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ensgp eql qlltr paxml ueuo eJe se^poru snor8rÍer eseql lnq 'pesgec-ep eql 3o s1rrlds aql 3o esodal eql JoJ EulÁe.rd Jo 'uls Jo lueulnuuerog eoueued Euúed 'uollu^Jus s.euo JoJ 1uoru Equtet 'sece1d peJcessnolJ?^ l3 peuuqsuo 3JB oI{^\ slulBs Jo seqlep aglJo uoll?JopB s€ gcns'solrlcalqo snoÉr1ar Íq pe1ea'4ou eru suu8pd 'Á1ens1 'spueuJ ÁrauEu4earn pue Surees-1qErs se qcns 'slcedse elqernseayd suq osle lr lnq'acu?mpue puu dqspruq 1uctsÁqd se^Io^ul 'seutrqs ro sutu1unoru Á1oqEqllspr 'ecu?lsrp Euol e EuJgerrurl 'elrBplm1g pue leqgrds qloq eJBqc1qat 'sarn1ua; Árop1pzr1uoc ueuo pue asJe^Ip spe snorEqar reqlou?gl eJoItr seulquoc aBeruuEpd eq} 'uo1t1pur1 snorEger Árele u1

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1oecgru8rc IIrclJeJ Eunctdep Áq suorE11erJo seIJolsnl xe1duoc pue 3uo1edocsalal ol pue ulep snorEJlor elqBrJB^ puu perre^ Jo spn1rlprrr egl Jolno soJnpruls psJe^Iun eleaullap o1 suorEqsr Jo ueÍJolsq eIIl Jo {soleql sI lI'erns eq og 'laErog ol pJogp IIr u?c ttorlcsuasnusuolEllay psluepnls qcF{^\ umplp 1uu1rodul uB sI sIqI 1'..ula1sÁs snorEr1er rep-c1uud u 3o rusn4sÁru eql Á1uo sI eJeql "'1c34squ eql ur urslc$sÁu suEugr qcns ou s! eJoql,, lerll pelels eJrro warouos .O ltrousuirg

v w9vrl)I'w'f

NYdVf NIgcvntlucTld ďo slldÁI lIguHJ

-rrEqrBrD r!rarq! q Lfraap q;;!r-roa scan{ q{aror Ell-tT'I.Ťť--

ltrr TTnt r-JIr'f.rrlrrP.T{roq$ry -!FBr rpoo qffiuPr! j:@ tFrcql"i1q la: tp{]EU :;: ;:: :,::

J. M. Kitagawa

rewards. Besides, the pilgrimage provides welcome relief from theroutine of the dull everyday life of the people. Furthermore, seen froma broader perspective, the pilgrimage, which cements the solidarity ofreligious groups' ďso stimulates trade and commerce, disseminationof ideas, and intercultural exchange. Notwithstanding these "uni-versal features, which are shared by the pilgrimages of various tradi-tions, each one tends to show a unique ethos of its own, which can be

understood only within its religious and cultural contexts.Historically in Japan, the development of the pilgrimage was greatly

conditioned by the geographical and topographical as much as reli-gious and cultural factors. According to Shinto, the whole world ispermeated by the sacred (kami) nature, so that every mountain, river,tree, rock as well as human being is potentially an object of venera-tion. As far as the practice of pilgrimage is concerned, it had littleplace in early Shinto, because Shinto was closely related to the life ofthe clan (nji), which more often than not was settled in a particulargeographical locality. To be sure, in many agricultural communitiesthe kami of themountains were believed to come down and becomethe kami of the rice field during the part of the year and then return tothe mountains after the harvest. It is conceivable, therefore, that somepeople might have climbed the mountains in order to experience themystique of the abode of the kami. But such practices were spontane-ous and were not regularized as pilgrimages by early Shinto.

The introduction of Chinese civilization and Buddhism during thesixth century A.D. brought about far-reaching religious and culturalchanges in the subsequent periods of Japanese history. Eventually,there developed three major types of pilgrimages out of the fusion ofindigenous Shinto and folk religious beliefs and practices with Bud-dhist and Chinese - especially Taoist - elements. They are (1) thepilgrimage to the sacred mountain; (2) the pilgrimage to the templesand shrines, based on the faith in the divinities enshrined in thosesanctuaries; and (3) the pilgrimage to sacred places based on the faithin certain charismatic holy men who are believed to have hallowedthose places by their visits. It is the purpose of this paper to inquireas to how these types of pilgrimages developed in Japan and also todepict the basic similarities and dissimilarities among them.

Pilgrimage to the Sacred Mountain

We have already hinted at the importance of sacred mountains inthe religious life of the early Japanese. It is significant to note in this

156

connection that evuBuddhism people iabodes of diviniticr,

kyo-ja) who was hrigorous ascetic trzBuddhists, too, thed "Nature Wisdctraditional mediteŮiasteries but by bciof the monks andftďns in ordcr to aistic diviners, b*Buddhism, carlEldhism was \rcÍlr Epractitioners" (tfupower to wott lůttains. The codůrthe so+alled ffiits formal affiilirrlhism, retaidr

The populuty t

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eJe^\ qclqÁ\ sulElunolll peJc?s rupc11red eq}Jo sanlep eql ol uopo^ep

Jlegl uI sn1edrut IBuoIlIppB puno; Áeql 1nq 'sdnor8 o}ugs ro/pue 1srqp

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l{Enos scllacsu u!€lunou eql 'Árnluec rl}Jlorrrl eq1 ;o ped JáBBI eql uI

Á11pqou ilnoc aql Jo eulTcap eq1 q}l^\ 'Á1snoeue1purls seqIuTATp lsTIIp

-png pue oruFIS eql qloq luo{ srno^q Buuq o1 pe^eqaq are,t'scllec-s? ulelunolu pacuerradxs eq} Áq popFE pue papedutocc€ 'sutt1unouf,

esaql ol saEuurrr8pd aqt 'snq1 'sellrut,rtp Nlt1ppng Jo suollstrseJluerrr

Á111uer uI eJoÁ slllelunoru asoq1 Jo llllbl olu|qs, e^Ileu eql leql atup

leq1 Áq p1sq Á1epJ,t osle sz^l lI 'puB'I eJnd aI11 Jo olseloJoJ "

queeuo epq^\ ocuerradxa ol tnaql elqelre pFo^t 'oulqsoa pue ou"urn) Joasoql Á1plcedso 'sute1unoul poJces o1 aEeuuEpd 13q1 sl€JcolslJz eIF

8uoruu 1uo1errard JeIIeq aql Áq pecueque Á1tuer8 sBÁ\ salJnluac qrJleťq

pue qlue^ele eqt Eupnp scllecsa uluilInoru eql Jo Á1rrepdod aq1'suo4lp"Jl snotErTer {IoJ pue oluFls Jo sluetuale Áuuur peup1áJ tusrgp-pn8 Jo sJooqcs uoEurq5 eql puB l€puel 0q1 q}I/t\ uoll"Ilw" I€uIJoJ sl!

a1tdsep 'qclqrn (gp-ua&ru1g) sc4ocsv ul€lunory Jo JepJo peII"J_os eqlgo ocuaErerue oql se/r slueruelolu eser{l Jo }te.ge polrlqruoc agJ, 'sulul

-unoul eql ur Eurulell Álrrelsne 8uto8rapun Áq se1certur {JoI\ o1 realod

partnbce o^Bq o} perul€Ic Áueur pue' (n1o sp dn'. n1oso qn)..slauo1}r1curd

lsgppng poul?pJoun'' poI[BJ oJe^d Áeql 1nq 'snonue1 Áre'r se,tn rus5lp-png qll^\ uoIl€IlUB JIoqI 'acuenEul rsHppn{ Japun 3lu"c 'ruqqppngqll&\ uollceuuoc ou p"II JoII&e oq,trl''sct1ocse pu" sJel€eq'sJauI^Ip cllsl-uellrcqs 'epqrrruus141 '(tqWO raanod leclEeur ermbce ol JopJo uI suml

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or$ sB sulelunour epJeua^ ol ponunuoc uedel ur aldoed rusrgppngpu? uoÍlBzlll^Ic aseuqc Jo uollcnpoJlul oql JeuB ue^e l3q1 uollceulloJ

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nities was at first predominantly male. They considered the stiff moun-tain climbing, conducted by experienced guides, essential for spiritualand physical disciplines, and thus the pilgrimage was often consideredan initiatory ceremony for boys who were entering the age of adultlife. Eventually miniature models of sacred mountains were establish-ed in some parts of the country for the benefit of those who could notmake real pilgrimages, and the mountain cult grew in popularity byattracting older people and women as well. It was estimated that inthe latter part of the nineteenth century there were 17,000 "seniorguides" to sacred mountains, which meant that a considerably greater

number of mountain ascetics must have been functioďng in variouscapacities.

The three so-called Sect Shinto denominations of ourtime-(l)JikkÓ-kyó ("practical conduct'' religion), (2) FusÓ-kyÓ (religion of FusÓ,which is the classical name of Mt. Fuji)' and (3) ontake_kyÓ (religionof Mt. ontake) - are direct heirs of the traditions of the mountďnascetics, while Fuji-kÓ (devotional coďraterďty of Mt. Fuji), later re_

named as the Maruyama-kyÓ, became a sub-sect of another Sect Shintodenomination called Shinto TaikyÓ (the great teaching of Shinto).z laaddition, there are today many formal and iďormal mountain pil_grimage groups, ranging from those which follow strict disciplines tothose whose activities border on the semi-recreational.

Pilgrimages based on faith in certain divinities

In the religious history of Japan, the popularization of pilgrimagewas not confined to sacred mountains. Many pious clergy, laymenand laywomen, stimulated to be sure by the pilgrimage to the moun-tains, considered it also meritorious to visit less hazardous holy placesin the plain, usually Buddhist temples or Shinto shrines where certaindivinities known for their potencies are enshrined. Such pilgrimagesare motivated not by the desire to undergo ascetic practices but bypeople's devotion to a certain Buddha, Bodhisattva or kami, to whomthe pilgrims pay homage, offer thanksgiving or ask for special favours.Among the Buddhist divinities, the most sought ďter were Kannon(AvalokiteŠvara), the Buddhist counterpart of the "goddess of mercy'' ;

Amida (Amitábha), who is believed to have vowed to save all creatures;JizÓ (Ksitigarbha), the protector of souls in the realm of hell; Yakushi

2 For these denominations of Sect Shinto, see my Religion in Japanese History(New York l9óo' ch.5.

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J. M. Kitagawa

each referring to Kannon's mercy and miraculous power manifestedat one of the 33 sanctuaries. Incidentally, they beg for food and almswhich sustain them throughout the pilgrimage.

In the course of time, the pilgrimage to the 33 sanctuaries of Kan-non also developed in the eastern and other parts of Japan. Also,many other forms of Buddhist pilgrimages came into existence, suchas the pilgrimage to the 25 temples of the Pure Land School, the pil-grimage to the 100 temples of the Nichiren school, and the pilgrimageto the 100 temples in the Higashiyama section of Kyoto. Unlike pil-grimage to sacred mountains, which is taken as a group guided by anexperienced mountain ascetic, pilgrimage based on devotion to cer-tain ďvinities can be undertaken by inďviduals. Nevertheless' a num_

ber of devotional confraternities arose in connection with such pil-grimages, and their members form small groups of pilgrims for thesake of mutual support and encouragement.

In the Shinto traďtion, which also developed the practice of pil-grimage during the last few centuries, the most prominent is the pil-grimage to the Grand Shrine of Ise, the sanctuary of the Shinto deitypar excellence, Amaterasu-Ó-mikami, known as the Sun Goddess. Ithas been promoted by the Confraternity of Ise (Ise-kó), which selects

by drawing lots certain members who then represent others in makingthe pilgrimage to Ise, usually in the spring or autumn. Their departureand return are celebrated by speciď ceremonies and feasts attendedby all the members. Since their expenses are paid by the confraternity,which is supported by membership dues, the pilgrims to Ise - orother Shinto pilgrims for that matter - do not beg for food and almson the road. Otherwise, the aim of the pilgrimage to Ise is similar tothat of Buddhist pilgrimages, except that the object of devotion is theShinto divinity.

Pilgrimage based on faith in charismatic persons

Next to pilgrimages to sacred mountains and those to sanctuariesof various divinities, there developed in Japan the pilgrimage based onfaith in certain charismatic holy men. It is to be recalled in this con-nection that even before the introduction of Buddhism the Japanesevenerated various types of charismatic persons as emboďments ofsuperhuman powers. After the introduction of Buddhism, some of theoutstanding Buddhists, such as Prince Regent Shótoku, who in thelate sixth and early seventh centuries promoted Buddhism as the de

facto state religion, and GyÓgi, an eighth century popular Buddhist

1ó0

leader who bocrter was call€d&lon the part ďÉBuddhist sóooll r

Pure I-and Schoofbearing his mr"writings becam fparable to tbc Thidhisq unlike irr (Fa-hsien, I{sňan*the desert or ooplby the blessed nit became the =rrpilgrimagestonwere known frtlample in this reqnof Kiikai or Kóbó]dhisf 5s[66[ catlGil

Little need bc runder layers ď1ůis rememberedbypmany remote aÍGaling various kinds dthermore, it is riltodayheis sbllwďthose who need bisrmust have yisitEd fthe ninth centw5r, Igrimage in tb'htwelfth or thirbeling 88 sanďuarfog ithe seventeenth r

As far as we cn'plex phenomenm-"Pilgrimage to tblpn" (Saigoku 4sedge-hats, carry t

5 ForafuIlerm'n Studies oÍ E*li.

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lnoqe lllun peqsllqelse Áprrg 1ou s€Á\ n{o{Ígs ut selJenlcuus g3 3u1

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J. M. Kitagawa

in form and sound. In fact, among the "mďn buddhas'' (hon-zon\ en-shrined in the 88 temples, those of Kannon are most numerous with29, followed by Yakushi with 23 and Amida with 9. Ironically, Dai-nichi (Mahávairocana), the supreme Buddha of the Shingon school,which was established by Krikai, has only 6.6

Upon closer examination, however, it becomes evident that the cen-tral motif of the "Pilgrimage in Shikoku" is not devotion to the divi-nities enshrined in the 88 holy sites, which no doubt has become afeature of it, but rather its main emphasis is on the act of "walkingwith Saint Kůkai''. That is to say, the "Pilgrimage in Shikoku'' isbased on faith in the memory of the charismatic holy man, Kúkai, ofwhom the walking stick is the living symbol. Thus, even when a singleindividual undertakes the pilgrimage, it is called the pilgrimage of two(dógyi ni-nin), meaning Saint Krikai and himself'7 According to theestablished tradition, the pilgrimage to Shikoku begins at Mt. KÓya,the seat of the Shingon monastic centre established by Kukai. Thepilgrims are expected to pay homage to Ktikai's mausoleum, wherehe is believed to be sleeping until such time when he returns to thisworld with the future Buddha, Maitreya. From Mt. KÓya, the pil_

grims go to one of the ports and cross the strait to Shikoku by boat.The 88 holy places are scattered unevenly among the four provinces

that constitute Shikoku. Historically, the Awa province, which has23 holy sites, has been called the "exercise arena for the spiritualawakening'' (Hosshin no dijó), the Tosa province with 16 holy sites

has been called the "exercise arena for ascetic discipline" (Shugyd no

dójó), the Iyo province with 26 holy sites has been called the "exer_

cise arena for enlightenment'' (Bodai no dijd), anďthe Sanuki prov-ince with 23 holy sites has been called the "exercise arena for thestate of Nirvana'' (Nehan no dóji). The holy sites are numbered fromNo. 1 to No. 88. Of them, Nos. 19, 27,60, and 66 are considered tobe "barriers" (seki-sho), and those who have done misdeeds are saidto receive at one of these barriers omens, such as the appearance ofa certain bird. Such omens indicate that they have ďspleased Saint

6 other Buddhas represented in the 88 holy places in Shikoku are: Buddha Sák_yamuni 5, Jizi (Ksitigarbha) 5' Fudó (Acala' the immovable) 4' KokuzÓ (Akas.agarbha) 3, etc.

7 A.s the pilgrim arrives at an inn or a temple at the eod of the day's journey, hecleanses the bottom of the walking stick before he cleanses his own feet. Tbewalking stick, the symbol of Saint Kiikai, is kept in an honoured position ofthe room in which the pilgrim sleeps.

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J. M. Kitagawa

Even such a brief portrayal of the three types of pilgrimages inJapan makes it clear that there are many similarities as well as signifi-cant differences among them. The first type, namely, the pilgrimage tothe sacred mountains may be characterized by its corporate activitiesunder the supervision ofan expert guide. Its emphasis on ascetic andphysical disciplines implies a soteriological path based on self-power

Qiriki), even though there is in it an element of faith. And the notionthat the sacred mountains are the models of Paradise gives strongimpetus to the pilgrims to seek the religious meaning of life withinthe realm of phenomenal existence. The second type, namely, the pil-grimage based on faith in certain divinities tends to be more individual-istic and also lacks rigorous ascetic emphasis because its soteriologi-cal path relies on the saving power of the divinities (tariki). Eventhough the pilgrims seek immeďate experience of some degree of sal-vation here on earth, they accept the existence of the future realm asthe only real arena of salvation. Finally, the third type, namely, thepilgrimage based on faith in charismatic boly men has some of the

features of the first and the second. But its own unique character isdemonstrated in the notion that the saving power has been alreadyactualized in the life of the charismatic holy man, who thus combinesthe roles of the deity and of the guide. In other words, the pilgrimrelies on the other-power (tariki), but the other-power is not far awayin a transcendental realm, eitherin space or in time. The saving power,

fully actualized in a person, shares every step of the earthly pilgrimageas the real "fellow pilgrim".

It goes without saying that the task of the historian of religions in-volves many difficulties especially when one deals with a complex phe-

nomenon such as the development of religion in Japan which has ho-mologžed diverse features of Buddhist, Taoist, Shinto and folk reli-gious beliefs, s;rmbols, cults and practices. In such a situation, onemeaningful approach may be to study a significant form of religiouscult which has developed out of the fusion of various elements. Onthis score, it is our hope that this preliminary study of the three typesof pilgrimage might throw some light on the characteristic pieties ofJapanese religious tradition.

L64

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