which almost makes it highly unlikely that its present host states will relinquish control. water too is a major asset for the Kurdish mountains are the source of most of the river water which flows into Syria , Iraq and western Iran. Turkeys ability to control the head waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates gives it a powerful weapon to brandish against rivals to the south . Yet Turkish water could also be a tool for peace and mutual economic advantage. Turgut Ozal proposed a giant peace pipeline to carry water from Turkey down as far as Saudi Arabia . But his idea was received with more suspicion then enthusiasm by the Arab nations. Trust is a rare commodity in the middle east. 30. Mineral resources and oil. Kurdistan is considered to be rich in mineral resources . In the foot of numerous ridges and broad belt of hills , a number of important mineral resources are reported. Deposits of Iron and coal exist over a fairly large area . Copper is reported in Shamdinan , Hawraman and Karadagh districts. Lead occur in the neighbourhood of Akra, Amadia and in the valley of Great Zab. Asbestos and Magnesium are found in Bazinja district. Zinc and tin are found along Karadagh range. Uranium ore is found in the hilly district of Khanaqin , in the Qasni shereen on the Iranian side of the border and in Luristan. Silver and gold ores have been reported in the head water districts of Khabour, in the Sinjar district and in Zakho. Gypsum abounds in many localities. Kurdistan is extremely rich in oil The only oil field in Turkey is located in the district of Van. In Iran , Oil is extracted near the Kurdish city of Kirmanshah. In Kurdistan , In Iraq oil is extracted from four oil fields , Ain Zala, kirkuk, Zanboor and Khaniqin. These four oil fields are only a small fraction of the extensive oil belts still not explored. 31. Thorough geographical examination and testing by modern methods indicates that Kurdistan is standing on an ocean of oil. In the following places oil is known to exist but not extracted yet.

a. Khaniqin - Mandali district. This oil belt is considered one of the richest in the world. In early 1950 an un known party dug two wells in the Qorato country , but no further exploitation was made.

b. Sangaw plain - This undulating plain belongs to the kirkuk province and is located on the southern side of the Karadagh range. Around the village of Dalo , sulphates springs out from the ground. On the other side of the Karadagh range oil comes out mixed with water which dashes down through the deep gorge cut from the mountain.

c. Chamchamal town - In the low depression west of Chamchamal , approximately 25 kilometre from famous Kirkuk oil field - there is a promising oil belt.

10

d. Showan District - About 20 km north of Kirkuk city and 10 km west of Aghjalar municipality, sulphate comes out of the ground and strong smell of oil exists in the surrounding.

e. Arbil Province - Taq Taq belt . An oil belt is located in the area around Taq Taq , which is on the lesser Zab, where the Arbil - Kirkuk road cross lesser Zab . North and south of Taq Taq oil mixes with lesser Zab water.

f. An oil belt is located a short distance west of the Koy Sinjaq town.

g. Kandinawa district in Dizayee plain - In 1986 an extensive oil belt was discovered in the Kandinawa district . The Iraqi government forcibly evacuated all the villagers from the area as a preliminary measure for oil exploitation.

h. In the foot of Shaqlaw chain , an oil belt exists. 32. In Suleimaniyah province :

a. Nawti oil belt . In the Karadagh district , there is a village called Nawti - which means in Kurdish language ‘the place of oil’ Until the early part of the 17 th century people used to collect oil from pits in the Nawti village and used it for light.

b. Halabja oil belt - In the vicinity of Halabja town there is an extensive oil belt. Just east of Halabja lies a rugged hilly area. Among these hills , few deep and narrow valleys are found where sulphate mixed with oil creeps down into the valley.

It should be remembered that on march 17 , 1988 the Iraqi war planes bombard the beautiful town of Halabja with Chemical bombs , Killing 5000 innocent people on the spot. Since then the people of Halabja were forcibly evacuated from there and placed on Arabat area 25 km west of Halabja. They are refugees and are not allowed to go back to their villages. Political awareness for nationalism. 33. One of the heroes of the Kurdish history during the Ottoman ere was , Prince Badir khan Bey. he planned to found an independent Kurdistan which would also grant autonomy to all non Muslims , such as Armenians and Assyrian Christians. Like many Kurdish leaders before and since, Badir khan was betrayed ( by his own nephew ) and ended up in exile. On the collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World war 1 its former territories were divided up into new countries with the conquering powers retaining spheres of influence. France acquired a mandate over Syria , Britain over Mesopotamia. However in 1918, US president Woodrow Wilson had declared a set of 14 points for world peace which included the right of self determination. This right was promised to the Kurds in the treaty of Sevres which was signed in 1920

11

between the defeated Ottomans and the victorious European powers. The Treaty provided for Kurdish autonomy in part of the former Ottoman empire with a Kurdish majority in the population, “lying east of the Euphrates , to the south of a still to be established Armenian frontier and to the north of the frontier between Turkey , Syria and Mesopotamia. 34. The Treaty provided for absolute guarantees for the minorities within the region , but also that if the Kurdish majority subsequently voted for complete independence , Turkey would renounce all her remaining rights and titles to the area. The newly established League of nations was to surprise the preparation of the Kurds for independence. Unfortunately for the kurds , the treaty was signed by the outgoing Ottoman administration and not by the new ruler of Turkey Mustafa Kemal (later known as Ataturk, the father of Turkey ) ,who soon rejected it. For the Kurds , who had fought alongside Kemal for the new Turkish republic , it was a bitter blow, made worse when the new Turkish government banned the Kurdish language from official use and from schools , and embarked on a tough programme of “Turkisation” of place names and public life. The fact Kemal was able to carry out this programme was at least partly due to a change in the policy of western powers towards the Kurds. The high morale tone of promising independence for an oppressed people quickly succumbed to strategic expediency. After all , the new Turkey under Kemal was developing into a secular Europeanised state , having shed the out - moded trappings of the Ottomans. The thought of embarking on another war in order to create a new country for a divided and unruly group of tribes had little appeal. It was better to accept the idea of kurd assimilation into a unified Turkish state in return for control of the oil provinces of Iraq, which were also claimed by Kemal. 35. The founding of the state of Iraq under British mandate in the 1920s brought the British face to face with the Kurdish problem. Britain’s nominee for King of Iraq , Faisal - 1 wanted the oil provinces of Mosul and Kirkuk , both in Kurdish territory, in order to make the economy more viable , and he also doubted his ability to keep control of a predominantly Shiite population . By incorporating the Kurds ,mainly Sunnis , into Iraq both problems might be solved. But although the Kurdish language was to be officially recognised and taught in Iraqi schools , and Kurds were invited to take positions of responsibility in government and administration , the Kurdish leaders felt betrayed . They had been promised their own state. Now they were expected to support an artificial country in which Arabs would form majority. There began a series of uprisings and Britain was drawn into the position of having to help the new king of Iraq to suppress the Kurds. The RAF carried out bombing raids on Kurdish rebel areas. 36. All the countries in the region were afraid of Kurdish separatism as well as suspicious of each other. The Kurds were frequently used as pawns in the strategic game played by both western and regional powers. Thus before world war ll Turkey , Persia and Iraq signed a joint agreement to co- operate to resist groups (kurds) who aimed to destroy or destabilise existing institutions. Once again the kurds were made to realise the truth of their proverb ‘ the kurds have no friends but the mountains’. Kurdish national

12

consciousness continued to developed despite the attempts of all countries in the region to suppress it. A Kurdish voice first appeared in 1898 ( with the publication in Cairo of the news paper Kurdistan) and there have been successive attempt by Kurdish intellectuals to create a nationalist movements. However the leadership has all too often remain divided and inward looking , relying on shifting alliances and weighted down by the encrustation of tribalism. The kurds educational disadvantages have not helped .A sense of unity has been elusive , but now seems to be gathering stean following the shared experience of recent Gulf wars and greater international awareness of the Kurdish plight. Political parties in Kurdistan and leaders. 37. There are many parties in Kurdistan with different ideologies .The Main parties are as follows :

a. Masoud Barzani , the son of Kurdish Hero Mulla Mustafa Barzani , who led the independence movement between 1945 and his death from cancer in 1978 is head of the Iraqi Kurdish democratic party (KDP ) . formed in 1946 ,the KDP as been the most active Kurdish political party for most of the period since ,It is conservative in its philosophy , with a strong emphasis on religion and family. The KDP’s main sphere of influence is in northern Iraq. The KDP has a force of at least 15000 peshmerga.

b. Jalal Talabani, arch -rival of barzani who in 1976 founded the Iraqi Patriotic Union of Kurdistan ( PUK) based on marxist principles. The PUK has been supported by Syria. The Talabani family has a strongly religious background. The PUK’s strong hold is in the southern part of Iraqi Kurdistan.. The PUK commands a peshmerga force of about 15000.

c. The workers party of Kurdistan (PKK) was founded in 1978 as a Marxist - Leninist party aiming for a free Kurdistan plus freedom from colonialism and the class structure. It does came into conflict with other freedom movements led by tribal chiefs. The PKK has been led from the beginning by Abdullah Ocalan ,popularly known as Apo.

d. The Iranian Kurdish Democratic party, (KDP - I) , established in 1946 in the Kurdish republic of Mahabad and legalised in 1979 following the ousting of the Shah , is currently led by Mustafa Hageri. There are also KDP parties in Syria and Turkey. Other parties include the Komala, Islamic movements and the socialist party of Kurdistan.

13

The Kurds of Turkey 38. The constitution of Turkey bans on expression of Kurdish identity or culture. Article 3 declares that the Turkish state is indivisible and its language is Turkish. The result is that any discussion of the self rule by non Turkish is treasonable and , under article 125 of the penal code is punishable to death. Although the treaty of Lausanne was supposed to guarantee the rights of the minorities to their own language and culture , Kemal banded all manifestation of non Turkish behaviour in 1925, as part of his single minded effort to create a new unified state. Since many kurds did not speak Turkish , they were effectively deprived of an education as well as self determination unless they were prepared to be assimilated as ‘mountain Turks’. Various resistance movements were mounted but the rebellions were ruthlessly suppressed. South east Turkey remained a military area banned to foreigners from 1925 to 1965. In 1983 the Kurdish provinces were put under martial law to combat the activities of a new separatist movements led by the PKK. The violence of this uprising was later fuelled by a local unemployment figure of 50 %. 39. Conciliatory move by the Turgut Ozal government in early 1991 (repeal of the law forbidding use of the Kurdish language and amnesty for the Kurdish prisoners ) were forgotten when Ozal was replaced by the conservative Suleyman Demirel. Demirel is opposed to allowing any special recognition of the Kurdish region on the ground that this would open a Pandora’s box of claims from other ethnic group. Better to complete the integration of Kurds into Turkish society than to recognise special minority rights. Faced with what it sees as ‘rampant terrorism’ the government has restored to its traditional policy of military crack down. A new anti-terrorist law has passed in 1992, effectively giving the military carte blanche in dealing with the Kurds. Meanwhile the regional governor in south east Turkey ( who has draconian power) had set up a system of ‘village guards’ , local civilians who are paid and armed by the government to protect the villages from the PKK. There are some 42000 village guards but it is unclear how many are genuine volunteers. Villagers are faced with a stark choice. If they resist the invitation to become village guards they are likely to be shot or tortured as PKK collaborators. If they agree to become village guards, they run the risk of being shot by the PKK. Not surprisingly many villagers avoid the choice by moving to western Turkey or into cities. 40. The attempt by the Turkish government to defeat the terrorist seems to be having the opposite effect to that intended. For every villager tortured , another dozen are turned against the government. Military oppression has become a recruiting sergeant for the PKK. Which now claims to be able to put 30,000 guerrillas into the field. Meanwhile the campaign is soaking up fifth of the national budget. Conscription has become more and more unpopular and there are perhaps as many as 250,000 draft dodgers. Turkey’s army of half a million men is largely conscripted force and many conscripts don’t like the job of fighting the PKK. As a loyal Nato ally , Turkey has been given the benefit of the doubt when it comes to concern over human rights in Kurdistan. Turkey has also been given large quantities of arms by its NATO partners , some of which are used to wage war against the PKK. It is American made F 16 and F

14

11 jets which make periodic bombing raids against PKK camps in border region. 41. Numerous journalists who have attempted to report on events in south east turkey have been killed or beaten up. The pro Kurdish news paper Ozgur Gundem (free agenda ) has been shut down. at least ten of its journalists have been murdered . Its editor is in prison. In October 1993 ,UK MP’s of the parliament Human rights group (PHRG) , headed by lord Avebury , reported murders , torture and intimidation of Kurds. elected representatives and journalists , adding that newsboys selling Ozgur Gunden had been attacked with meat cleavers. The PHRG report concluded as follows: ‘the question of Turkish Kurdistan is often presented as one of a reasonably democratic government seeking to cope with an intractable problem of terrorism. We believe that the reality is one of militate terrorists aiming to extinguish the identity of a people’ . So why are the Turks doing it? Are they afraid of the Kurds potential threat to Turkies long term security? Is it to protect the GAP project for the economic development of Southeast Anatolia through management of Kurdistan’s vast water resources ? Is it because of Kurdistan’s oil and mineral deposits? Is it an echo of the ethnic cleansing which resulted in the slaughter of Armenians in 1915 ? Whatever the reasoning, present Turkish policy is both cruel and counter productive - a policy unworthy of a great nation. The Kurds of Iraq 42. Following the creation of Iraq after WW 1 and the failure to establish a separate state of Kurdistan , many of the Kurds who lived in north east of Iraq took up arms against the new “king” Faisal 1 who had been imposed upon them. An attempt by the Kurdish leader Sheikh Mahmoud to set himself up as King of Kurdistan ended in defeat and exile. But further rebellions persisted throughout the 1920s and 1930s. During this period the British , as holder of the Iraqi mandate supported the Iraqi regime in efforts to quell the Kurds. Other states have always used Kurds to further their own political ends. Thus the Kurds in Iraq have experienced regular cycle of help and abandonment by the Iranians and the Syrians, the Russians and the Turks , not to mention the European powers and the United states. Prominent in Kurdish insurrections in Iraq was the Barzani family and , in particuler , Mulla Mustafa Barzani , who was recognised as the principle Kurdish leader of his time. Since world war II the struggle for kurdish autonomy in Iraq has continued relentlessly. In 1958 Faisal II and his family were assassinated in a coup led by general Qasim . The KDP was legalised and Barzani returned from exile to attempt negotiations with the new regime. When that failed , he led intensified Kurdish resistance , supported by Iran , which resulted in Qasims removal from power. 43. But the Kurds were still too divided to take advantage of the situation. Then in 1970, Barzani reached an agreement with the new Ba’athist government (in which Saddam Hussain was already vice -president ) for autonomy for the Kurds in Iraq and a share in government. However , as it consolidated its power , the Ba’athist regime began to claw back some of the

15

rights promised to the Kurds and embarked on a war of suppression. In 1975 the treaty of Algiers cut off Iran’s support for the Kurds and made it easier for saddam to carry out his programme of Arabisation in northern Iraq. During the Iran - Iraq war of 1980 - 1988 Kurds fought on both sides but the continuing guerrilla activities of the KDP and the PUK tied down many of Saddams troops in northern Iraq. As the war wound down , he began to take bloody revenge on the Kurds , In Halabja 6000 were killed by poison gas. Iraq used these poison gas in a major offensive that began August 25 1988. The offensive was intended to break the Kurdish insurgency and accomplished that objective. These Chemical weapons attacks were part of an Iraqi military policy intended to depopulate large parts of Iraqi Kurdistan . Elements of the policy include : a. The destruction of villages and towns throughout Kurdistan. b. The re location of the Kurdish population into concentrated new settlements where military control can be exercised. c. The deportation of Kurds to areas outside of Kurdistan and d. The use of terror tactics ,including lathe poison gas to drive

civilians out of the areas to be depopulated. The end result of this policy could be the destruction of the Kurdish identity , kurdish culture , and a way of life that has endured for centuries. The policy has been carried out with great brutality and with a cynical disregard for world opinion and international law. 44. The official reason given for the destruction in the northern Iraq was the decision to establish an unpopular safety zone , 30 km wide and 1200 km long, along the frontier with Turkey and Iran. The devastation wrought by the Anfal campaign was a key factor in the wholesale flight of the kurdish population into the mountains at the end of the Gulf war in 1991. The expectation that the qualition force would oust Saddam had not been fulfilled and the Kurds expected a repeat of the Anfal atrocities. The main fear was of chemical weapons , which the Kurds didn’t know how to combat. The intangible clouds of chemicals dropped from aircraft were an altogether different matter. Fleeing from Saddam Hossain’s troops and the threat of chemical attack , almost 2 million refugees took the rough mountain track to Iran and Turkey. Many specially the very young and the old , did not survive the extreme cold of the mountains or were killed by Iraqi bombing raids, which includes the use of Napalm. More then thousand people died every day. 45. The main focus of world media attention was on those refugees who tried to enter Turkey, but almost three times as many fled to Iran. Turkey closed its border after admitting some 200000 refugees, Iran excepted all who came. Most of the refugees quickly returned to their home when it became clear that Saddam was not going to be allowed to bomb them to extinction after all. The international public attention given to the plight of the refugee kurds forced the west to take some protective action . The notion of a ‘safe haven’ was born and allied forces imposed a no fly zone on Iraqi planes above the 36 th parallel. The area thus protected was only a third of Iraqi Kurdistan, but the kurds own force have extended the region and a sort of

16

mini state has been created with its own government. It is a matter to be observed that how long it can sustain. Kurds in Iran , Syria & CIS 46. The Kurds are related to the Persians by language and race. This is a different situation from that in Iraq, Syria and Turkey, where the Kurds are subordinate to majority race which do not belong to the Iranian cultural group. About a quarter of all Kurds now live in Iran. The region settled by them extends from Lake Urmia in the north west down to the southern foothills of the Zagros Mountains . In particular kurdish speaking groups inhabit the region of Ilam , Luristan and Bakhtaran. There is also a substantial Kurdish community in Khorasan in north east Iran. One difference between the Iranians and kurds is that the latter are sunni muslims, while Shi’ism has been the principal faith in Persia since about the beginning of the 16th century, when the Safavid dynasties were still in power. Nationhood was not a centre point of dispute between the two people during this period. As in the Ottoman Empire . Kurdish tribe enjoyed a degree of independence although this was largely the result of the weakness of the central power base. The Persian Empire was even ruled by a Kurdish prince in the 18th century. 47. Kurdistan was a buffer in the conflicts and disputes between the vast Ottoman and Persian Empires and in 1639 the two agreed to divide Kurdistan between them by drawing their state frontiers through the land of the Kurds. The Iran Iraq border is still virtually identical with the line drawn at that time. In 1925 the Qajar dynasty was overthrown by the Persian commander Reza Khan Pahlavi. His centralising policies included a ban on Kurdish dress and language and firm repudiation of political independence movements. Kurdish revolts, led by tribal chieftains such as the notorious Simko (the Cannibal ) , were met with repression and deportation . In 1930 Simko was assassinated during negotiations with Persian government officials . About 60 years later , similar fates , in similar circumstances , were to befall two successive Kurdish leaders, Dr Abdur Rahman,Ghassemlou and Dr Saeed Sharafkandi. No wonder that Kurds find it difficult to trust anyone. 48. Soviet and allied troops invaded Iran following Reza Shah’s espousal of the German cause in world war 2 . The shah abdicated and was replaced by his son. The Kurds saw their opportunity to found their own state and persuaded the Soviets who were occupying the north of the country to allow the establishment of the separate state known as Mahabad. The soviets, however were more interested in securing oil concession from the Iranian government than they were in defending the rights of the Kurds. When the war was over , Iranian government troops quickly retook Mahabad. Despite curtailing Kurds activities at home , Iran supported kurdish peshmerga in rival Iraq. In 1975 however, aid for the rebels acting under the leadership of Barzani were withdrawn by the Shah after he reached agreement with Saddam Hossain in the Treaty of Algiers. The overthrow of the Shah in 1979 appeared at first sight to be another opportunity for the kurds to achieve self determination . After all , they were fellow revolutionaries and hoped for a

17

better deal from the new populist governments. The Kurds quickly took over police and army barracks in Kurdish areas. 49. New leader Ayatullah Khomeini had no more intention than the shah of allowing a separatist movement to gain ground in Iran. He sent in heavy armour and the Kurds were defeated, at least in the town. Recognising , however , that a purely military solution was not enough , the Kurds were granted concessions which gave them a limited amount of self rule and freedom for their language and culture. When Iraq invaded Iran in 1980 , the Kurds were called into action and fought bravely - on both sides. Kurdish rebels continued guerrilla activities in Kurdistan and KDP-I , led by Abdur Rahman Ghassemlou took a more conciliatory and realistic line than past Kurdish leaders and agreed to attend peace talk with Iranian in Vienna in 1988. He was assassinated in his hotel probably by Iranian agents. His replacement Dr Saeed Sharafkandi was murdered as he sat with friends in a restaurant in Berlin in 1992, also by Iranian agents. 50. Kurds lived in Syria alongside Arabs and Christians for centuries. However , Kurdish languish and culture are proscribed in Syria and there have been continuous effort to Arabise Kurdish areas. President Assad has restricted Kurdish rights in Syria while simultaneously supporting Kurdish guerrillas abroad when it is suited for Syria’s strategic interest. Thus the PKK is believed to have received substantial aid from Syria. Even though PKK bases in Syrian controlled Lebanon are no longer tolerated.* more can be added* 51. About a million Kurds live in the CIS . Although Stalin ordered mass deportation during the 1930’s . Kurds living in soviet controlled areas were left relatively free as far as language and culture were concerned. Kurdish communities exists in Armania , Azarbaizan , Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenstan and Krrgyzatan . Nearly 50 % of the Kurdish population in the CIS live in Azarbijan. In recent decades many kurds had left their traditional homeland to move to other countries around the world, and specially to Germany and Scandinavian the USA. New York houses the worlds only Kurdish library and Museum. Paris has the Institute Kurds de Paris. Kurds all over the world trying to bring awareness regarding their freedom and independence among all the kurdish people though the progress is very slow but gradually it is spreading towards a common goal . Future of the Kurds, hope and dream of freedom. 52. The dream of an independent Kurdistan , stretching across an area the size of France , is very unlikely to be realised. None of the three nations with significant Kurdish populations, Turkey, Iran and Iraq will easily yield the claimed territory. Indeed it is most improbable that they will cede any territory at all. Although there is currently an autonomous kurdish area in Iraq , its existence depends largely on the non interference of Sadam Hossain and the continuation of outside protection based in Turkey , hardly the most secure foundation for a Kurdish state. The economic boycott of Iraq has had a devastating effect on the Kurdish autonomous region in the north, since

18

Turkey will not allow essential goods to cross the border and most foreign aid to the kurds is channelled through Baghdad. Saddam Hossain restrained from overt military action by the presence of US war plane nearby, is doing his best to destroy the Kurdish community in other ways. For example ,the recent withdrawal of the 25 diner note (with which most Iraqi Kurds accumulated their savings ) destroyed many business overnight. A separate Kurdistan is probably out of reach for the foreseeable future. But the Kurds demand for greater cultural and political freedom must somehow be met in the interest of regional security as well as of human rights. 53. A change of government in Iraq could bring guarantees for the autonomous region and agreement for some kind of federal system. Kurds in Iran might become part of a new Iranian led Muslim foundation, while Syria’s Kurds may be able to look forward to more cultural and language rights and a greater say in local government. In a distant future , the Kurds in Turkey might be reconciled to integration by economic prosperity . That prospect has been seriously delayed by the heavy handed treatment of kurds in the south east of the country , although huge amount are being invested in economic development there . At present there is no sign of a change in Turks hard-line policy. The law was recently changed to remove the immunity of MP’s from prosecution under the new anti terrorism law. Representatives of the DEP were effectively prevented from participating in Turkeys local elections at the end of the march. There also they we being disappointed. Direct UN intervention to Turkey to help the Kurds is highly unlikely. But the increase pressure from domestic and international support of kurdish right may eventually persuade the Turkish government to seek a negotiated settlement to an age old problem.

CRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SECURITY SITUATION IN

NORTHERN IRAQ ( AUGUST 1996 - JULY 1997). 54. During the last week of August 1996 , KDP taken over the control of all Kurdistan including Suleimaniyah the stronghold of PUK. They captured all three govornorate without much bloodshed.During last week of August PDK with the help of GOI forces took over control of the Erbil governorate from PUK . PUK lost one of their strong hold in northern Iraq and retreated to Suleimaniyah. 8 September KDP took control of PUK held Deghala , Koisonjaq . On 9 September KDP proceeded from there and took over Dokan . They further advanced and entered Suleimaniyah city . PDK captured Suleimaniyah without any resistance from PUK side. It is reported that all PUK fled to Iran via Rania and Qaladiza. Out of fear of invading forces, due to the rumour that GOI forces are coming in support of PDK. An estimation shows that 100,000 out of 400,000 person in Suleimaniyah city fled towards the Iranian border . After the KDP took over the administration PUK organised violent demonstration against UN. During this period UN personnel were harassed by the PUK. The law and order situation was unstable. It took time for PDK to

19

take control over whole area of Suleimaniyah. For that some clearing operations were still in progress. And in those they faced some opposition. 55. During the first half of October 1996 situation turned to another side . On 11 October 1996 PUK and PAZADR Iranian intelligent force took control over Penjween area . On 12 October after heavy shooting and shelling Mawat fall under PUK. On 13 October 1996 night from 0030 hrs upto 0200 hrs morning PUK conducted operation in and around Suleimaniyah city and by morning they took over control of some important buildings of Suleimaniyah city. Fighting was on and the pressure were increasing from PUK side , finding no other alternative PDK forces retreated towards Erbil. At the same time new Kirkuk governorate was also came under control of PUK after some piece battle with PDK forces. 56. On 23 October 1996 cease fire agreements took place between two fighting fraction that is PUK and PDK. Fighting was stopped in the dividing line and elsewhere. Peace negotiation started for the extension and continuation of cease fire. Reported by news media PDK adhered to the cease fire agreement . After the implementation no major cease fire violation took place in the area. In the meantime the situation in the Turkish border was deteriorating and the situation there was tensed due to the Turkish air attack in the bordering areas against PKK activists. On 31 December 1996 Turkish force crossed Iraq Border and invaded Sanat valley and conducted operation against PKK. After some time without any further progress they retreated and went inside Turkey. 57. On 24/25 March 1997 Peace monitoring forces ( PMF ) were deployed in the dividing line in between two fighting fractions . They have been deployed as per the agreements between the warring fractions in Ankara. During the month of April 1997 fighting took place between IM and PUK in Halabja area. This was localised and not allowed to aggravate . And after some negotiation that died down. 58. During the first week of May 1997 large concentration of Turkish forces were visible and reported near the bordering areas with Iraq. They were conducting operations against PKK. Some PKK personnel were reported to move towards Syrian and Iranian borders. On 14 May 1997 Government forces of Turkey invaded Dohuk governorate of northern Iraq and with the help of local administration were conducting operations against PKK. Huge deployment of Turks were visible and fighting was going on with PKK in the mountain areas of the governorate. 59. In the last week of June 1997 Turkish force started to withdraw themselves from the invaded areas but some of the elements are still there . During the month of July the security situation in the north Iraq/ Kurdistan was calm and peaceful except some tension near the Turkish border where the troops are still present. This is in brief regarding the security situation in the North in last one year.

20

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Kurdistan Times, A periodical Magazine, (part 1,ll&lll)Published in 1993. 2. The Kurds ,caught between nations, Understanding Global Issues. 3. The Kurds of Iraq, Tragedy and hope , Michael M Gunter. 4. The Kurds : A concise handbook, Mehrdad. R. Lzady, Krane Russak. 5. A People without a Country : The Kurds and Kurdistan, Gerard Chaliand.* 6. The Kurds. A nation denied, David McDowall. 7. No friends but mountains: The Tragic history of kurds. John Bulloch. 8. Genocide in Iraq : The Anfal campaign against the kurds, a middle east watch report, Human right watch 1993. 9. Interviews with the people during stay in Kurdistan. 10. Official information collected by the writer during tour of duty. 11. The Kurds, Bois , Thomas , English edition. 12. The medes and persian, conquerer and diplomates, Collins Robert. 13. The Homeland of Kurds and Aeography of their country, Minorisky Vladimir. 14. Kurds and Kurdistan, Safrastian , Arshak 15. Early history of Assyria, Smith, Sidney. 16. The Kurds Ethnogeographical Study , Khashak, Shakir, translation.

21