kiranavali vol 1 book2 2009

ISSN 0975-4067

KIRA¤ÀVALÃJournal of Sanskrit Research Foundation

The New Trivandrum Sanskrit SeriesVol.1. Book.2

October-December2009

SANSKRIT RESEARCH FOUNDATIONT.C 39/37

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM-36

KIRA¤ÀVALÃ

Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation

EditorDr.M. ManimohananSree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,[email protected]

Executive EditorDr.C.S.SasikumarSree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,[email protected]

Managing EditorDr.G.NarayananSree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,[email protected]

Editorial BoardDr.V.Sisupalapanikkar,Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd.) Uty. of KeralaDr.R.Vijayakumar, Professor of Vyakarana, S.S.U.S.KaladyDr.K.Muthulakshmi,Reader in Vedanta, S.S.U.S. KaladyDr.K.K.Sundaresan, Sl.Gr.Lecturer, Govt.Sanskrit college,TVPM.

Editorial Advisory BoardDr.T.Devarajan, Professor of Sanskrit, University of KeralaDr.P.Chithambaran, Professor&Head, Dept.of Vedanta,S.S.U.S. KaladyDr.P.K.Dharmarajan, Professor of Sahitya, S.S.U.S. Kalady

Dr.S.Sobhana,Reader in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.Kalady

Associate EditorSri.R.Jinu, Research Scholar in English, University of Kerala

Views expressed in the articles are those of the authers and notnecessarily those of the publishers

Contents

Editor’s Note -89Influence of Sankara on Later Philosophers

-Dr. P. Chithambaran -91

Dialectic of Vidy° and Avidy° in Indian Philosophy:-

a General Survey -Dr.S.Suresh Kumar -102

The Concept of Aumk°ra in the m°∏d£kyopani¿ad

Dr.S.Sobhana -119

Prak§ti and Puru¿a in Classical S°Δkhya-

Dr.S.Geethamony Amma -127

Influence of Natyasastra In The Dramas of Kalidasa

- Dr. Reeja B. Kavanal -139

Position And Status of Women In Yajnavalkyasm§tiDr.N.Kalpana -146

Baudha Sankara Narayana Philosophies andthe Advaita Tradition of India-Dr. Dharmaraj Adat -156

Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta-Dr.G.Narayanan -165

iÉÖ±ªÉÉºªÉ|ÉªÉixÉÆ ºÉ´ÉhÉÇ ÉÂ ºÉÚjÉ´ªÉÉJªÉÉxÉ¨ÉÂ* -b÷É. +É®Âú.Ê´ÉVÉªÉEÖò¨ÉÉ®Âú -168

{ÉÎhb÷iÉÉOÉhÉÒ& B¨ÉÂ. BSÉÂ ¶ÉÉºjÉÒ -b÷É.BxÉÂ.ºÉÖxnù®ú¨ÉÂ -171

Debates In Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial and

Contemporary-. Dr.K.Muthulakshmi -176

Annual Index -178

Submission Guidelines -180

News -182

Our Contributers

Dr.P.Chithambaran is the professor and Head of the department ofVedanta, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady

Dr..S.Suresh Kumar is a Senior lecturer in the department of Vedanta,Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently workingat Kalady campus.

Dr..S.Sobhana is a Reader in the department of Vedanta , SreeSankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working atThiruvananthapuram Regional centre

Dr.S.Geethamony Amma is a Reader in the department of VedantaSree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently workingat Panmana Regional centre

Dr.Reeja .B.Kavanal is a Reader in the department of Sahitya, SreeSankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working atKalady campus.

Dr.N.Kalpana is a Guest Lecturer in the Department of Sahitya,Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working atThiruvananthapuram Regional centre

Dr.Dharmaraj Adat is professor of Sanskrit Sahitya, Sree SankaracharyaUniversity of Sanskrit, Kalady.

Dr.R. Vijayakumar is professor of Vyakarana, Sree Sankaracharya Uni-versity of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently Director of ThiruvananthapuramRegional centre

Dr.N.Sundaram was the director of the department of publications ,University of Kerala

Dr.K.Muthulakshmi is a Reader in the department of Vedanta,SreeSankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working atThiruvananthapuram Regional centre

Dr.G.Narayanan is a Reader in the department of Vedanta,SreeSankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working atThiruvananthapuram Regional centre

Editor’s Note

The unique experiences prompted by the great Acharyas and

Gurus – they present their visions in verbal form in verse, pithy

statements (Sutras) and parables, which are the foundation stone

laid for the Indian cultural heritage. Vedanta philosophy shows

that great men are respected by their dedicated services and

not by their birth. Swami Vivekananda declared Buddhism

brought the Vedanta to light, gave it to the people, and saved

India. The unique contribution of Buddhism was its social and

cultural element. Researchers on this, explains that Buddhism is

purified Hinduism without the poison of caste conflicts.

Sri Sankara through his Advaita philosophy proclaims equal

rights to humanity and teaches every one is great in his own

position if he is sincere in his duties. The great monistic teachings

of Sri Sankara are applicable to the daily life of all sections of

people in the world, since his message has a universal appeal.

Even in this Era his teachings provide its own abiding vitality and

relevance.

Sri Narayana Guru opened up a new way to the common

people for sincere services with the unique message in the name

of Universal Religion . Guru accepted the true spirit of the

Universal Vedanta Religion as the Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity,

Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and other religions in the World. “All

Religions of the world show different ways for the attainment of

the One Ultimate aim of peace and happiness of humanity, and

there is no cause for religious war.” Besides these, the theory of

one Caste and one God is the special contribution of Guru to

the Universal religion.

Influence Of Sankara On Later PhilosophersDr. P. Chithambaran

In India we have had all categories of sages, the idealists ofthe UpaniÀads, the materialist Lok¡yatas, the hedonistic T¡ntriksand numerous others of varying schools of thought. The non-dualist Sankara was a sage with a difference. His thought wasprogressive and universal. He offered a philosophy for the unityof mankind.

Advaitaved¡nta is the most profound and the most acclaimedtheory of philosophy, and Sri Sankara, its exponent, is pre-eminentamong Ved¡ntic sages and saints. No other doctrine of spiritualismin human history has so captured attention and stirredphilosophical deliberations, as Sankara’s theory of Advaita. Thetheory of Advaita that the almighty is inherent and in-dwelling inall things-animate and inanimate in the world, served to reformHinduism and provided new dimensions of meaning to thetraditional doctrines of Faith.

The fundamental tenet of Advaita is that Brahman is the onlyreality, and that the world is an illusion.1 The nature of Brahmanis Existence, Consciousness and Bliss. It is Avidy¡ that causesthe one Brahman to appear as many, and M¡y¡ is the cause of theworld phenomena. Avidy¡ has two powers, viz. ¡vara¸a andvikÀepa. Brahman, the pure consciousness, associated with M¡y¡is called Ì¿vara. All living beings in the state of bondage andundergoing transmigration are called j¢vas. They are the reflectionof the pure consciousness in the antaÅkara¸a. The jagat is asuperimposition on Brahman.

According to Advaitaved¡nta, the state of freedom from allbonds created by ignorance is called MokÀa. It is unconditional

92 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr.P.Chitambaran

and absolute. It is called paramapuruÀ¡rtha, the highest of the endsdesigned by human beings. The mortal who attains to that statebecomes immortal. The aspirant of liberation should clean hismind through the study of the scriptures and through the practiceof the instructed lessons. The spiritual practice of Advaita is calleds¡dhanacatuÀ¶aya.2 It consists of viveka, vair¡gya,s¡dhanaÀa¶kasampatti and mumukÀutva.

Viveka is the knowledge that Brahman alone is real and theinfinite, and this world is transient.3 This knowledge naturallyproduces vair¡gya towards the world.4 The six virtues are áama,Dama, Uparati, titikÀ¡, áraddh¡ and Sam¡dh¡na.5 Practice of thesesix virtues produces MumukÀutvam, the desire for Liberation. Thenthe aspirant earns the authority to know Brahman.

During the post-Sankara period doctrinal differences withinthe fold of Advaita developed to suit the needs of the aspirants ofdifferent levels of intellect. These doctrinal differences constituteglory of the system of Advaita. Sure¿vara says that any theorywithin the fold of Advaita is to be taken as valid if it facilitatesthe easy understanding of the concepts of Advaita ultimatelyleading to the realisation of the non-dual self.6 Of these schools-the school of Bh¡mat¢ and the school of Vivara¸a are important.Till the end of the 16th century the Advaitic preceptors were chieflyconcerned with elucidating the view-points of the Vivara¸a andthe Bh¡mat¢ schools.

Sri Sankara established the Advaita philosophy which stoodunchallenged for three centuries. But Advaita philosophy posedits own problems of reasoning and interpretation. Theassumptions of the world as an illusion led to the birth of differenttrends of philosophical thoughts. Sankara founded his Advaitadoctrine through his learned commentaries (bh¡Ày¡s) on theprasth¡natraya. Ramanuja and Madhva, are pre-eminent amonglater philosophers who raised a storm of challenge against

Influence of Sankara Kira¸¡val¢ 93

Sankara’s reasoning, by propounding the visions of Vi¿iÀ¶¡dvaitaand Dvaita respectively. Subsequently, Vallabhacharya come outwith his contribution of áuddh¡dvaita and Nimbarka with hisexposition of Bh¡gavatamata, both of them launching aphilosophical warfare against Sankara. These later philosophershave also evolved their philosophy by composing commentarieson the prasth¡natraya.

The preceptors and adherents of Advaita did not care to takeinto account the pangs and tribulations of man’s day-to-day life.They inspired at least a few to run away from the realities of lifeand take shelter under the blind belief that everything in the worldis the manifestation of the Godhead. It might be possible to attainthe heights of Ved¡nta, if one relinquishes the world and its ways.Sankara’s interpretation and expositions do not offer definitepractical instructions to ordinary men about how to translate thecult of Advaita into a habit of life. It is here that the ModernPhilosophers’ explication of Advaita becomes relevant to thecontext of life in this world of reality. They brought Advaitadar¿anadown into our practical life. They do not see the world as anillusion, though life in this world was an illusion. The modernphilosophers are called the Neo-Ved¡ntins.

Neo-Ved¡nta is the traditional Ved¡nta interpreted in terms ofmodern thought and applied in practical life. Ved¡nta has alwaysbeen new, it has been constantly undergoing the process of selfrenewal. Neo-Ved¡nta is the result of the renewal and dialecticalintegration held in the 19th and 20th century. Harmony and practicalapplication are the distinguishing features of Neo-Ved¡nta. In theplace of the philosophical controversy among traditional schools,the Neo-Ved¡nta presents harmony.

Ved¡nta has several schools, some of which are identified withsects. The three main differences among these schools are aboutthe nature of the ultimate reality, about the relation between the


individual self and supreme self, and about the relative superiorityof Jμ¡na, Bhakti and Karma. These doctrinal controversies havetheir origin in the different interpretations of scriptures followedby the different schools. Neo-Ved¡nta tries to find harmony amongthe schools by taking its stand on the validity of direct, personalexperience and by assigning the different views to different levelsof experience.

Another distinguishing feature of Neo-Ved¡nta is its opennessto the religious experiences and traditions on the other religions.It upholds harmony among the religions on the basis of theprinciple of unity in diversity: unity at the transcendental placeand diversity at the empirical plane.

Neo-Ved¡nta’s approach is the harmony between the individualand the society is not sociological but spiritual. It regardsindividual selves as part of the Supreme Self, and service to menas service to God. It looks upon Karma-Yoga, which is based onthis principle of worship, as a direct path of realization.

In the latter part of the 19th century and the first part of the 20th

century, many spiritual masters used the Ved¡nta philosophy forhuman welfare. Among them Rajaram Mohan Roy, SvamiDayananda Sarasvati, Vivekananda, Sri Chattambi Svamikal, SriNarayana Guru, Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and SriAurobindo are some of the distinguishing figures.

Rajaram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)Rajaram Mohan Roy was a monotheist and an integralist of

extraordinary impact on the Indian society and polity of his time.He analysed the source books of great religions and studied theirpre-suppositions comparatively. He travelled to Tibet and Bhutanto study Tibetan Buddhism. Roy had a profound conviction aboutthe existence of one god-one ultimate reality-one transcendentalprinciple or Brahman. He learned the Ì¿¡v¡syopaniÀad andinterpreted it as anti idolatry and fully supportive of the basic


Hindu canon. The all embracing humanist message that layimplicit in the UpaniÀadic and Advaita monism found its vividexpression in Roy’s social philosophy.

The most prominent contribution of Roy to the beginning ofIndian renaissance is the foundation of a theistic and societymotivated organisation known as Brahmasam¡j. The central aimof Roy’s reformation movement was to bring about the spiritualintegration of mankind. Roy stated that all laws in thereconstruction of society must be founded on a hope of man’sinner conversion. By this conversion he meant to produce areadiness in each individual to accept the rights of others with asmuch regard as that he would have for his own. The final objectiveof the Brahmasam¡j was to take Indians to a state of consciousnessthat in closer to God than to the material world. Roy couldperceive that all great religions had this single objective. Roystruggled to bring about a kind of universal spiritualism- a kindof humanism based on theism- an internationalism rooted in theconcept that every human is an image of God or Brahman.

Svami Dayananda Sarasvati (1825-1883)Svami Dayananda Sarasvati was a great Vedic Scholar and

one of the great leaders of the modern Indian renaissance. SvamiDayananda was a powerful human dynamo, physically, mentallyand spiritually. According to Sri K. M. Munshi, ‘he was the firstamong the moderns who lived and taught others to live up to thepermanent values of our culture.’7 A distinguished religious leader,social reformer and system builder; Svami Dayananda was a giftedspeaker and prolific writer too.

The Vedas, particularly the mantra part of them, are the wordsof God. He who is called Brahman or the most high or theparam¡tman permeates the whole universe. Dharma, which istruthfulness in thought, word and deed, is the will of God asembodied in the Vedas. Salvation is to be attained through worship


of God, the performance of time-honoured ritual deeds and theacquisition of true knowledge. Samsk¡ras are those rituals whichcontribute to the physical, mental and spiritual improvement ofman.

Svami Dayananda rejected idol worship and polytheism. Hefought against superstitions, child-marriage, hereditary castesystem, untouchability, and enforced widow-hood. He advocatedwomen’s education, a scientific education grafted to an essentiallyIndian education, a single national language and the study ofSanskrit. ‘’Back to the Vedas’ was his classic call. He said: TheVedas are the scriptures of all-time knowledge. It is our paramountduty to teach them to others, to hear them and to recite them toothers.8

Sri Chattambi Svamikal (1853-1924)Sri Chattambi Svamikal was a great saint reformer of the

nineteenth century who lived in Kerala as a contemporary of SriNarayana Guru. He was a knower of the Supreme Self. Theinner flow of his visions and works is purely the Ved¡ntaphilosophy, mainly the non-dual philosophy of Acharya Sankara.Chattambi Svamikal was a scholar well-versed in differentphilosophical schools, in religious matters including the westernreligions, and in the literatures of Tamil, Sanskrit and Malayalam.As a great sage, he practiced yoga and learned the ‘cinmudra’from his revered preceptor Atmananda Svamikal. He acquiredall kinds of philosophical knowledge and rejected any views withstrong arguments, except the Advaita philosophy. To him, Advaitawas a practical Ved¡nta. He interpreted the Advaita Philosophyand implemented it in his own life. According to him, Advaitawas an effective tool for the social, economic, religious, ethical,moral and cultural unity of the human race.

Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928)Sri Narayana Guru was a part of India’s long line of spiritual

masters. The philosophy and works of Narayana Guru have an


incomparable status. He developed his visions and thoughts aboutlife and the eternal reality on the basis of Sankara’s philosophy.It is the uniqueness of the Guru that he used his valuableknowledge for the welfare of the contemporary society. By thepractice of religion, Sri Narayana aimed at the human benediction.The whole philosophy of Sri Narayana Guru carries a humanistictouch.

The creditable achievement of Sri Narayana Guru is hisdiscovery in Advaita, of the remedy for the evils of socialdiscrimination, inequality and oppression. It was with this weaponthat he ventured to fight against the pernicious caste system amongthe Hindus. The social reform movement launched and led tosuccess by him was the practical implementations of his Advaiticvision. Equality for all is the ideal envisaged and upheld byAdvaita. This philosophy cannot absorb or tolerate a segregationof men on grounds of their being born in different castes or sects.This conviction prompted the Guru to tap the resources of Advaitafor practical purpose of service to humanity and brought him thedeserved prestige as the greatest social reformer of the land. Theachievement of the Guru leaves no room for the question whetherhe was a mere Advaitin or a revolutionary social reformer. Theactivities of the Guru as a reformer were a translation of theAdvaita doctrine into practical life.

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)The unique features of Tagore’s writings are creative and

theoretical. They embody his admiration for the harmony, theinexhaustible beauty of nature and his conception of God as theSupreme Spirit. The original UpaniÀadic insight that the entirecosmic process is fundamentally one is seen in all his writings.According to Tagore, the finite world cannot be unreal or illusory,since this world is the creator’s design, his craftsmanship andlove. Tagore agrees that it is only when one is too much of an


intellectual and tries to approach existence from the point of aview of skeptic that he would see the world as M¡y¡. For Tagore,the world must be looked upon as an enjoyable abode and thenone would know that its objective existence is true and positive.According to Tagore, the very appearance of nature representsGod’s genius and love. Tagore’s devotionalism is the directoutcome of his early immersion in the Bhakti tradition ofVaiÀ¸avism in Bengal. His poetic compositions contain a strikingmood of surrender to God. He referred to God as the object ofman’s pure love, unrestrained admiration and praise.

Tagore’s humanism is founded on the theory that every man isspiritual by the very nature of his ontological structure. Manmirrors the Divine. Tagore emphasizes the man-nature-Godrelationship as one transcending man’s rational essence.According to Tagore, human beings are part and parcel of theDivine and are dependent on it. God-realisation is not then theabsorption of the individual self by the Divine, but the self’scommunion with God. Tagore instinctively synthesized God andthe Absolute. He subscribed to a universalist monistic point ofview which is an extensive domain of Advaita.9

Vivekananda (1863-1902)Svami Vivekananda gave a new face to traditional Ved¡nta.

The philosophy of Vivekananda has an outstanding status andworld-wide acceptance. Vivekananda accepts the traditionalconcept that the Vedas are eternal as texts of revelation. For himthe essence of the Vedic knowledge was called by the name ofVed¡nta, which comprises the UpaniÀads.

Swami Vivekananda was a man of harmony. By taking thedifferent systems of Indian philosophy as authoritative, he directsthat they are not contradictory. For Vivekananda the UpaniÀads,the Brahmas£tra, and the G¢t¡ have been taken up by every sect inIndia, that wants to claim authority for orthodoxy.


Vivekananda was a firm Advaitist but preached the need ofacceptance that all the philosophical strains are true in their ownway. According to him, Brahman is one in the most literal monisticsense. He can only be realised by the individual soul.Vivekananda perfectly accepts the Advaita philosophy in theconcept of Ì¿vara that the personal God is the same Absolutelooked at through the haze of M¡y¡. Vivekananda accepts theview of vivarttav¡da on account of the creation of the universe.For him Param¡tman as ruling M¡y¡ is Ì¿vara, and Param¡tman asunder M¡y¡ is J¢va. M¡y¡ being the cause, and mithy¡ its effect, isthe fundamental concept of Advaita. Vivekananda accepts thetheory. For him the world only exists in relation to mind. It is amixture of existence and non-existence. He admits the theory ofJ¢vanmukti of Monism. According to Vivekananda, Ved°nta takesa man above sects and dogma, and enables him to breathe theampler air of the upper skies of his faith from where he can realizehis freedom.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)Mahatma Gandhi was perturbed by the fate of the people

around him-their poverty, ignorance, slavery to a foreign rule,and their helplessness. His entire philosophy of life and action isdiscernible as borrowed from the Bhagavad G¢t¡. He consideredthe G¢t¡ as the most important unit of the Prasth¡natraya.

Gandhi’s world view is an admixture of humanism and theism.His epistemology is structured around the premise ‘God is truth’or ‘Truth is God’. Gandhi was a monotheist. His concept of Godhas its origin in the UpaniÀads and Bhagavad G¢t¡. According tohim, God is one. He is love, light and bravery. God is the rulingspirit behind everything that the cosmic process has generatedand is capable of generating. Gandhi’s ethics of non-violence isthe outcome of his assumption that the God is the spirit behindall existence, animate and inanimate. He looked upon the whole


reality as one unending experiment with truth. According to him,God’s names adopted by various religions in the world areultimately the destinations of the same divine reality. Gandhiwas highly charismatic and saintly. He totally dedicated himselfto the uplift of the Indian masses. He gave birth to a social andpolitical philosophy based on truth and human dignity. Gandhi’swell known idea of saty¡graha is founded on the insistence ontruth as God. It is the assertion of the self within us with a viewto arouse an identical assertion in others.

Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)Among the spiritual masters of India, Sri Aurobindo holds an

outstanding position by his fresh thoughts and perfect vision. Heestablished his philosophy on the basis of Ved¡nta, mainly thenon-dual philosophy. He had his own spiritual experiences andhad the realization of the self. For his philosophy he used theseexperiences rather than the previous traditional teachings. Hewas a born genius and had a great intellect. He introduced thephilosophical quest of human existence and goal of life to manifestthe secret of nature and he introduced the system of ‘IntegralYoga’.

Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy of integration is unique. It isintegral for two reasons: first, it not only comprehends the wholeof the reality, but also integrates the lower levels of experiencesinto the higher. If reality is integral, the knowledge required forrealising it must also be integral. Since the means must beappropriate to the end, integral yoga brings about the ascent ofconsciousness leading to the realisation of the cosmic self as wellas the descent of consciousness leading to the divinization ofnature. The work of perfected beings whom Sri Aurobindo calls‘Gnostic beings’ in bringing about this transmigration of societyis decisive.


In different periods of time many masters re-interpreted theAdvaita philosophy in response to the contemporary social need.In the modern time, too, Advaita stands as a relevant philosophy,by directing humanity to their welfare. The national movementof independence was also influenced by the thoughts of thisphilosophy. For the removal of social evils and for reforming thenation they used the philosophy as a tool. The Advaitic vision ofequality contributed much to the integration process of the country.

Notes and References

1. •…¿∫…i™…Δ V…M…Œx®…l™……, ¥…‰n˘…xi… b˜Œhb˜®…&, 6.

2. ∏…“∂…R¬ÛEÚÆ˙&, ¥…¥…‰EÚS…⁄b˜…®… h…&, 19.

3. Ibid. 20.

4. Ibid. 21.

5. Ibid. 22-26.

6. ™…™…… ™…™…… ¶…¥…‰i{…÷Δ∫……Δ ¥™…÷i{… k…& |…i™…M……i®… x…*

∫…… ∫…Ë¥… |… GÚ™…… Y…‰™…… ∫……v¥…“ ∫…… S……x…¥…Œ∫l…i……** ∫…÷Æ‰∑…Æ˙&.

7. Munshi. K. M., Cultural Heritage of India (compiled edition),Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1997, p. 135.

8. Ibid. p. 136.

9. Balasubrahmanyam. R., (ed.), History of Science, Philosophyand Culture, col. II, Part II, Centre for Studies in Civilization,New Delhi, 2000.

Dialectic of Vidy° and Avidy° inIndian Philosophy: A General Survey

Dr.S.Suresh Kumar

IntroductionLife is manifested existence, is cradled in knowing and doing.

Without knowing there is no doing. If human genius is capableof ascertaining all about knowing and doing life ceases to be amystery. It is in the mission of unraveling the mystery of knowingand doing that the human being distinguishes itself from otherspecies of life. And it is this capability of its quest and consequentfindings that make the human beings the lord of creation. Humansocial life is based on the findings of such quests by the enlightenedmembers of human society. In short, higher life of intelligenceand enquiry, is rooted in the truthful findings of knowing anddoing.

It is in this higher life and culture that the luminous intellectualtraditions are rooted. Among such intellectual traditions in theworld, the Indian variety of the same has been an object ofsustained fascination and a perennial oasis of hope. An enquiryinto the unifying characteristics of Indian philosophical traditionsreveals that from the very beginning of those traditions,discussions on the problems of Vidy¡ and Avidy¡ have formed anessential part of them. The reason for this striking and continuedunanimity can be found in the fact that all Indian philosophicalsystems regarded Avidy¡ as the root cause of suffering. And theywere all unequivocally bent upon discovering the means of thedissolution of Avidy¡ and found Vidy¡, the process of trueknowledge by which Reality could be realized and suffering couldbe overcome.

Kira¸¡val¢ 103Vidy¡ and avidy¡ in Indian philosophy

Thus it is clear that the dialectic of Vidy¡ and Avidy¡ is commonto all Indian Philosophical Systems except C¡rv¡ka. For exampleone of the striking features of Advaita Ved¡nta, the paramountsystem of Indian philosophy, consists in the way the theory ofAvidy¡ is made to play a central role in the theory of Vidy¡. Usingthe metaphor of light and darkness for Vidy¡ and Avidy¡respectively, they expound the whole empirical cognitive situationas an interplay of light and darkness mingled together. An attemptto ascertain the true-nature of the various conceptions of Vidy¡and Avidy¡ as evidenced in the different schools like Bauddha,Jaina, Ny¡ya, Ved¡nta, etc. will facilitate us to understand thesetraditions precisely and truthfully.

Let us have a glimpse on the radical conceptions of Vidy¡ and

Avidy¡ as explained in the different systems of Indian thought.

Jainadar¿anaIn the Jaina System, the term ‘mithy¡tva’ (perversity) is generally

used to denote the idea of Avidy¡. The terms ‘mithy¡dar¿ana’,‘mithy¡d¤À¶i’, ‘dar¿anamoha’, ‘moha’, etc. are also used in the samesense. The opposite of mithy¡tva is ‘samyaktva’, also known as‘samyagdar¿ana’ (right view), which is Vidy¡. Bondage consistsin the obstructed and mutilated condition of the various capacitiesof the soul. According to Vidy¡nandi Sv¡min the causes of bondageare mithy¡dar¿ana (perverse view), mithy¡jμ¡na (perverseknowledge) and mithy¡carita (perverse conduct).1 The self isomniscient. But its omniscience is veiled by the crust of karma-matter. The sense-object intercourse does not produce knowledge,but simply removes the veil of karma-matter and revealsknowledge of the self. The right attitude (samyagdar¿ana) rightknowledge (samyagjμ¡na) and right conduct (samyakcarita)constitute the path to MokÀa.2 MokÀa is the absolute separation of

104 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr.S.Suresh Kumar

the soul from the k¡rmic matter, in the absence of the causes ofbondage.

Bauddhadar¿anaThe Buddhist chain of Prat¢tyasamutp¡da begins with Avidy¡

which is considered as the root of the world process.3 T¤À¸a is themother and Avidy¡ is the father of the world process.4 One seekspermanence so long as the truth of impermanence does not dawnupon him. Ego-centric activity ceases when the falsity of thenotion of a static self is comprehended. Avidy¡ consists inmistaking suffering for happiness. Desire for happiness disappearswhen the first ‘¡ryasatya’ of universal suffering is realized.

In the course of delineating the concept of Avidy¡, the truth isseen divided into two as samv¤tisatya (empirical truth) andparam¡rthasatya (transcendental truth).5 The function of samv¤tiis to cover the knowledge of the truth. It is Avidy¡. It is alsocalled ‘moha’ (delusion) and ‘vipary¡sa’ (perversion).6 TheVijμ¡nav¡dins denounce the duality of the perceiver and theperceived as false. There is consciousness alone, there is noexternal object (d¤¿ya).7 The consciousness functions as theappearance of object, being influenced by v¡san¡.8 The objectiveworld is like an elephant called up by illusion (m¡y¡-hastin). Itappears to the consciousness perfumed by Avidy¡.9

Avidy¡ or ajμ¡na is the common defect, the basic fault, thatcompels the consciousness to project this universe and keep ittied to it. The Vijμ¡nav¡dins say that it is ‘abh£taparikalpa’, theconjuring up of the imaginary unreal. Sthiramati, the commentatorof ‘Madhy¡nta Vibh¡ga S£tra Bh¡Àya’ explains the ‘abh£taparikalpa’as the locus or the instrument of the imagination of unreal duality.10

Generically it consists in pure consciousness and it exists frombeginningless time and ends in final emancipation (nirv¡¸a).


Specifically, it consists in the imagination of the perceived andthe perceiver.11

According to Vijμ¡nav¡din there is the conception of two-fold¡vara¸as viz., jμey¡vara¸a and kle¿¡varah¸a. The word ‘jμeya’ meansknowable, i.e., the dharmas or elements of existence. They arenot substantial and thus have no reality. The ¡vara¸a in the formof jμeya is called jμey¡vara¸a.12 It is called ajμ¡na.13 Similarlykle¿¡vara¸a means the ¡vara¸a in the form of kle¿as. The purificationof these ¡vara¸as leads someone to emancipation or Nirva¸a.La´k¡vat¡ra says: ‘The jμey¡vara¸a is purified due to a special kindof intuition of dharma-nair¡tmya or un-substantiality of things asthey appear. The kle¿¡vara¸a on the other hand, is destroyed dueto the practice of intuition of ‘pudgalanair¡tmya’, the unreality ofindividual ego.’14 These ¡vara¸as are as unreal and illusory as the‘abh£taparikalpa’ because the consciousness is pure and luminousby nature.15

S¡´khyadar¿anaIn the S¡´khya system the Self or PuruÀa is eternally liberated.

But it has a false sense of bondage and it is due to non-discrimination (aviveka) between itself and Prak¤ti.16 Liberationor MokÀa is due to discrimination (viveka). Bondage andLiberation are not real but apparent.17 MokÀa is absolute negationof three-fold suffering or pain.18 True knowledge is the cause ofMokÀa.19 It is not theoretical knowledge, but direct and immediateknowledge of the self.20 According to S¡´khya error is Avidy¡, itis only a negative fact, the failure to discriminate. The knowledgeof the Self (Vidy¡) destroys Avidy¡.21 Prak¤ti which was leadingus through cycles of experiences from birth to birth, fulfils itsfinal purpose when the true knowledge arises differentiating PuruÀafrom Prak¤ti. As the final purpose being attained, the Prak¤ti cannever again bind the PuruÀa.


The S¡´khya conception of Avidy¡ is substantially the same asthat of Yoga. But there is difference of terminology. The fivekle¿as, viz. ‘Avidy¡’, ‘Asmit¡’, ‘R¡ga’, ‘DveÀa’ and ‘Abhinive¿a’of the Yoga are respectively called ‘Tamas’, ‘Moha’, ‘Mah¡moha’,‘T¡misra’ and ‘Andhat¡misra’ in the S¡´khya.22 According toS¡´khya, comprehension of eight categories of ‘Prak¤ti’, ‘Mahat’,‘AhaÆk¡ra’ and the five Tanm¡tras (subtle elements) as identicalwith the immutable soul is Avidy¡ which is also called eight-foldTamas, while V¡caspati recognizes ‘five-knotted Avidy¡’.23

When this Avidy¡ disappears knowledge becomes perfect. Andthis perfect knowledge (vidy¡) leads to final emancipation of theSoul. The Soul then shines in its own splendour.24 The ‘Kaivalya’or emancipation of the puruÀa is rather a rediscovery of its ownnature, and not the acquisition of unprecedented condition or therelinquishment of a real limitation.

Yoga and S¡´khya theoretically do not differ as regards theirconception of Viparyaya and Avidy¡.25 But Vijμ¡nabhikÀu recordsa dissenting note. He says that Avidy¡ is neither ‘valid cognition’nor ‘absence of cognition’ but it is a ‘false cognition’, a categoryof cognition. ‘In the Yoga system the term ‘Avidy¡’ does notmean aviveka as it does with the followers of S¡´khya. But it is adeterminate cognition as it is with such schools as Vai¿eÀika. Thisfollows from both the Sutra and Bh¡Àya.’26

Yogadar¿anaIn the Yoga system also Avidy¡ or ignorance is the cause of

suffering.27 Yoga school also recognizes two primordial categoriesviz. ‘PuruÀa’ and ‘Prak¤ti’. PuruÀa is the principle of consciousnesswhile Prak¤ti is unconscious. PuruÀa’s relation to Prak¤ti serves tocater the enjoyment (bhoga) of the former.28 When PuruÀa realizesits natural difference and distinction from the Prak¤ti by realizing


its own, inalienable spiritual nature, it leads to final release(apavarga). The relation between the inherently pure PuruÀa andPrak¤ti is beginningless and is due to Avidy¡.29 The conception ofAvidy¡ here is not negative but has a definite positive aspect.Avidy¡ has been defined to be a perverted knowledge whichcomprehends non-eternal as eternal, impure as pure, sorrow aspleasure and non-soul as soul.30 According to Vy¡sa, thecommentator, Avidy¡ is neither knowledge nor negation ofknowledge but it is wrong cognition as opposed to true cognitionand as such falls in the category of cognition.31 He furtherdescribes Avidy¡ as a mental trace or a predisposition left bywrong cognition.32

The habit of steadiness (abhy¡sa) and non-attachment topleasures (vair¡gya) lead the aspirant to right knowledge. Rightknowledge or Vidy¡ is the discrimination (viveka) between PuruÀaand Prak¤ti.33 When by the grace of God false knowledge isremoved, true knowledge at once dawns upon the mind and theafflictions lose their power.34 Kaivalya or MokÀa is described eitheras the final reversion of the gu¸as to their Prak¤ti or as the self-recovery of consciousness in its intrinsic nature.35

Ny¡yadar¿anaAccording to Ny¡ya system also mithy¡jμ¡na or Avidy¡ is the

cause of suffering. Udyotakara, the commentator on Ny¡yas£tra,opines that ‘body, senses, objects, etc., are all manifestations ofsuffering.’36 ‘The soul bears the special qualities like desire,aversion, effort, pleasure, pain and knowledge.’37 According toV¡tsy¡yana, the commentator on Ny¡yas£tra, ‘mithy¡jμ¡na consistsin mistaking the non-self for the self. It is a false belief——Thenthe self cannot think that it is immortal in its own right and becauseof its identification with the mortal body is perpetually tormented


by the fear of death——and this means the perpetuation of theworldly career.’38

Ny¡yas£tra presents a five-fold chain of causal conditionsleading to bondage. The chain begins with mithy¡jμ¡na (Avidy¡),which is a necessary condition for doÀa (faults), which are in turnproductive of prav¤tti (activity), which results in janma (rebirth)which is the cause of duÅkha (suffering). This is reminiscent ofthe twelve-fold chain of Buddhism i.e., ‘prat¢tyasamutp¡da’ whichleads from Avidy¡ to rebirth and misery. In both these systemsthe whole thing is similar to a wheel which is called ‘bhavacakra’or ‘sams¡racakra’.

Avidy¡ or mithy¡jμ¡na is not equivalent to negation ofknowledge but false knowledge. It is delusion regarding the truenature of the reals such as the self, the body etc; that is responsiblefor our bondage. So it is the correct knowledge of these ‘reals’and the correct appraisement of their values which will put anend to our ignorance and the consequential emotional andvolitional perversions.

Ny¡yas£tra describes systematically the process of the cessationof the worldly life and the attainment of Apavarga.39 With thecessation of Avidy¡ (mithy¡jμ¡na), ‘defects’ i.e., the evildispositions cease. With the cessation of defects, merits anddemerits cease. With the cessation of merits and demerits, birthand death cease. And finally with the cessation of birth and death,misery and suffering cease. This absolute cessation of miseryand suffering is called ‘Apavarga’ or final emancipation.40 It ispossible by the practice of a particular kind of meditation andconcentration (Sam¡dhi).41 The soul has to exert itself for therealization of truth. The mind is to be forcibly removed from thesense-organs and kept in conjunction with the soul with ardentdesire to know the Truth.42 When the truth is thus known andrealized, the soul gets rid of Avidy¡ or delusion.


Vai¿eÀikadar¿anaVai¿eÀika system recognizes two kinds of cognition viz., Vidy¡

(true cognition) and Avidy¡ (false cognition).43 It says that Avidy¡is due to the defects of sense-organs and the perverted influenceof the memory impressions.44 Avidy¡ is classified into four, viz.,doubt, error, uncertainty and dream. Under error, Pra¿astap¡daincludes the typical false beliefs such as believing in what isimpermanent as permanent, what is non-self as self.45 He refersto Avidy¡ by the term viparyaya which is recognized to be of twokinds viz., perceptual and inferential.46 Pra¿astap¡da definesviparyaya (Avidy¡) as wrong cognition of the form. It is ‘A’ withregard to what is other than ‘A’ and enumerates the following asthe conditions of such erroneous cognition: (1) blurred vision oftwo objects possessed of many well-known distinctive featuresby one whose sense organs are overpowered by the bodily humoursin disorder, (2) conjunction of soul and mind accompanied withthe awakened memory-impression produced by the past cognitionof an object not present at the time, and (3) religious demerit.47

The miscomprehension of body, sense organs and mind as theself is Avidy¡ or viparyaya. This conception is identical with theconception of Ny¡ya School.

The final cause of entanglement in the cycle of being is Avidy¡or Ignorance. On it depends the passions, desire and hate. Whensomeone is lured by them he/she gains merit and guilt. The meritand guilt lead to new rebirths in a beginningless cycle of being.A deliverance out of it is possible only through true knowledgeabout the six categories born of dharma by which the Avidy¡ gotvanished.48 Ka¸¡da states: ‘absence of conjunction of the soulwith the body, and the non-origination of new body on theexhaustion of ad¤À¶a is MokÀa’.49 Ka¸¡da refers to thetranscendental knowledge born of concentration (Sam¡dhi).50


MokÀa is absolute and eternal quiescence when one comes to restand calmness like the fire, the fuel of which is consumed.

Thus Avidy¡ in the Vai¿eÀika School stands for a more generalconcept. It is not merely an absence of knowledge. It includesnot only wrong convictions, errors and delusions, but also doubtfulattitudes, uncertainties and dream states.

P£rvam¢m¡ms¡dar¿anaIn the P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ system though there is no concept of

Avidy¡ as in other systems, there is MokÀa or Salvation. In thestate of MokÀa the self remains devoid of any of its characteristicqualities such as pleasure, pain, knowledge, etc. According toM¢m¡msaka the self is not knowledge nor is it bliss or ¡nanda asVed¡nta supposes, but these are generated in it by its energy andthe operation of the senses. Thus at the state of MokÀa self remainsas a mere potency of the energy of knowledge, a mere existence.51

MokÀa is achieved when a man exhausts the fruits of actions byenjoying them and stops the further generations of new effects byrefraining from the performance of k¡myakarmas and byassiduously performing the nityakarmas. This state ischaracterized by the dissolution of the body and the freedom fromrebirth.

Uttaram¢m¡ms¡dar¿anaAn indepth perusal of the UpaniÀadic lore clearly reveals

that the concepts of ‘Vidy¡’ and ‘Avidy¡’ were already presentthere even though we do not find a full-fledged doctrine based onthese concepts. The word ‘M¡y¡’ is more familiar in the Vedicliterature than the word ‘Avidy¡’. Conceptually, as depicted inthe Vedas and UpaniÀads, there is no difference between ‘M¡y¡’and ‘Avidy¡’. Though the idea of ‘Avidy¡’ is evident in the contentof Brahmas£tra, B¡dar¡ya¸a did not use the word Avidy¡ even at a


single place in the whole text of Brahmas£tra and even the wordM¡y¡ is used only at one place.52

AdvaitaGau·ap¡da, the grand teacher of áa´kar¡c¡rya, in the

Ëgama¿¡stra, developed the concepts of ‘Vidy¡’ and ‘Avidy¡’ andlater áa´kara and his direct disciples like Padmap¡da and Sure¿varaunfolded their implications and made a consistent theory on them.Gau·ap¡da prefers the word M¡y¡ to Avidy¡. He introduces M¡y¡in order to explain appearance and utilizes the Buddhist critiqueto explain his theory. The world appears through M¡y¡, and onesticks to the world due to the predilection (abhinivesa). Accordingto Nathmal Tatia, the M¡y¡ and ‘Abhinive¿a of Gau·ap¡da standin the same relation as the M¡y¡ and Avidy¡ of the UpaniÀads.53

M¡y¡ is the principle of cosmic illusion and Avidy¡ is rather itsproduct responsible for the creation of different subjects.

According to áa´kara, M¡y¡ is the cosmic force belonging tothe Lord. It is ‘N¡ma’ and ‘R£pa’. It is the appearance of the greatËtman. M¡y¡ is the appearance of Reality. M¡y¡ and Avidy¡ aresynonymous.54 The relation of Avidy¡ and M¡y¡ is a vexedproblem in later Advaita Ved¡nta. áa´kara does never attempt todraw a line of distinction between Avidy¡ and M¡ya. But it seemsthat he postulates M¡y¡ mainly for explaining the origination ofthe world appearance and Avidy¡ for explaining the attachmentof the individual to that appearance. Then we can say that M¡y¡and Avidy¡ are complements each of the other.

Vidy¡ is the knowledge of the Absolute Brahman. It is notbipolar like our empirical cognitions. It is pure consciousnesswithout subject-object determination (akalpakam). It is identicalwith the Absolute—its object. The realization of the Absolute iseffected by eternal unborn consciousness and thus the unborn is


said to be known by the unborn.55In this state of MokÀa the mindmerges in the Absolute with its separate identity dissolved.56

MokÀa is the intrinsic nature of the Ëtman. It is eternal. It ishidden by Avidy¡. When Avidy¡ is removed by Vidy¡, Ëtman isrealized.57

Vi¿iÀ¶¡dvaitaIn the Vi¿iÀ¶¡dvaita system Avidy¡ is false identification of the

self with the body.58 R¡m¡nuja recognizes Avidy¡ in the J¢vas,which veils their essential nature. But he does not admit Avidy¡which projects the plurality of world-appearance. The J¢va’s birthis due to Avidy¡ . Avidy¡ obscures the essential nature of the selfand its affinity with God. Knowledge and bliss constitute theessence of the J¢vas. When Avidy¡ is destroyed by meditation onGod the J¢vas are divested of the differences and experience theiressential nature and bliss.59 They have similarity (s¡mya) withGod in their liberated state. Prior to the state of Mukti, J¢va’sknowledge was restricted. In the state of Mukti, J¢va becomestotally free from the shackles of Karma and as such its jμ¡namanifests itself in its fullness.60

DvaitaIn the Dvaita system of Madhv¡c¡rya, Avidy¡ is a negative

substance (dravya). By God’s will it veils the natural intelligenceof all J¢vas.61 But there is not one common Avidy¡ which appearsin different individuals. The Avidy¡ of one individual is altogetherdifferent from the Avidy¡ of another individual. There is nouniversal Avidy¡ as it found in most of the other Indian systemsbut each person has a specific (pr¡t¢svik¢) Avidy¡ of his own.Madhva states that the realization of one’s self as ‘paratantra’brings Mukti to the self. Mukti is the complete harmony with the‘creative will’. It is the living in Brahman. According to Nimb¡rka,


Avidy¡ is the ignorance of one’s true nature and relationship withGod which is the cause of Karma and his association with thebody, senses and the subtle matter. MokÀa is participation in God’snature (tadbh¡v¡patti).

áaivadar¿anaIn dualistic áaiva School the innate nature of every soul is

similar to that of áiva. But it lies obscured. The ultimate cause ofthe obscuration is Avidy¡. It is a positive entity called ‘mala’ andits essential function is to reduce the inherent powers of the soulto their minimum. It is known as ‘p¡¿a’ and lies mixed with thesoul like the husk to seed.62 It can be removed only by the graceof áiva.

In the monistic áaiva school the Absolute Parama¿iva by itstwo-fold functions of self-concealment (sva-gopana) and self-limitation (sva-samkoca) conceals its own nature and manifestsitself in the subjective and objective forms. Thus the self becomesoblivious of its true nature. The oblivion of true nature of self as‘Consciousness-cum-Freedom’ is called ‘¡¸ava-mala’.63 ThisAvidy¡ is called spiritual ignorance (pauruÀa-ajμ¡na). There isanother type of Avidy¡ called intellectual ignorance (bauddha-ajμ¡na), which originates after the soul has been involved inmundane existence. The removal of spiritual ignorance leads theself to emancipation. In this system Vidy¡ is the spiritual processsuch as ‘d¢kÀa’ and the like which leads to the removal of spiritualignorance.

Conclusion

It is the supreme prerogative of the individual soul, that it isnot satisfied permanently with anything short of a state of existencefree from all taints of suffering and pain. It is this divine discontentwith the relative values that augurs for the realization of perfection.This perfection, free from the shackles of Avidy¡, is the final


salvation of the soul. It is realized when the soul entirelyovercomes and transcends mithy¡jμ¡na or Avidy¡.

Avidy¡ generally means Ignorance or wrong cognition of truth.Thus its meaning would naturally change along with the changein the conception of the nature of truth. For example in Ved¡ntawhat is real and permanent is Ëtman, and everything else is Avidy¡while according to Buddhism to consider Ëtman as permanentreality is Avidy¡. It, therefore, follows that the meaning of Avidy¡cannot remain constant, but there is a common thread runningthrough all these conceptions which makes them Avidy¡ in thecore i.e., ‘the appearance of one thing as something else’.

Vidy¡ presupposes unity or oneness of thought and being, aunity that transcends the differentiation of subject and object.Ultimately Vidy¡ is revealed in man’s very existence. The integralknowledge of the common foundation of all existence. It isunveiled rather than acquired. In lower level Vidy¡ is discursiveknowledge, in higher level it is supra-intellectual IntegralExperience which is beyond the grasp of logic and epistemological

method.

Notes and References1. ºÉ¨ªÉMnù¶ÉÇxÉYÉÉxÉSÉÊ®úiÉÉÊxÉ ¨ÉÉäIÉ¨ÉÉMÉÇ <iªÉÉtºÉÚjÉºÉÉ¨ÉlªÉÉÇiÉÂ Ê¨ÉlªÉÉnù¶ÉÇxÉYÉÉxÉSÉÊ®úiÉÉÊxÉ

ºÉÆºÉÉ®ú ÉÉMÉÇ <ÊiÉ ÊºÉräù&*Tattv°rthaølokav°rttika of Vidyanandisv¡min,Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1918, p. 72.

2. ºÉ¨ªÉMnù¶ÉÇxÉYÉÉxÉSÉÊ®úiÉÉÊxÉ ÉÉäIÉ¨ÉÉMÉÇ&*Tattv¡rth¡dhigama S£tra of Um¡sv¡tiI.1. (Pub) Jivachand Sakerchand Javeri, 1929.

3. Samyukta Nik¡ya, XX.1.4. i…j… ®…Ω…®…i…‰! ®……i…… EÚi…®…… ∫…i¥……x……Δ ™…n¬ =i… i…fiπh…… {……Ëx…¶……« ¥…EÚ“ +x…… nÆ˙…M…∫…ΩM…i……

®……i…fii¥…‰x……‰ k…π i…‰ + ¥…t… {…i…fii¥…‰x……™…i…x…O……®…∫™……‰i{…k…™…‰ * La´k¡vat¡ra S£tra(LS), (Ed.) Bunjiu Nanjio, Kyoto, 1923, p. 138.

5. n÷˘¥…‰ ∫…SS…… x… +CEÚ… ∫… ∫…®£…÷r˘…‰ ¥…n˘i……Δ ¥…Æ˙…‰* ∫…®®…÷Ài… {…Æ˙®…k…Δ S… i…i…“™…Δx… ⁄ {…±…¶¶… i…**Quoted by BuddhaghoÀa in A∂∂akath° onKath°vattu, p. 30.


6. ∫…Δ μ…™…i… +… μ…™…i…‰ ™…l……¶…⁄i…{… Æ˙Y……x…Δ ∫¥…¶……¥……¥…Æ˙h……n…¥…fii…|…EÚ…∂…x……SS……x…™…‰ i… ∫…Δ¥…fi i…&+ ¥…t… ®……‰Ω…‰ ¥…{…™……«∫… < i… {…™……«™…&*Bodhicary°vat°ra Paμjik° (BCAP),(ed.) Poussin, Bibliotheca Indica, p. 352.

7. ÊSÉkÉ¨ÉÉjÉÆ xÉ où¶ªÉÉä%ÎºiÉ ÊuùvÉÉ ÊSÉkÉÆ Ê½þ où¶ªÉiÉä*OÉÉÁOÉÉ½þEò¦ÉÉ´ÉäxÉ ¶ÉÉ·ÉiÉÉäSUäônù ÉÌVÉiÉ¨ÉÂ** LS., III.65.

8. £……¡…‰ x… ¥…ti…‰ ¡l……Ê ™…l…… £……±…ËÃ¥…EÚ±{™…i…‰*´ÉÉºÉxÉè±ÉÖÇÊb÷iÉÆ ÊSÉkÉÆ +lÉÉÇ¦ÉÉºÉÆ |É´ÉiÉÇiÉä**Ibid, X. 154.

9. ¨ÉÉªÉÉ½þÎºiÉ ªÉlÉÉ ÊSÉjÉÆ {ÉjÉÉÊhÉ EòxÉEòÉ ªÉlÉÉ*iÉlÉÉ où¶ªÉÆ xÉÞhÉÉÆ JªÉÉÊiÉ ÊSÉkÉä +YÉÉxÉ´ÉÉÊºÉiÉä**Ibid, X.126

10.+¦ÉÚiÉ¨ÉÎº¨ÉxÉÂ uùªÉÆ {ÉÊ®úEò±{ªÉiÉä%xÉäxÉ ´ÉäiªÉ¦ÉÚiÉ{ÉÊ®úEò±{É&* Madhy°nta Vibh°gaS£tra Bh°¿ya Ÿ¢k°, (ed.) V. Bhattacarya and G. Tucci, 1932,p. 12.

11. +xÉÉÊnùEòÉÊ±ÉEòÉ ÊxÉ´ÉÉÇhÉ{ÉªÉÇ´ÉºÉÉxÉÉ ºÉÆºÉÉ®úÉxÉÖ°ü{ÉÊSÉkÉSÉèiÉÊºÉEòÉ ÊxÉÌ´É¶Éä¹ÉähÉÉxÉÖ¦ÉÚiÉ{ÉÊ®úEò±{É&* Ê´É¶Éä¹ÉºiÉÖ OÉÉÁOÉÉ½þEòÊ´ÉEò±{É&* Madhy°nta Vibh°ga S£tra Bh°¿yaŸ¢k°, p. 12.

12. YÉäªÉÆ SÉÉ´ÉÞÊiÉ®úÉ´É®úhÉ¨ÉÂ ..... YÉäªÉ¨ÉÂ B´É ºÉ¨ÉÉ®úÉäÊ{ÉiÉ°ü{Éi´ÉÉiÉÂ +É´ÉÞÊiÉ&* BCAP., p.447.

13.YÉäªÉÉ´É®úhÉ¨ÉÊ{É ºÉ´ÉÇÎº¨ÉxÉÂ YÉäªÉä YÉÉxÉ|ÉÊiÉ£ÉxvÉ¦ÉÚiÉ¨ÉÂ +ÎC±É¹]õ ÉÂ +YÉÉxÉ¨ÉÂ*Trimøik°of Vasubandhu, (ed.) Silvain Levi in the Vijμaptim°trat°siddhi,Paris, 1925, p. 15.

14.YÉäªÉÉ´É®úhÉÆ {ÉÖxÉ¨ÉÇ½þÉþ¨ÉiÉä vÉ¨ÉÇxÉè®úÉi¨ªÉnù¶ÉÇxÉÊ´É¶Éä¹ÉÉÊuù¶ÉÖnÂùvªÉiÉä, C±Éä¶ÉÉ´É®úhÉÆ iÉÖ{ÉÖnÂùMÉ±ÉxÉè®úÉi¨ªÉnù¶ÉÇxÉÉ¦ªÉÉºÉ{ÉÚ ÉÇEÆò |É½þÒªÉiÉä*La¥k°vat°ra paμjik°, 241.

15.|ÉEÞòÊiÉ|É¦ÉÉº´É®Æú ÊSÉkÉ¨ÉÂ* LS., X. 750.16. S°¥khyapravacanas£trav£tti (SPSV) I.19, Garbe, Richard

(Trans.) J.W. Thomas, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1888.17. SPSV., I.57-58.18. +lÉ ÊjÉÊ´ÉvÉnÖù&JÉÉiªÉxiÉÊxÉ´ÉÞÊkÉ®úiªÉxiÉ{ÉÖ û¹ÉÉlÉÇ&*

S°¥khyapravacanas£tra I.1, Nandalal Sinha (trans.), SBH., vol.II, Allahabad, 1912.

19. vÉ¨ÉæhÉ MÉ¨ÉxÉ¨ÉÚv´ÉÈ MÉ¨ÉxÉ¨ÉvÉºiÉÉnÂù¦É´ÉiªÉvÉ¨ÉæhÉ*YÉÉxÉäxÉ SÉÉ{É´ÉMÉÉê, Ê´É{ÉªÉÇªÉÉÊnù¹ªÉiÉä £ÉxvÉ&** S°¥khyatattvakaumud¢, K°rik°44, (ed.) Ramesh Chandra, Calcutta Sanskrit Series, No. 25,Calcutta, 1935.

20. ÊEò¨ÉÖHòªÉÉ {ÉÖ û¹ÉºÉÉIÉÉiEòÉ®ú½äþiÉÉä& |ÉvÉÉxÉºªÉ iÉi{ÉÖ û¹ÉÉlÉÈ {ÉÖxÉºÉÞÎ¹]õxÉÇ ¦É´ÉÊiÉ, EÞòiÉÉlÉÇi´ÉÉiÉÂ±ÉÉäEò´ÉiÉÂ* S°¥khya Pravacana Bh°¿ya, VI. 43.

21. S°¥khya S£tra V£tti, II.1.


22.+Ê´ÉtÉ%Îº¨ÉiÉÉ ®úÉMÉuäù¹ÉÉÊ¦ÉÊxÉ´Éä¶ÉÉ C±Éä¶ÉÉ <ÊiÉ BiÉ B´É º´ÉºÉÆYÉÉÊ¦É& iÉ¨ÉÉä ¨ÉÉä½þÉä¨É½þÉ¨ÉÉä½þºiÉÉÊ¨É»ÉÉä%xvÉiÉÉÊ¨É»É <ÊiÉ .... Yogas£tra Bh°¿ya of Vy°sa (YSB),I.8. (ed.) Bangali Baba, MLBD., Delhi , 1990.

23.i…®……‰®……‰Ω˛…‰ ®…Ω˛…®……‰Ω˛∫i…… ®…ª……‰ ¡xv…∫…ΔY…EÚ&*+ ¥…t… {…\S…{…¥…Íπ…… |……n÷¶…⁄«i…… ®…Ω˛…i®…x…&** Yogas£traV°rtika (YSV), (Ed.)T.S.Rukmani, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,New Delhi, I.8. ∫…‰™…®…¬ + ¥…t… {…\S…{…¥……«* Yuktid¢pik°, PandeyaRamachandra, (ed.) MLBD., Delhi, 1967, p. 154.

24. B¥…Δ i…k¥……¶™……∫……z……Œ∫®…z…®…‰ x……Ω˛ ®…i™…{… Æ˙∂…‰π…®…¬*+ ¥…{…™…«™…… u˘∂…÷rΔ E‰Ú¥…±…®…÷i{…ti…‰ Y……x…®…¬**|……{i…‰ ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙¶…‰n‰ S… Æ˙i……l…«i¥……i…¬ |…v……x… ¥… x…¥…fik……Ë*B‰EÚ…Œxi…EÚ®……i™…Œxi…EÚ®…÷¶…™…Δ EËÚ¥…±™…®……{x……‰ i…**S°¥khya K°rik°, 64, 68.

25. Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, P. V. ResearchInstitute, Varanasi-5, 1951, p. 95.

26.+œ∫®…∂S… n ˘∂… « x … ‰ ∫… … ΔJ™… …x … … ® …¥… … ¥ …¥… ‰EÚ … ‰ x … + ¥…t…∂…£n ˘ …l … « & EÚxi… ÷¥…Ë∂…‰ π…EÚ… n˘¥… u˘ ∂…π]ıY……x…®…‰¥…‰ i… ∫…⁄j…¶……π™……¶™……Δ +¥…M…xi…¥™…®…¬*V°rttika on YSV.,II.5.

27.M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 294.28.∫¥…∫¥…… ®…∂…Ci™……‰& ∫¥…∞¸{……‰{…±…Œ£v…Ω‰i…÷& ∫…Δ™……‰M…&*Yogas£tra, II.23, (ed.) Pandit

Dhundhiraj ·°stri, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi,2001.

29.i…∫™… Ω‰i…÷Æ˙ ¥…t…*Yogas£tra (YS), II.24.30.+ x…i™……∂…÷ S…n÷&J……x……i®…∫…÷ x…i™…∂…÷ S…∫…÷J……i®…J™…… i…Æ˙ ¥…t…*YS., II.5.31.+ ¥…t… x… |…®……h…Δ x… |…®……h……¶……¥…& EÚxi…÷ ¥…t… ¥…{…Æ˙“i…Δ Y……x……xi…Æ˙®…+ ¥…t‰ i…*SB.,II.6.32. ¥…{…™…«™…Y……x…¥……∫…x……*Ibid, II.24.33.+¶™……∫…¥…ËÆ˙…M™……¶™……Δ i… z…Æ˙…‰v…&* YS., I.12, ¥…¥…‰EÚJ™…… i…Æ˙ ¥…{±…¥…… Ω˛…x……‰{……™…&*Ibid,

II.26.34.i…n˘¶……¥……i∫…Δ™……‰M……¶……¥……‰ Ω˛…x…Δ i…qfi∂…‰& EËÚ¥…±™…®…¬*Ibid, II.25.35.{…÷Ø˚π……l…«∂…⁄x™……x……Δ M…÷h……x……Δ |… i…|…∫…¥…& EËÚ¥…±™…®…¬,∫¥…∞¸{…|… i…π`ˆ… ¥…… S… i…∂…H‰Ú& < i…* Ibid,

IV.34.36.BEÚÀ¥…∂… i… |…¶…‰n˘ ¶…z…Δ {…÷x…n÷«&J…Δ ∂…Æ˙“ÆΔ, π… b˜Œxp˘™…… h…, π…Œb¬¥…π…™……&, π…b¬£…÷r˘™…&, ∫…÷J…Δ n÷&J…Δ

S…‰ i…*Udyotakara on Ny°yas£tra I.1.1, (ed.) ·r¢ N°r°ya∏a Miøra,Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, 1990.

37. <SUÙ…u‰π…|…™…ix…∫…÷J…n÷&J…Y……x……x™……i®…x……‰ ±…R¬ÛM…®…¬* Ny°yas£tra (NS) I.1.10.38. ÀEÚ {…÷x…∫i…Œx®…l™……Y……x…®…¬? +x……i®… x… +…i®…O…Ω˛&, +Ω˛®…∫®…“ i… ®……‰Ω˛…‰%Ω˛R¬ÛEÚ…Æ˙ < i…*

+x……i®……x…Δ J…±¥…Ω˛®…∫®…“ i… {…∂™…i……‰ o˘Œπ]ıÆ˙Ω˛R¬ÛEÚ…Æ˙ < i…* ÀEÚ {…÷x…∫i…n˘l…«V……i…Δ™… u˘π…™……‰%Ω˛R¬ÛEÚ…Æ˙&? ∂…Æ˙“Æ‰ Œxp˘™…®…x……‰¥…‰n˘x……£…÷r˘™…&* EÚl…Δ i… u˘π…™……‰%Ω˛R¬ÛEÚ…Æ˙& ∫…Δ∫……Æ˙£…“V…Δ¶…¥… i…? +™…Δ J…±…÷ ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙…tl…«V……i…®…Ω˛®…∫®…“ i… ¥™…¥… ∫…i…∫i…n÷˘SU‰Ùn‰˘x……i®……‰SU‰ÙnΔ˘


®…x™…®……x……‰%x…÷SU‰Ùn˘i…fiπh…… {… Æ˙{±…÷i…& {…÷x…{…÷x…∫i…n÷{……n˘k…‰, i…n÷{……n˘…x……‰ V…x®…®…Æ˙h……™… ™…i…i…‰*i…‰x…… ¥…™……‰M……i…¬ x… +i™…xi…n÷&J……i…¬ ¥…®…÷S™…i… < i…* NS., Introductory Bh°¿ya,IV.2.1, (ed.) ·r¢ N°r°ya∏a Miøra, Chaukhambha SanskritSansthan, Varanasi, 1990, pp. 543-544.

39. n÷&J…V…x®…|…¥…fi k…n˘…‰π… ®…l™……Y……x……x……®…÷k…Æ˙…‰k…Æ˙…{……™…‰ i…n˘x…xi…Æ˙…{……™……n˘{…¥…M…«&*NS., I.1.2.40. i…n˘i™…xi… ¥…®……‰I……‰%{…¥…M…«&* Ibid, I.1.22.41. ∫…®…… v… ¥…∂…‰π……¶™……∫……i…¬*Ibid, IV.2.38.42. ∫… i…÷ |…i™……æ˛i…∫™…‰Œxp˘™… ‰¶™…… ‰ ®…x…∫…… ‰ v……Æ˙E‰Úh… |…™…ix… ‰x… v……™… «®……h…∫™……i®…x……

∫…Δ™……‰M…∫i…k¥…£…÷¶…÷i∫…… ¥… ∂…π]ı&*V°tsy°yana Bh°¿ya on Ny°yas£tra IV.2.38,(ed.) ·r¢ N°r°ya∏a Miøra, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan,Varanasi, 1990, p. 583.

43. i…qŸ˘π]ıY……x…®…¬* Vaiøe¿ika S£tra (VS), IX.ii.11, +n÷˘π]Δı ¥…t…* VS.,IX.ii.12.

44. <Œxp˘™…n˘…‰π……i…¬ ∫…Δ∫EÚ…Æ˙n˘…‰π……SS…… ¥…t…*Ibid, IX.ii.10.45. Pad°rthadharmasa¥graha, Included in Udayana’s K°rik°val¢

(ed. J.S.Jetly, Gaekward Oriental Series, Baroda, 1971.), pp.171-182.

46. ¥…{…™…«™……‰% {… |…i™…I……x…÷®……x… ¥…π…™… B¥… ¶…¥… i…*Praøastap°da Bh°¿ya onVaiøe¿ika S£tra, (ed.) Pa∏∑ita ·r¢ Durgadhara Jha,Samp£r∏°nandSanskritUniversity, Varanasi, 1997, p. 423.

47. |… ∫…r˘…x…‰EÚ ¥…∂…‰π…™……‰& {…k…EÚ°Ú… x…±……‰{…Ω˛i…‰Œxp˘™…∫™… +™…l……l……«±……‰S…x……n∫… z… Ω˛i… ¥…π…™…Y……x…V…∫…Δ∫EÚ…Æ˙…{…‰I……n˘…i®…®…x…∫……‰& ∫…Δ™……‰M……i…¬ +v…®……«SS… +i…œ∫®…∫i… n˘ i… |…i™…™…… ¥…{…™…«™…&*™…l…… M…¥™…‰¥……∑… < i…*Pa∏∑ita ·r¢ Durgadhara Jha, op. cit. pp. 423-426.

48. v…®…« ¥…∂…‰π…|…∫…⁄i……n¬˘p˘¥™…M…÷h…EÚ®…«∫……®……x™… ¥…∂…‰π…∫…®…¥……™……x……Δ {…n˘…l……«x……Δ ∫……v…®™…«¥…Ëv…®™……«¶™……Δi…k¥…Y……x…… z…&∏…‰™…∫…®…¬*VS., I.1.4.

49. i…n˘¶……¥…‰ ∫…Δ™……‰M……¶……¥……‰%|……n÷¶……«¥…∂S… ®……‰I…&*Ibid, V.ii.18.50. Ibid, IX.i.11-15.51. Nathmal Tatia, op cit., p. 113.52.®……™……®……j…Δ i…÷ EÚ…i∫x™…Êx……x… ¶…¥™…HÚ∫¥…∞¸{…i¥……i…¬* Brahmas£tra, III.2.3.53.Natmal Tatia, op. cit., op. cit., p. 121.54.∫…¥…«Y…∫™…‰∑…Æ˙∫™……i®…¶…⁄i… <¥…… ¥…t…EÚŒ±{…i…‰ x……®…∞¸{…‰ i…k¥……x™…i¥……¶™……®… x…¥…«S…x…“™…‰

∫…Δ∫……Æ˙|…{…\S…£…“V…¶…⁄i…‰ ∫…¥…«Y…∫™…‰∑…Æ˙∫™… ®……™……∂… HÚ& |…EfiÚ i… Æ˙ i… S… ∏…÷ i…∫®…fii™……‰Æ˙ ¶…±…{™…‰i…‰*Brahma S£tra ·°¥kara Bh°¿ya., II.1.14.

55.+EÚ±{…EÚ®…V…Δ Y……x…Δ Y…‰™…… ¶…z…Δ |…S…I…i…‰*•…¿Y…‰™…®…V…Δ x…i™…®…V…‰x……V…Δ ¥…£…÷n¬v™…i…‰** Gau∑ap°dak°rik° (GK), III.33.

56. ∫…¥……« ¶…±……{… ¥…M…i…& ∫…¥…« S…xi…… ∫…®…÷Œil…i…&*∫…÷|…∂……xi…& ∫…EfiÚVV™……‰ i…& ∫…®…… v…Æ˙S…±……‰%¶…™…&** GK., III.34-35.


57.+ ¥…t…|… i…£…xv…®……j……‰ Ω˛ ®……‰I……‰ x……x™…|… i…£…xv…&, x…i™…i¥……i…¬ +…i®…¶…⁄i…i¥……SS…*·°¥karaBh°¿ya, Mu., III.2.9.

58. V°tsya Varada, Tattvas°ra, pp. 38-39.

59. ·r¢niv°s°c°rya, Yat¢ndramatad¢pik°, (ed.) SwamiÀdidevananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1978, p. 7.

60. S.M.Srinivasachari, Fundamentals of Viøi¿∂°dvaita Ved°nta,MLBD., Delhi, 1998, p. 73.

61. +i…& {…Æ˙®…‰∑…Æ˙ B¥… ∫…k¥…… n˘M…÷h…®…™… ¥…t… ¥…Æ˙…‰ v…i¥…‰x… + ¥…t™…… ∫¥……v…“x…™…… |…EfiÚi™…… S…xi™……n¬¶…÷i…™……∫¥…∂…Ci™…… V…“¥…∫™… ∫¥…|…EÚ…∂…®… {… ∫¥…∞¸{…S…Ëi…x™…®…{™……SUÙ…n˘™… i…*Jayat¢rtha, Ny°yasudh°commentary on A∏ubh°¿ya, N.S. Press, Bombay, 1895, p. 64.

62. BEÚ…‰¡x…‰EÚ∂… HÚo«ŒCGÚ™…™……‰∂SUÙ…n˘EÚ…‰ ®…±……‰ {…÷Δ∫……®…¬*

i…÷π…EÚ®£…÷EÚ¥…VY…‰™…k……©…… ∏…i… EÚ… ±…®……¥…u˘…**Tattvaprak°øa of ·r¢ Bhojadeva withcommentary of ·r¢kum°ra, TSS, vol. LXVIII, p. 56.

63. ™…n˘… S…n˘…i®…… {…Æ˙®… ‰∑…Æ˙& ∫¥…∫¥……i…xj™……n˘¶… ‰n˘¥™……Œ{i…®… ¬ +¥…±…®£…i… ‰ i…n˘… i…n˘“™……<SUÙ… n˘∂…HÚ™……‰%∫…R¬ÛE÷Ú S…i…… + {… ∫…R¬ÛEÚ…‰S…¥…i™……‰ ¶……Œxi… i…n˘…x…“®…‰¥… S……%™…Δ ®…±……¥…fii…& ∫…Δ∫……Æ˙“¶…¥… i…* i…l…… +|… i…Ω˛i…∫¥……i…xj™…∞¸{…… <SUÙ…∂… HÚ& +{…⁄h…«®…x™…i……∞¸{…®…¬ +…h…¥…Δ®…±…®…¬*K¿emar°ja, Pratyabhijμ°h£daya, (ed.) Jayadev Singh, MLBD.,Delhi, 1980, p. 21.

The Concept of Aumk°ra in theM°∏d£kyopani¿ad

Dr.S.SobhanaRealization of Truth is the ultimate aim of life. Life in this

material world is full of miseries. In the process of life man mustput up a relentless struggle against the ills of life. He must directhis life for the achievement of eternal happiness through therealization of the ultimate reality. Our philosophers give guidelinesfor this. The Up¡niÀads embody the fundamental principles ofeternal dharma. Sree Sankaracharya, the Advaita exponent, hascommented on the ten principal Up¡niÀads among the 108 knownUp¡niÀads. Sree Sankaracharya’s Paramaguru, Sree Gaudapada,has given bhasya in the form of k¡rik¡, only for theM¡¸d£kyopaniÀad, which has the minimum number of importantAdvaitic Mantras. That itself reveals the importance of thisParticular Up¡niÀad. Moreover the MuktikopaniÀad says“M¡¸d£kyopaniÀad alone is sufficient for the knowledge of Advaita.All these point to the fact that the study and practice of this singleUp¡niÀad itself is enough for man to attain his goal”.

Based on this Up¡niÀad, Sri Gaudap¡da has written 215 k¡rik¡s.Like all other Up¡niÀads, the M¡¸d£kya also tries to determine theconcept of self – knowledge. It asserts that Atman is Brahmanitself. Brahman is nothing but Pra¸ava. Words do not exist withoutmeaning. The basic sound Aumk¡ra includes all other words.Aumk¡ra and Brahman are inseparable. A, U, M are the three m¡tr¡sof Aum. The fourth m¡tr¡ - Am¡tra is the Atman itself. Thesethree m¡tr¡s indicate the waking, dream and deep sleep stageswhich can be considered as the gross, subtle and causal forms ofBrahman. The fourth State Atman, which is beyond all empiricaldoings and which cannot be defined, is called Tur¢ya. The A, U,

120 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr.S.Sobhana

and M m¡tras merge in am¡tra. Thus, Tur¢ya becomes the only realityand all the others are mere illusions. The knowledge that the Atmanis the basis of all knowledge which is calm, blissful and eternal,comes from the vision of truth.

The M¡¸d£kyopaniÀad begins with the mystic sound ‘Aum’,which embodies the sense of all this (the universe). A clearexplanation of this (utterance) is as follows : “All that is past,present and future is verily Aum. That which is beyond the tripledivision of time, is also truly Aum”1 Sri Sankara says that themystic syllable ‘Aum’ comprises all objects and the namesconnoting these objects. In one word, all this is Brahman, of which‘Aum’ is the symbol. ‘Aum’ appears as the absolute, the totality ofreality, the whole universe. ‘Aum’ stands for Sagu¸a Brahman andNirgu¸a Brahman. This reminds us of the famous saying of theCh¡ndogyopaniÀad, “All is Brahman”.2 The ancient Rig.Vedicutterance reminds us: “All this is PuruÀa, what is past and what isfuture”,3 The KathopaniÀad too expresses the same idea : ‘Aum orAkÀara is Para Brahman”4. The pra¿nopaniÀad asserts : ‘Aum is thesupreme (higher) and the lower (manifested) Brahman’.5

According to the Mu¸dakopaniÀad, “All this world is PuruÀa”6. Sothe sacred syllable ‘Aum’ expresses that Atman is Brahman whichis the supreme non – dual reality. This view exhibits the true spiritof Advaita Vedanta. Thus ‘Aum’ is Brahman, which is nothingbut the Atman, and it has four quarters or P¡d¡s.7 Viz., Vi¿va,Taijasa, Pr¡jna and Tur¢ya.

Meditation on ‘Aum’‘Aum’ is the sound which is suggestive of the Brahman-self. It

is inclusive of all sounds, and hence it is the support of the worldof speech (v¡k - Prapaμca). And, of all, this is denoted by sound,the ground (hetu) is Brahman. So, meditation on the sound ‘Aum’is made because it stands for the self or Brahman. Of all thesymbols, the sound ‘Aum’ has come to be regarded as the most

Kira¸¡val¢ 121Aumk¡ra in the M¡¸d£kyopaniÀad

important and fruitful.8 The Ka¶haopaniÀad says, ‘The word (orgoal) which all Vedas state, that which all penances cry out, anddesiring which people lead an ascetic life, that word I tell you inbrief : it is Aum’9. The Mu¸dakopaniÀad compares the Pra¸ava(Aum) to the bow, the individual soul to the arrow, and Brahmanto the ultimatum, and says that the ultimatum is to be unerringlyhit; thus is union with Brahman attained.10 The Pra¿nopaniÀaddescribes the meditation on ‘Aum’ as a means to the realizationof the higher and lower Brahman, i.e., the unconditioned Brahmanand Brahman as conditioned. It is stated there that by means ofAumk¡ra, the jμ¡ni arrives at the Highest reality which is quiescent,and free from decay, death and fear.11

The importance of meditation on ‘Aum’ or Pra¸avadhy¡na, isthus well recognized in the UpaniÀads. Really, theM¡¸d£kyopaniÀad starts by saying that its object is to expound theimportance of Aumkara, and describes the method of combiningthe parts of the sound ‘Aum’ with the aspects of the self, andthereby realizing the non-dual reality. There are four m¡tr¡s(morac) of ‘Aum’ corresponding to the four p¡d¡s of the self. Thefour m¡tr¡s are A,U,M and the fourth, which is really am¡tra isrepresented by the point (bindu) of the anusv¡ra. The principle ofthe meditation on Aum is to equate the m¡tr¡s with the p¡d¡s.12

Sri Gaudapada calls the knowledge or equation of m¡tr¡ssampratipatti (i.e., knowing the m¡tr¡s to be identical with the p¡dasand Aumk¡rasya pada¿o vidy¡t (knowledge of the m¡tr¡s of Aum asthe p¡das of the self).

The first of the m¡tr¡s is ‘A’ and the first of the p¡d¡s is ‘vi¿va’.These two are to be regarded as identical because of the commonquality of being the first (¡di) as well as that of pervading.13 Ofthe sound parts of ‘Aum’ ‘A’ is the first; so also of the aspects ofthe self, ‘vi¿va’ is the first. ‘A’ is pervasive of all speech. The srutisays, ‘The sound ‘A’ is indeed all speech’14 ‘A’ is prominent amongthe words.15 Similarly, vi¿va is pervasive of the universe. In the


case of the second m¡tra, ‘U’, and the second p¡da, Taijasa, thecommon qualities are exaltation (utkarÀa) and intermediateness(ubhayatv¡). The UtkarÀa of ‘U’ is due to its being subsequent to‘A’. Similarly, ‘Taijasa’ is exalted over ‘vi¿va’, because of itssuperior order. ‘U’ is intermediate between ‘A’ and ‘M’, and Taijasabetween vi¿va and pr¡jμa.16 The common features that constitutethe basis for the unification of ‘M’ and prajμa are being the measure(miti or mana) and the locus or mergence.17 (ap¢ti or laya). Insounding ‘Aum’ repeatedly ‘A’ and ‘U’ merge into and emergefrom ‘M’, as it were. Hence ‘M’ is said to be the measure of theother two m¡tras. Pr¡jμa is the measure of vi¿va and Taijasa becausethese two evolve out of it in creation and enter into it in dissolution;the stages of waking and dream get resolved in deep sleep, andfrom deep sleep they emerge again. The second common qualityis ‘laya’ or disappearance, just as ‘A’ and ‘U’ end in ‘M’ visva andtaijasa disappear in pr¡jμa. It will be clear that the letters, A, U andM are employed in this meditation as mnemonics. Each letterstands for the first letter of the words signifying certain feature ofthe self in its manifestations as vi¿va, taijasa and pr¡jμa. The secondquality, of pr¡jμa is the only exception. Thus ‘A’ stands for ¡di and¡pti, ‘U’ for utkarÀa and ubhayat¡; M for miti or m¡n¡.

The fourth m¡tra is really am¡tra. ‘It is the partless ‘Aum’, Tur¢ya– beyond all conventional dealings, the limit of the negation ofthe phenomenal world, the auspicions, and the non – dual. ‘Aum’is thus the self, to be sure.18 This Tur¢ya – self or pureconsciousness, transcends the distinctions involved in the formsof vi¿va and Taijasa, and the seed of plurality implicit in pr¡jμa.

The M¡¸d£kyopaniÀad praises the meditation on the unity ofthe m¡tras and p¡d¡s by specifying the fruit, which each stage inthe meditation yields. The UpaniÀad says, He who knows vai¿v¡nara(vi¿va) as ‘A’, obtains all desires and becomes first among thegreat. He who knows the unity of Taijasa with ‘U’ increases thecurrent of knowledge and becomes equal to all. None is born in


his family who is not a knower of Brahman. He who knows theoneness of Pr¡jμa and ‘M’ measures the whole universe andbecomes the place of its absorption. (i.e., he becomes the selfwhich is the cause of the Universe). He who knows the partlessAumk¡ra in its fullness, as signifying the Tur¢ya, realizes the selfand does not return to empirical life.19

In the Pra¿nopanisad, there is a similar praise of the meditationon the m¡tr¡s of Aum : “If a person meditates on ‘Aum’ as of onem¡tr¡, he enlightened by that, attains the earthy world soon (i.e.,he returns to this world of men; there becoming rich in penance,austerity and faith, he enjoys supremacy. If he meditates on ‘Aum’as of two m¡tr¡s he attains the mind (i.e., gains self possessionthrough concentration); he is led by yajus to the interspace, theworld of moon, after enjoying supernatural powers there, hereturns to this world. But if he meditates on the supreme selfwith the sacred syllable ‘Aum’ with three m¡tr¡s he becomes onewith the light which is the sun. Just as snake casts off its slough,he sheds all sin and is led upward by the s¡ma chants to the worldof Brahman, he sees there the supreme puruÀa living in the heartcity as superior to Hira¸yagarbha.20 The indication of the praise isthat the s¡dhaka should understand the importance of ‘Aum’ andmeditate on it, the deeper the comprehension, the greater will bethe benefit. That is why the meditation on ‘Aum’ as of one, twoand three m¡tr¡s respectively, leads to the world of men, the pathof the manes (pit¼y¡na) and the path of the gods (devay¡na).

Of these three m¡tr¡s of ‘Aum’ mention is made in thepra¿nopaniÀad, the M¡¸d£kyopaniÀad adds a fourth, ‘am¡tra’,signifying the supreme non-dual reality. It is this ‘am¡tra artham¡tra’(half matra) that is described as the crown of the syllable ‘Aum’21.It is this which leads to the final goal.22

Sri. Gau·ap¡da points out what is of real value in the meditationon ‘Aum’. He says that ‘A’ leads to vi¿va, ‘U’ leads to Taijasa, ‘M’


leads to Pr¡jμa, and with regard to one freed from letters, thereremains no attainment.23 Anandagiri explains this statement thus: He who meditates on ‘Aum’ as being predominantly of theform of ‘A’, attains vi¿va -vai¿v¡nara. He who meditates on ‘Aum’as being predominantly of the form ‘U’ attains Taijasa , theHira¸yagarbha. And he who meditates on ‘Aum’ as beingpredominantly of the form ‘M’ attains Pr¡jμa-avyakta. The grossuniverse, waking state and vi¿va – these three are ‘A’, the subtleuniverse, dream state and Taijasa these three are ‘U’, the cause ofthe two worlds, deep sleep and pr¡jμa – these three are ‘M’. Herealso, each earlier factor attains the nature of that which succeedsit. The purpose of this meditation is to lead the aspirant from thegrosser to the subtler, till that stage is reached where all duality isremoved and the journey comes to an end. In the Tur¢ya self,there is not the distinction of attained, object to be attained, andattainment. So Sri. Gaudapaada by that there is no movement orprocess in the am¡tra.24

Up¡sana or meditation is defined thus by Sri. Sankara. Theprocess of taking hold of some stay or ¡laimbana established assuch in the ¿¡stra and directing a continuous flow of even psychosistowards it, without the intervention of any other cognition contraryto it, is Up¡sana.25 There must be some point of attention forconcentration. This is the ¡lambana. It is of service in steadyingthe thought current and making if flow in one direction. Theimages (prat¢k¡s) are useful in this way. The diverging tendencyof the mind is restrained and it becomes unwavering and onepointed like the flame of the lamp kept in a still place.26 Theimages which are miscalled idols have a place in spiritualdiscipline because they help to turn the mind of the aspirantGodward.

That Aumk¡ra or Pra¸ava has the pride of place among the self– symbols of the invisible spirit, has already been stated. Its


importance and the method of meditation there on have also beenexplained. Sri. Gau·ap¡da concludes his exposition of Pra¸ava bypraising it and those who practice it. ‘One should concentrateone’s mind on ‘Aum’ or Pra¸ava, for ‘Aum’ is Brahman beyondfear. For a man ever fixed in Brahman, there can be no fearanywhere. Pra¸ava or Aum is the inferior Brahman, it is thesuperior as well. It is without cause, without inside and outside,and without effect, and it is undecaying. It is the beginning, middleand end of everything. Having known ‘Aum’ in this way, indeed,one attains the self. ‘Aum’ is to be known as the God present inthe hearts of all. Having understood the all – pervading ‘Aum’,the intelligent man does not grieve. Aumk¡ra is without measuresand possessed of infinite dimension (am¡tra and anantam¡tra); itis that in which all duality ceases, it is Bliss. He who knows itthus is a real sage, and no other.27 So one who tries to know thisNon-dual Reality should have infinite self control andperseverance.

ConclusionThe knowledge and practice of Aumk¡ra dhy¡na is very essential

to all for eternal happiness and peace. One who tries to know thisTuriya – Reality should have infinite self control andperseverance. Fearlessness is the main aim of Pra¸avadhy¡na. Itis a remedy for different ailments like diabetics, blood – pressure,asthma, mental tension etc., especially for the youngsters of themodern age who seek material pleasures from different sourcesbut, infact, are deprived of the spiritual values that give meaningto their disoriented lives. Pra¸avadhy¡na can be the only way toredeem man from this dis-orientation as well as lack of spirituality,and provide mental tranquility.

Notes And References1. Omityetadak¿aramidam sarvamtasyopavyakhy°nam bh£tambhavad

bhavi¿yaditi sarvam omk°ra eva. Yacch°nyatrik°l°t¢tam tadapyomk°raeva. M°∏d£kyopani¿ad (M.U).I.


2. Sarvamkhalvidam Brahma. I. 3.14.1.3. Puru¿aivedam Sarvam, yadbh£tam yaccha bhavyam 10 90 - 3.4. Etadhyev°ksaram Brahma, etadhyev°k¿aramparam. II. 16.5. Paramc°param ca Brahmayadomk°ra - V - 26. Puru¿aivedam v svam. I. I. 107. Sarvam hyetad Brahma, ayam°tm° brahma, Soyam°tm° catu¿p°t, M.U. II.8. SB on pra. Up, v.2.9. SarvÆved°yatpadam°manti .. yadicchanto brahmacaryam

carantitattepadamsamgrahe∏abrav¢mi omityÆtat. I. 11. 5.10. pra∏avo dhanuh Saro hy°tm° brahmatallek¿a∏amucyate. II. 11. 4.11. Tam omk°re∏aiv°yatanÆna .. s°ntam aja ram amrtam abhayam

paramca. pra.up.V.7.12. P°d° m°tra m°tr° sca p°d°h - M.U. 8.13. J°garitast°no vaiøv°naroak°rah pratham° m°tra °pter°dimatv°t, M.U. 9;

viøvasy°tvavivak¿°y°m°dis°m°nyamutka∑am m°tr°sampratipattausy°d°ptis°m°nyamevaca, M.K., 1.19)

14. Ak°ro vai sarv°v°k, Aitarey°ranyaka, II, iii. 7.13.15. ak¿ar°∏°mak°rosmi, B.G, X. 33.16. Svapnast°na staijasok°r∞dvit¢ya m°trotkar¿°dubhayatv°t, M.U. 10;

taijasasyotvavijn°namutkar¿o .. M.K., I . 20.17. Su¿uptast°nah pr°jμo mak°rastrt¢y° m°tr° miterapiterv°, m.u.11,

mak°rabh°ve pr°jμsya .. laya s°m°nyamevaca, M.K., 1.21.18. am°tra scaturtho vyavah°ryah prapaμcopas amahsodvaita evamomk°ra

°tmaiva . Mu, 12.19. M.U, 9 - 12, j°garitast°no vaiøvanaro ak°rah am°tra s caturtho

avyavah°rya prapancopa sama20. V - 3 - 5 Sa yadyekam°tramabhidhy°y¢ta sa s°mabhirunniyate

brahmalokam.21. Maitr°y∏yupani¿ad, VI. 23)22. Yogatattvopani¿ad, 7.23. Ak°ro nayate vis vam uk°ra sc°pi taijasam, mak°ras ca punah pr°jμam

na am°tre vidyate gatih, MK, 1-23.24. M K . I - 23.25. Up°sanam tu yadha S°strasamarthitam kiμcid°lambanamup°d°ya tasmin

sam°nacittavrtti Sant°nak°ra∏am Cha.up. I. 1.1.26. S.B on pra.up., V.I. B.S., I. I. 11.27. M.K, I - 25 - 29. yunjita pra∏ave cetah pra∏avo Brahma nirbhayam

omk°ro vidito yena sa munirnetaro jan°.

Prak§ti and Puru¿a inClassical S°Δkhya

Dr.S.Geethamony Amma

The S¡´khya philosophy propounded by Kapila has beenconsidered the most ancient of all the philosophical systems inIndia. Classical S¡´khya is rigidly dualistic. It accepts theindependent reality of Prak¤ti and PuruÀa which are radicallydifferent from each other. Prak¤ti is the ‘mass of undifferentiatedbeing’ and as such the ultimate ground of the world. PuruÀa is thefact of consciousness, the ultimate ground of man.

Prak¤tiSâmkhya postulates Prak¤ti as the ultimate cause of all worldly

existence1. It is the equilibrium of three gu¸¡s ie, sattva, rajas andtamas2. The term ‘gu¸¡s’ does not stand for quality or characteristic.The gu¸¡s are to be understood in the sense of constituents orcomponents of Prak¤ti . Some eminent thinkers such asS.N.Dasgupta, R.Garbe, S.Radhakrishnan, etc., tend to interpretthe gu¸¡s as material constituents or reals. However, theS¡´khyak¡rika and its commentaries are ambiguous on this point.Isvara Krishna does not say specifically whether the gu¸¡s arequalities or constituents of Prak¤ti. These three constituents,though essentially distinct in their nature, are conceived asinterdependent so that they can never be separated from oneanother. It means that they are not mechanically placed together,but reciprocally involve one another and form a unity in trinity.That is, they not only coexist but also cohere.

One important point to be noted here is that Sâmkhya conceivesof Prak¤ti as ever active. The reason behind it is that if themovement of Prak¤ti be stopped in the state of dissolution, there

128 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr.S.Geethamonyamma

would be no further evolution. There is no other outward agencywhich can move it into action. The only other reality apart fromPrak¤ti is PuruÀa, which is supposed to be completely inactiveand indifferent. Sâmkhya does not postulate any third principleof God. Hence, Sâmkhya conceives of motion as inherent inPrak¤ti . The fact that Prak¤ti is always in motion implies thatevery object of the world, being an effect of Prak¤ti, is also in astate of constant motion. It is not worthy that this Sâmkhya viewof Prak¤ti, ie, primordial matter is in accord with the view ofmodern science. First of all, gu¸¡s bear some affinity with theelectrons of modern physics. Like them, the gu¸¡s are also intra-atomic. The electrons constitute a unit of negative charge, havinginertia. Similarly, gu¸¡s constitute mass (tamas) charged withenergy (rajas). Moreover, the Sâmkhya view of objects as dynamicentities is also in tune with the findings of modern science.Modern physics has established that all material objects arecomplexes of molecules, electrons, etc which are in a state ofconstant motion and transformation.

Each of the gu¸¡s stands for a distinct aspect of physical reality:sattva signifies whatever is pure and fine: rajas, whatever is active:and tamas, whatever is stolid and offers resistance. From thestandpoint of the experiencing mind, they are also described asbeing of the nature respectively of pleasure (sukha), pain (duÅkha),and bewilderment (moha) for they give rise to, or condition, thosefeelings3. The gu¸¡s are not merely distinct, but are also, in somemeasure, antagonistic in nature. But their harmonious action isillustrated by the example of a lamp-flame- the result of co-operation between the wick, oil, and fire, which, in their separatenature, appear to be hardly fitted so to co-operate4. Everythingthat emerges from Prak¤ti is also similarly constituted, for thedoctrine maintains that effects are essentially identical with theirmaterial cause. In fact, it is by a proper synthesis of the commonand enduring features of the things of experience that theconception of Prak¤ti has been reached.

Prak¤ti and PuruÀa Kira¸¡val¢ 129

The existences of Prak¤ti and PuruÀa have been reached throughreason. Prak¤ti is postulated on the principle that effectspresuppose a cause that is immanent in them, the PuruÀa ispostulated on the principle that objects point to the subject orthat the non-sentient implies the sentient5. Another argument isthat spirit is the principle for the sake of which Prak¤ti evolves.

EvolutionPrak¤ti is the substratum of the changing phenomena of the

world. Sâmkhya conceives of Prak¤ti as consisting of mass, energyand illumination in the form of tamas, rajas and sattva.Therefore,it contains all the potentialities for creating the world all by herselfout of herself. According to classical Sâmkhya, due to thetranscendental influence of PuruÀa, the equilibrium of Prak¤ti getsdisturbed. When the equilibrium of the gu¸¡s is disturbed, somegu¸¡s overpower the other gu¸¡s , and starts the process ofevolution. Production is manifestation or evolution. Destructionis non-manifestation or envelopment. The Sâmkhya has clearlyenunciated the doctrine of evolution. The manifold world isevolved from Prak¤ti, which is the first cause. It is the matrix ofthe whole world of effects, physical and psychical. The world isunconscious. It cannot be transformation of a spirit, which isunchangeable and immutable (k£¶astha). It is the transformationof the unconscious Prak¤ti. Change is said to be of two kinds-homogeneous or Svar£papari¸¡ma and heterogeneous orVir£papari¸¡ma. During the state of dissolution of the world, thegu¸¡s change homogeneously, sattva changes into sattva, rajasinto rajas, and tamas into tamas. This change does not disturb theequilibrium of the gu¸¡s and evolution cannot take place.However, when the gu¸¡s exert mutual influence upon oneanother or start interacting, it is called the heterogeneous change(vir£papari¸¡ma). At this state, the balance of the gu¸¡s is disruptedand they begin to manifest their various characteristics and thusbring into existence new qualities and substances. Thus evolution


starts when there is heterogeneous change into the gu¸¡s . But, asár¢ áa´kara has said “It is impossible to see why Prak¤ti shouldsometimes transform itself into ‘mah¡n’and sometimes not.”6

Prak¤ti evolves into mahat or buddhi. It is the unindividuatedcosmic intellect. The cosmic buddhi becomes individuated, andevolves into the cosmic egoism or Ahamkâra. The cosmicAhamkâra is bifurcated into the subjective series and the objectiveseries. Sâmkhya holds that Ahamkâra in its sattvika aspect evolvesinto manas, the five organs of knowledge, and the five organs ofaction. Ahamkâra in its tâmasa aspect (bhûtâdi) evolves into thefive subtle essences (tanmâtra). Ahamkâra in its râjasa aspectplays its part in both. This aspect is also called the taijasa aspect.The five subtle elements evolve into the five gross elements ofearth, water, light, air, and ether by a preponderance of tamas7.These are the 24 principles. Sattva and tamas are inactive inthemselves .They are energized and moved to function by rajaswhich is not ineffective. In the evolution of these modifications,sattva, rajas and tamas are all-present, and perform their functions,though sattva predominates in the evolution of the psychicalapparatus, and tamas predominates in the evolution of the physicaluniverse.

There is some similarity between the conception of evolutionin Sâmkhya and that in modern science. Darvin’s theory ofevolution (Pari¸¡mav¡da) is famous in the field of material scienceespecially in biology. Later scientists have made variousmodifications to it. Pari¸¡ma, as used in modern science, signifiesnot the derivation of anything from anything else, but the growthof an indefinite incoherent homogeneity into a definite coherentheterogeneity. Dr Seal says: “Evolution is a process from arelatively less differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole,to a relatively more differentiated, more determinate, morecoherent whole.’’8 Dr.Seal has elaborately explained the Pari¸¡ma


in Sâmkhya in the light of modern scientific concept ofevolution9.But it is a fact that there are important points ofdifference between the evolution of the biologists and theevolution of the Sâmkhya.

Pari¸¡mav¡daIn Sâmkhya, Prak§ti is the up¡d¡nak¡ra¸a of this universe.

Pari¸¡ma is that process by which the unmanifested Prak¤tibecomes transformed into this manifested state of the objects ofexperience. This involves the problem of causality of the relationbetween cause and effect. The theory that the effect existsbeforehand in its cause is one of the central features of the Sâmkhyasystem. This theory of causality in pari¸¡mav¡da of Sâmkhya iscalled Satkâryavâda, which establishes that the effect pre-existsin the cause in a potential condition; the effect is a modification(Pari¸¡ma) of the cause; it is a manifestation, development, orredistribution of the cause. The effect is not a new beginning(ârambha) as the ny¡yavai¿®Àika holds. It is not a new creation. Itis not non-existent (asat) in the cause. It exists (sat) in the causeprior to its manifestation. So the Sâmkhya advocates the doctrineof Satkâryavâda as distinguished from the Ny¡ya-vai¿®¿ika doctrineof Asatkâryavâda or ârambhavâda. The Advaita Vedanta alsoholds that the effect pre-exists in the cause, and so advocates thedoctrine of Satkâryavâda. But the Sâmkhya maintains that theeffect and the cause are equally real, the former being amodification of the latter, while the Advaita Vedanta maintainsthat the effect is an unreal appearance (vivarta) of the cause, whichis real. The Brahman is the ultimate reality; it is the substratum ofthe world of appearance. In this sense, it is the ultimate cause ofall appearances, which have only empirical reality. The Sâmkhya,on the other hand, holds that the cause and the effect both haveontological reality- the cause being the unmanifest condition ofthe effect, and the effect being the manifest condition of the cause.Sâmkhya advocates Pari¸¡mav¡da while the Advaita Vedanta


advocates vivartavâda both of which are different forms ofSatkâryavâda.

The Mâdhyamika Buddhists hold that an entity is produced bya non- entity, an existent effect springs from non-existence orvoid. The Sâmkhya holds that an entity is produced by an entity;an existent effect is produced by an existent cause; the effect pre-exists in the cause in a potential of unmanifested condition; theeffect is the actual or manifested condition of the cause. Thecause and the effect are identical with each other; the effect is themanifestation of the cause. This is the Sâmkhya view. Hence theexistence of Prak¤ti can be inferred from its multiform effects inthe world10.

The Sâmkhya offers five arguments11 to prove the pre-existenceof the effect in the cause: The first argument states precisely thatthe non-existent can never be brought into existence. For example,no effort can produce oil from sand where it is non-existent.Secondly, it is a matter of our daily experience that one seeks aparticular material for a particular effect. One who wants toproduce curd chooses milk, not water. Thirdly, if the effect wasnon- existent in its cause prior to its production, then anythingcould be produced out of anything which is really not the case inthe world. Fourthly, we find that the cause can produce the effectonly in which it has the potency or power. Only milk possessesthe potency to produce curd; while water cannot. Lastly, an effectis of nature of its material cause. For example, oil seeds and oilare identical in essence, though different in forms. 1. If the effectis non-existent in the cause prior to its operation, none can bringit into existence out of the cause (asadakara¸¡t). The effect is relatedto its cause. If it is non-existent prior to the operation of its cause,it cannot be related to it. The causal relation exists between twoentities, which are existent. So the effect exists both before andafter the operation of the cause. Effectuation is nothing but


manifestation (abhivyakti). Oil is pressed out of sesames; rice isthreshed out of paddy; milk is squeezed out of the udders of acow. 2.A particular effect can be produced out a particularmaterial cause (up¡d¡nagraha¸¡t). A jar can be produced out ofclay only; cloth can be produced out of threads only; curds can beproduced out of milk only. There is a law that particular causescan produce particular effects (upâdânaniyamât). This proves thatthe effects are pre-existent in their causes in a latent condition.3.If the effect unrelated to the cause could be produced, then everyeffect would arise from every cause. But every effect does notarise from every cause (sarvasambhav¡bh¡v¡t). 4. A potent causehas causal energy to produce a particular effect. The causal energyin the cause is inferred from the perception of the effect. Thisaccounts for regularity in the production of particular effects byparticular causes. This causal energy (œakti) to produce aparticular effect resides in a potent cause only. If it resides in allcauses, there will be confusion, and any effect will arise from anycause.5.The effect pre-exists in the cause, since it is identical innature with its cause (k¡ra¸abh¡v¡t). The effect is not differentfrom the cause. The cause is existent. The effect, therefore, cannotbe non-existent. There can be no identity between an entity and anon-entity.

The difference of functions and purposes does not provedifference in essence, since a single substance can have differentfunctions, as the same fire can burn, cook food and give light.Nor can the uniqueness of functions prove difference amongsubstances, since the same substance can have different functions,singly and collectively.

Cause and effect are different states of one and the samesubstance. So they are distinct from each other. Their distinctionis based on our practical interests. A jar can hold water, but alump of clay cannot. They are distinct from each other because


they serve different purposes. But they are not different from eachother in their essential nature.

As opined by S.D.Roy12 & K.P.K.Nampoothiri13through thetheory of causation as well as the theory of the evolution of Prak¤ti,Sâmkhya has recognized the scientific principle of theconservation of energy. In the process of evolution, cause andeffect, in Sâmkhya view, being only more or less evolved formsof the same ultimate energy, the total amount of energy has beenshown to remain the same. Sâmkhya has maintained that Prak¤ticonstantly makes good the loss of energy sustained by the differentevolutes in the act of generating their respective effects.Again,the tanmatras of the Sâmkhya School can be compared to theatoms of modern science because the tanmatras have beenregarded as the subtle causes of the five gross elements. Thequalities of the gross elements, viz., sound, touch, etc., are heldto be due to the qualities latent in these infra-sensible elements.Again, the Sâmkhya conception of object as always in motion isalso in tune with the view of modern science. These are all strongevidences of the scientific awareness of Sâmkhya.

PuruÀaThe Sâmkhya approach is based on an analysis of human

experience. The fundamental principles and categories of thissystem were not dogmatically postulated, but were discoveredand accepted after proper study of human experience. Thefundamental and independent principles of Sâmkhya are Prak¤tiand PuruÀa. They are at the very root of the possibility of knowledgeor experience. Knowledge is not possible unless there are objectsof knowledge and the subject of knowing. In classical Sâmkhya,the term PuruÀa has been used as a technical one, to signify theself. PuruÀa has been defined in the Karika as-na Prak¤tih na vikrtihPuruÀa14. Prak¤ti is neither creative nor created. This definitionimplies that PuruÀa is not organically connected with the other


twenty-four tattvas of Sâmkhya. This idea has been furtheremphasized by holding that PuruÀa is the opposite of both vyaktaand avyakta-tadviparitastathâ ca pumân15. Prak¤ti and PuruÀa areentirely different from each other. They have oppositecharacteristics. Prak¤ti is composed of the three gu∏°s. PuruÀa isnot composed of the gu¸¡s. Prak¤ti is non-discriminating. PuruÀais discriminating. Prak¤ti is an aggregate. PuruÀa is simple. Prak¤tiis the object of knowledge. PuruÀa is the subject of knowledge.Prak¤ti is common to many persons. PuruÀa is different in differentbodies. Prak¤ti is non –intelligent or unconscious. PuruÀa isintelligent or conscious. Prak¤ti is productive. It is transformedinto modifications. PuruÀa is non-productive. It is not subject tomodifications. PuruÀa is neither a cause nor an effect. It isunchangeable and immutable. All things change every momentexcept the conscious self or PuruÀa. Prak¤ti is active. PuruÀa isinactive. Prak¤ti is constant in the midst of mutations(pari¸¡minitya). PuruÀa is constant beyond all mutations(k£¶asthanitya). The essential difference between Prak¤ti and PuruÀalies in that the former is the unconscious and known object, whilethe latter is the conscious knower or the subject Prak¤ti with allits modifications, manas, buddhi and ahamkâra is unconscious.Only PuruÀa is conscious.

In Sâmkhyakârikâ, five arguments are put forward to establishthe existence of PuruÀa-Samgh¡ta par¡rthatv¡t trigu¸¡diviparyay¡tadhiÀ¶h¡n¡t PuruÀo sti bhotrbh¡v¡t kaivaly¡rtham pravrtte¿ca16.Ofthese, the first four arguments refer to PuruÀa as the central goalof the world of change and mutations; they can be regarded asecological arguments.The fifth argument may be characterizedas a form of ontological argument -PuruÀa exists since there isactivity for the purpose of release from the threefold miseries.Objections can be raised against the Bhokt¤bh¡va of PuruÀa becausePuruÀa is said to be neutral, indifferent and inactive. The wordBhoga is derived from the root ‘Bhuj’.It is an action. Then we


cannot say that PuruÀa is inactive when he is an experiencer. Theabove objections can be met by the following arguments. PuruÀa,when he is the subject in an experience, is not the pure PuruÀa. Heis in bondage. He can be called Jiva PuruÀa or the soul. Then he isnot Nissanga. The liberated PuruÀa is neutral, indifferent andinactive. Dr.Anima Sen Gupta says: “Perception of the visibleworld is not possible in the case of pure matter; nor is it possiblein the case of pure spirit. It is only the seemingly unified categoryof spirit and matter (Jiva PuruÀa) that can be the perceiver of thed¤¿ya through modifications of the intellect”17 Thinkers likeVâcaspatimisra and Vijμ¡nabhikÀu accept the theory of reflection.PuruÀa, due to its reflection as well as indiscrimination, mistakesitself for the owner of the buddhiv¤ttis and appears to be undergoingexperiences and sufferings. Consequently, as soon as ignoranceis dispelled with the dawn of discriminative knowledge, the selfbecomes free.

An important feature of the Sâmkhya philosophy is that itaccepts the ‘plurality of the self’. The plurality of Purusa certainlyfollows from the distributive nature of the incidence of birth, deathand of the endowment of the organs of cognition and action, fromengaging in action, not all at the same time, and also fromdifferences in the proportion of the three gu¸¡s18 .Here thestatement made by Dr.Radhakrishnan is noteworthy:”Throughoutthe Sâmkhya there is a confusion between the PuruÀa and theJiva”19The self or PuruÀa, according to Sâmkhya is not one; ratherthere is multiplicity of PuruÀa and all of them are infinite ,unchangeable, all-pervasive and eternal. Though there is thenumerical plurality, there is also the qualitative identity with theself. But qualitative identity cannot go with numerical plurality.Multiplicity without some kind of distinction is unthinkable.‘’Plurality would involve limitations, and an absolute, immortal,eternal and in conditional PuruÀa cannot be more than one.’20TheSâmkhya arguments for the existence of PuruÀa turn out to be


proofs for the existence of the empirical individuals and nottranscendental PuruÀa and this fact comes out more clearly in theSâmkhya theory of the plurality of PuruÀa. To avoid thisinconsistency of the Sâmkhya, commentators like Goudapâda areinclined to interpret the Sâmkhyakârikâ21 in such a way that thereis only one PuruÀa in the transcendental level. ButDr.Radhakrishnan says, “It is difficult to believe that the authorsof the Sâmkhya were aware of it and so adopted the theory of asingle supreme self to avoid the danger.”22 It is true that the theisticSâmkhya concepts before and after the period of the classicalSâmkhya contain the idea of the one universal self or PuruÀa. Butthere is no clear evidence to prove that there is such a concept inthe Classical Sâmkhya.

References1.sarvop¡d¡naÆ pradh¡naÆ,Vijμ¡nabhikÀu Sâmkhya pravacanabhâsya

1:762. Sattvarajastamogu¸¡n¡Æ s¡my¡vasth¡ Prak¤tih; Ibid-1:613. Pr¢tyapr¢tiviÀ¡d¡tmak¡h prak¡¿aprav¤ttiniyam¡rth¡h; S¡Ækhya k¡rik¡,

124. Sattvam lakhuprak¿akamiÀ¶amupaÀ¶ambhakam calam ca rajah; Ibid; 135. Ibid; 14, 17.6. Brahmas£tra¿¡nkarabh¡Àya, 2-2-47. S¡Ækhyak¡rik¡, 22—25.8. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Banaras 1958 p-79. Ibid10. S¡Ækhyak¡rik¡, 811. Ibid; 912. Pholisophies of S¡Ækhya & Locke, Sundeep Prakashan-2006,

pp-110-111.13. The Concept of Apavarga in S¡Ækhya Philosophy, Nag

Publishers, 1990, pp-74-77.14. S¡Ækhyak¡rik¡, 315. Ibid; 11


16. Ibid, 1717. Classical S¡Ækhya: A Critical Study, Patna, 1969, p.112.18. S¡Ækhya k¡rik¡, 1819. Indian Philosophy, Vol.11London, 1962, p.323.20. Ibid, p.422.21.S¡´khyak¡rik¡, 11,1422. Forward to Abayakumar Majumdar’s, S¡Ækhya Conception

of personality, Calcutta, 1930, p.11.

Influence Of Natyasastra InThe Dramas Of Kalidasa

Dr. Reeja B. KavanalOn the science of Indian drama, dance and music, Bharata

happens to be our earliest authority. The name ‘N¡¶ya’ in Sanskritdenotes drama as well as dance. The indigenous and authenticdrama of India was essentially an art which was enriched by thebeautiful combination of music and dance.The various situationsof life are re-lived through this dramatic art.The actor takes therole of the character and adopts gestures, speech and mental stateof that character and creates before the spectators the life that thecharacter lives, making them one with that life. Music helps therepresentation by intensifying the particular mood. The grace ofphysical movements is supplied by dance. Thus the N¡¶ya becomesthe art of representation in which, speech, music and appropriategraceful gestures are harmoniously blended. N¡¶ya¿¡stra, the firstauthentic work on theatrical art in India, elaborately discussedthese concepts and formulated its own theories on these matters.All the three dramas of Kalidasa especially M¡lavik¡gnimitraillustrate the essentials of these theories presented in N¡¶ya¿¡stra.According to Indian Dramatic theory, form manifests in theelements of character, language, and setting, as well as plot. Theformal and purposive aspects of the dramatic theory areinextricably linked in the dramas of Kalidasa.We find that theexpression has become more poetic. But the poetic and dramaticgo hand in hand to complement the beauty of each other.

Bharata states that the director should organise song, actionand word in unbroken continuity and as in the wheeling flame inwhich one could see no beginning, middle or end; i.e. they mustbe harmonised and composed.

140 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr. Reeja B Kavanal

B¥…Δ M…“i…Δ S… ¥……tΔ S… x……]ı Δ S… ¥… ¥…v……∏…™…Δ+±……i…S…GÚ|… i…®…Δ EÚi…«¥™…Δ x……]ı¨™……‰HfiÚ ¶…& ** [29. 7]

Dance and music were highly evolved court arts in ancientIndia. The palaces contained separate halls for N¡¶ya.Kalidasafurnishes the information that the palace of king had a Citra¿¡laand a Preks¡g¤ha- a hall for viewing N¡¶ya. It is in this Preks¡g¤hathat the M¡lavika’s dance is presented.The dramas of Kalidasacontain the techniques of dramatic arts. In M¡lavik¡gnimitraS£tradh¡ra says to na¶i ‘let the music be begin’. Thus one canunderstand that the music is one of the inoperable parts of adrama and one can guess that usually the dramas took placeduring the spring season.1 From M¡lavik¡gnimitra one can get aclear picture of the favourable dispositions of the palace peopletowards arts. The Queens and the members of the court learneddance and drama. M¡lavik¡ the heroine of the drama is a studentof the royal dancemaster Ga¸ad¡sa. The Queen Dh¡ri¸i hasordered the maid to find out the degree of proficiency thatM¡lavik¡ has attained in chalita2 at which she is taking lessons .Ga¸ad¡sa and Haradatta were the two dance teachers of the courtof Agnimitra. The beginning of the second act of the play isdevoted to a dramatic competition. M¡lavik¡, the expert studentof Ga¸ad¡sa, performs the dance infront of the king Agnimitra,queen Dh¡ri¸i and others. Ga¸ad¡sa chants a universally acceptedverse about the birth, purpose, and the theme of Indian danceand drama.

n‰˘¥……x…… ®…n®……®…x…Œxi… ®…÷x…™…& ∂……xi…Δ GÚi…÷Δ S……I…÷π…ΔØ˚ph…‰n®…÷®……EfiÚi…¥™… i…EÚÆ‰ ∫¥……R¬ÛM…‰ ¥…¶…HΔÚ uv……*j…ËM…÷h™……‰n¬¶…¥…®…j… ±……‰EÚS… Æ˙i…Δ x……x……Æ˙∫…Δ o∂™…i…‰x……]ı Δ ¶…z…Ø˚S…‰V…«x…∫™… |…¥…Ω÷v……{™…‰EΔÚ ∫…®……Æ˙…v…EÚ®…¬**(1.4).

Sages consider drama as a sacrifice that is pleasing to theeyes of the gods. It’s two modes are showed by Siva himself inthe body he shares with Uma. Dramatic art is the one chiefamusement of the people though they have different tastes.

Kira¸¡val¢ 141The Dramas Of Kalidasa

Abhinaya or the art of expression of gestures is the means ofrealisation of Rasa. It is expressed in four fold ways, ¡ngika, v¡cika,¡h¡rya and s¡tvika. It is represented by the triad of, play ofinstruments, comprising the rhythmic presentation of formalgestures through balance of the limbs, eyebrows, fingers, arms,entire nervous system and muscular parts of the body. The aim ofnrtya or dance is said to be the experience of Rasa is the sole aimof all dramatic presentations.

The three dramas of Kalidasa illuminate the essentials of thetheories of abhinaya presented in N¡¶ya¿¡stra. Kalidasa hasintroduced the use of dance and music in M¡lavik¡gnimitra whereMalavika is made to sing a song and render abhinaya before theking, queen etc. According to N¡¶ya¿¡stra, n¡¶ya is one of theparamount arts of the people equalant to sacrifice. 3

In M¡lavik¡gnimitra, Ga¸ad¡sa praises the progress of M¡lavik¡’sskill in dance that whatever manner he demonstrate to her sheshows it back again with perfecte technique. Through these versesthe poet depicts the teaching technique of dance and the methodof learning by the student.4 The word ‘Bh¡vika’ is used by Kalidasato mean graceful movements and gestures. He also used the wordkaranam which is a pose of natya. The simultanious movementsof hands and feet while dancing is called kara¸a.5 M¡lavik¡ isportrayed as a very good dancer who expressed her sentimenttowards the king through her action. Through M¡lavik¡gnimitraKalidasa not only elucidates the techniques of dance but alsoexplaines the mode of music, and some other aspects along withthe examples of dance. The enquiry of Ga¸ad¡sa to the queen inwhat particular piece of acting should he shows his skill, showsthat there were different varietes of dances. A few significantremarks by Parivr¡jika throws light on the nature of classical danceperformances of that time.6 She wants the performer to comewithout excessive makeup and costume, so that her movementscan be seen clearly. The second act of M¡lavik¡gnimitra mentions


the posture of n¡¶ya. ‘The left hand with its bracelet resting on thewrist, placed upon her hip, and the right hand hanging looslydown like a branch of syama creaper, the eyes cast on thepavement where the flowers are pressed by the toes of her feet.7

Her posture with the upper part of her body streched up right, ismore attractive than her dancing posture. Here the ‘¡yata’ postureis deliniated.8 The eighth verse of the same act portrays M¡lavik¡as a good actress through the words of Parivr¡jika. The meaningwas suggested by her limbs that were expressive. The movementof the feet was in perfect harmony, and she perfectly absorbedthe various sentiments, but the main sentiment of love remainedthe same throughout. Here the first sentence shows the variousexpressions of her body which was words concealed in hermovements.The ideas of the song were very well brought out inacting by means of silent movements of the various parts of thebody which thus expressed the actual words of the song within.Here the poet wants to say that M¡lavik¡ is fully absorbed in theart of dancing.

In Vikramorva¿¢ya ,Urva¿i the heroine is a heavenly dancer andhence it was possible for the dramatist to show that her actionswere full of graceful dance movements. But as in M¡lavik¡gnimitraone can’t see the exact mode of dances but the reflections oftechniques can be traced out. Thus Kalidasa has blended the poetryharmonously with many dramatic tecniques and has offered us avery charming Sanskrit drama. In the first act of Vikramorva¿¢yathe king rescued the unconsious Urva¿i. Urva¿i opens her eyes tofull consciousness and when she realises the true identity of herrescuer, she depicted the emotion of the kindling of love throughthe movements of eyebrow, enacting the two stages of ‘bh¡va’and ‘h¡va’, .9 Here the dramatist clearly follows the words ofBharata and his N¡¶ya¿¡stra .10

In the third act of Vikramorva¿¢ya there is an entry of Urva¿idressed as abhis¡rik¡ together with Citralekha by ariel path. They


gesticulate descending to the palace terrace and listenedunobstructively to the conversation between the king and vid£Àaka.Here their entrance is by performing ariel c¡ris to show that theyare moving through the sky. C¡ris were stylised stage walksindicative of different stage actions. According to N¡¶ya¿¡stra thesimultanious movements of feet, ankle, thighs and hips is knownas c¡ri.11 In the fourth act it is described that Citralekha hears asong khandadhara, it is a kind of music12. In the same act the kingenters as a insane person due to the seperation from Urva¿i. Inthis situation there is a variety of dance ‘carcari’, which is a modeof dance in ‘Tro¶aka’. In the same act itself the king searching forhis beloved reposing on the bank of the mountain stream andenjoying the breeze is depicted with’ anjalihasta’.13 According toN¡¶ya¿¡stra both hands in ‘pat¡k¡’ with palms joined together isknown as ‘anjalihasta’14 The act also tells us about dance andmusical instruments with the examples taken from nature. Onecan listen to the names of songs and dances in this act ‘jambalila,’‘galitaka’ etc.15

According to Kapila Vatsyanan “The Vikramorva¿¢yahowever,still doesnot give us insight into the exact nature andquality of ‘angik¡bhinaya’. Everytime this bit has to be recreated;it makes demands on the originality and imagination of the danceror the director presenting it. The presentation is inconceivablewithout stylized dancing.”16

If we go through Abhijμ¡na¿¡kuntala, the universally enjoyeddrama of Kalidasa, we come across a number of brief stagedirections which throw light in how Sanskrit play was enacted.There is no direct reference to dance in this drama but it present avivid picture of the gesture with the techniques of dancing knownto the audience as well as to the actors.

At the beginning of the act-I, Dusyanta and his followers arecoming in a chariot on a hunting expedition. From the stage


directions ‘rathavegam nir£pya’ (acts travelling in a fast movingcharriot) and ‘iti sarasandh¡nam na¶ayati’ (gesticulates fixing thearrow in the bow), it is clear that there is no actual charriot usedas stage property. The charioter represented by the ‘abhinaya’ofthe hand, the speedling of the chariot.This is done with the handsin a ‘ka¶akamukha’ position. The legs placed in a riding position,and the motions of hands show the act of riding and holding reinsof the horses. The movement of riding , moving fast, getting inand alighting from the charriot is shown only by appropriategestures.17 In the same act ¿akuntala and her friends do not carrypots to water the trees. These actions were done only by mime.18

The stage directions are ‘v¤kÀasecanaÆ r£payati’ (acts wateringthe trees). The commentator R¡ghava Bha¶¶a further explains howthese delicate actions are to be performed. Accordingly the handsare first to be kept in ‘nalin¢padmako¿a’ pose and taken to theshoulder level,to show the pot being placed there. Then with thehand and the whole body bend slightly the hands in‘nalin¢padmako¿a’ are brought down and used in such a manner asto depict the watering of trees.19

The fourth act of the drama is not only important for its literarymerits but also for its dramatic techniques. The act begins withthe plucking of flowers by Anas£ya and PriyaÆvad¡. These actionswere represented through gestures by hands and arms. ‘Hastas’and ‘samdaÆ¿a’ are the techniques that Bharata prescribed for thiskind of actions ie.’bhramara’20 plucking of a flower from thestem.21 etc.

N¡¶ya¿¡stra is the well known treatise which provides the basisfor the structural and representational aspects of the different typeof dances and dramas prevalent in all parts of India in theory andpractice. Bharata, no doubt, is the compiler and originator ofvast encylopedic information regarding all the facets of danceand Sanskrit drama. In the dramas of Kalidasa the practical


realisation of N¡¶ya¿¡stra is very clear. The essentials of theperformance are emphasised, the music and its elements, softvigorous tempos, styles, musical instruments. The dialogues inSanskrit and Prakrit with appropriate pitch, clarity, the nature ofcharacters and their emotional status are applied in a well knitplot. It is clear that Dramatic techniques are beautifully representedin the dramas of Kalidasa.

Notes and References1.®……±… ¥…EÚ…ŒMx… ®…j…Δ x……®… x……]ıEÚ®…Œ∫®…x…¬ ¥…∫…xi……‰i∫…¥…‰ |…™……‰HÚ¥™…®…¬*M¡lavik¡gnimitra, 1.P.2.2.Chalita dance is a variety of dancing in which the dancer while

acting the part of another gives expression thereby her ownsentiment. It depends upon four verse quardrants to be verydifficult to act.

3.N¡¶ya¿¡stra, 1. 85-86.4.M¡lavik¡gnimitra .1.55.N¡¶ya¿¡stra. 4.30.6.M¡lavik¡gnimitra, P.30.7. Ibid. .2.6.8.N¡¶ya¿¡stra. 13.131. ¿¡rngadeva albso calls it as the posture of

ladies. Sang¢taratn¡kara. 1 0.2. 89.Vikramorva¿¢ya. Act 1.10.N.S, 24.7-8.11.N.S. 11.1.12.Vikramorva¿¢ya. Act IV13.Vikramorva¿¢ya. Act IV14 N.S. 9. 11215.Vikramorva¿¢ya. Act IV16.Classical Indian Dance in Literature and Arts, p.219117. N.S. 24. 40-47.18. Abhinjnanasakuntala. Act I.19. Sanskrit Drama inTheory and Practice. P.66-67.20. N.S, IX. 86.21. N.S, IX. 96, 97.

Position And Status Of Women InYajnavalkyasm§ti

Dr.N.KalpanaThe Dharma¿¡stra is one of the celebrated disciplines of Indian

knowledge systems. It occupies a place of prominence next tothe Vedas in regard to its authority. It modulates the people a lifefull of decency, discipline, serenity etc aiming at a real meaningto human existence. Such a living is regarded as Dharma. Thusthe Dharma¿¡stra is a science to analyze, interpret, determine andfinalize the characteristics of Dharma.

Before entering into the Dharma¿¡stra literature we may discussthe Kalpa tradition. Kalpas£tras comprised ¿ruta, G£hya, Dharmaand ¿ulbas£tras. Of these ¿rutas£tras deal with the vedic sacrificialrites. G£hyas£tras deal with the rules meant for G£hasthas (house-holders), Dharmas£tras deal with the secular life of people ingeneral. Finally the ¿ulbas£tras deal with the technologicalmaterials used in the measurement of sacrificial altars.

In the evolution of Dharma¿¡stra literature a few well-markedstages of growth have been recognized. The first stage coincidedwith the evolution of Kalpas£tras of Apastamba and Baudh¡yana.The manuals of vedic rituals in its various sections of ¿rauta,G£hya, ¿ulba and Dharma are narrated completely in the s£traform.

The next stage is to be seen in the composition of versifiedSm¤t¢s, which amplify the S£tra literature. The third stage is thatof commentators like Medh¡tithi, Vi¿var£pa and others whose

Women in Yajμavalkyasm¤ti Kira¸¡val¢ 147

attempts to interpret the Sm¤t¢s in a homogenous manner andavoiding any conflict of opinion in consonance with the rules ofinterpretation. The fourth and fifth centuries saw the emergenceof the commentaries and the Nibandhas and the Bh¡Àyas whichby themselves can be regarded as Digests. The best example isthe Mit¡kÀar¡ commentary of Vijμ¡ne¿vara on Y¡jμavalkyasm¤ti.

The position which women occupy in any Law code is notonly an index of civilization but also a correct criterion of theculture of the race. The status of women in any civilization showsthe stage of evolution at which the civilization has arrived. Thelegislative and judicial trends are the agencies by which the lifeof the nation is developed and the status of women furnished andreflects the civilization and culture of the nation. In the vedicperiod the marriage tie was regarded as sacrosanct and the familyideal was decidedly very high. The women on marriage acquiredan honorable position and considerable status. The status of thewomen in any system of Law truly represents the thought andfeeling of the community with regard to them at the time, whenthe law was made. Status of women in any legal system isdetermined by her rights, duties and liabilities to the society andher family members. It also includes the property rights of women.I stress only the right of inheritance of women.

The study of evolution of the property rights of women is avery important subject. Y¡jμavalkya is the first Sm¤tik¡ra whorecognized the widow to acquire the property. This shows therespectable position and status given to the women. Generallythere are two schools of law, namely the Mit¡kÀar¡ school ofVijμ¡ne¿vara and the D¡yabh¡ga school of J¢m£tav¡hana. Mit¡kÀar¡school of law prevailed throughout India except in Bengal.D¡yabh¡ga prevails in Bengal. The fundamental difference betweenthe two is, Mit¡kÀara school allows right by birth itself,which is

148 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr.N.Kalpana

called the Janma-svatva-v¡da. J¢m£tav¡hana holds on to the viewthat one acquires right of inheriting the ancestral property onlyafter the death of the parents. This is known as uparama-svatva-v¡da.

Definition of D¡yaThe word D¡ya means that the property both movable and

immovable, one inherits as owner from one’s father or grandfather.D¡ya is of two kinds- aparatibandha d¡ya and sapratibandha d¡ya.Aparatibandha d¡ya is that kind of property which is directlyinherited by the sons and daughters of a person or the grandsonsand grand-daughters of a person. When the property, on the otherhand, is inherited by the nephew or other relatives or sapi¸·as ofa person due to the absence of sons and daughters, the d¡ya iscalled saparatibandha d¡ya.

Sapi¸·a : If two persons are connected by particles of one body;i.e. common ancestor, the two are called Sapi¸·a. In other wordsSapi¸·as are connected by community of blood. This is thedefinition of Vijμ¡ne¿vara.

n˘…™…∂…§n‰x… ™…r˘x…Δ ∫¥…… ®…∫…®§…xv……n‰¥… x… ®…k……n˘x™…∫™… ∫¥…Δ ¶…¥… i…i…n÷S™…i…‰ * ∫…… S… u˘ ¥…v…&-+|… i…§…xv…& ∫…|… i…§…xv…∂S…* i…j… {…÷j……h……Δ{……Ëj……h……Δ S… {…÷j…i¥…‰x… {……Ëj…i¥…‰x… S… {…i…fiv…x…√Δ {…i……®…Ω˛v…x…Δ S… ∫¥…Δ¶…¥…i…“i™…|… i…§…xv……‰ n…™…&* {…i…fi¥™…ß……j……n“x……Δ i…÷ {…÷j……¶……¥…‰ ∫¥……®™……¶……¥…‰S… ∫…Δ¶…¥…i…“ i… ∫…|… i…§……xv……‰ n˘…™…&*

1 The word vibh¡ga in the

Dharma¿¡stras means the sharing of property among thecoparcencers according to the amount as prescribed by law.2

The evolution and development of a society is reflected by thestatus of women. And it goes without saying that among varioussocial aspects, the financial aspect is the most important factorwhich plays the pivotal role in the assessment of the status of asection of society. Thus the property rights of women assume


importance in the study of social and cultural history of a society.Thus it would be interesting and rewarding to discuss anddeliberate as to what y¡jμavalkya, the author of an influential sm¤tihas to say on the property rights of women.

Vijμ¡ne¿vara, in the Mit¡kÀar¡ commentary on theY¡jμavalkyasm¤ti, expanded the scope of str¢dhana. The termstr¢dhana literally means women’s property. But in the ancient sm¤tiworks, the word was restricted to certain special kind of propertygiven to a women on certain occasions like marriage or at thedifferent stages of life. Y¡jμavalkya and all other sm¤tik¡rasenumerated more than six kinds of str¢dhana. The property rightsof women can be discussed under different headings-as a daughter,as a wife, as a widow and as a mother.

Most of the jurists wanted to continue the old traditions, i.e toallow a brotherless daughter to inherit or to have a share in herpatrimony. Y¡jμavalkya laid down that such a daughter should bethe next heir after the son and the widow. He suggested a schemeof devolution of the property of a sonless father. Accordingly,such a property would devolve to the wife, the daughter , parents,son of the brothers, sagotra, disciple and the co-partner of thedeceased. In the absence of the preceding heir it would go to thesucceeding one in the order mentioned here.

{…ix…“ n÷ Ω˛i…Æ˙∂S…Ë¥… {…i…Æ˙…Ë ß……i…Æ˙∫i…l……*i…i∫…÷i……‰ M……‰j…V……‰ £…xv…÷& ∂…π™…& ∫…•…¿S…… Æ˙h…&**Bπ……®…¶……¥…‰ {…⁄¥…«∫™… v…x…¶……M…÷k…Æ˙…‰k…Æ˙&*∫¥…™……«i…∫™… ¡{…÷j…∫™… ∫…¥…«¥…h…Êπ¥…™…Δ ¥… v…&** 3

In general, son’s and daughter’s son are entitled as the actualheirs. However, the daughter’s son is no expressly mentioned inthe list of heirs by Y¡jμavalkya. The Mit¡kÀar¡ says that by theimport of ‘practice also’ the daughter’s son succeeds to the estate.


Vijμ¡ne¿vara was one among the progressive commentator who,while commenting upon the Y¡jμavalkyasm¤ti quotes a verseattributed to K¡ty¡yana which reflects the right of inheritance ofdaughters.

{…ix…“ ¶…i…÷«v…«x…ΩÆ˙“ ™…… ∫™……n¥™… ¶…S…… Æ˙h…“ *i…n¶……¥…‰ i…÷ n÷ Ω˛i…… ™…tx…⁄f¯… ¶…¥…‰k…n…** 4

During the post vedic era marriage of girls become obligatory.Naturally, it was laid down that reasonable marriage expensesshould be a charge on the family property. The sons were boundto meet the amount for the suitable marriage of their sisters out ofthe family estate, if the father had died prior to the wedding of hisdaughters. This amount used to vary according to the status ofeach family. As a general rule, however a brother was expectedto spend an amount equal to one-fourth of his share over themarriage of his sister.

+∫…Δ∫EfiÚi……∫i…÷ ∫…Δ∫EÚ…™……« ¶……i…fi ¶…& {…⁄¥…«∫…Δ∫EfiÚi…Ë&*¶… M…x™…∂S… x…V……nΔ∂……qi¥……%∂…Δ i…÷ i…÷Æ˙“˙™…EÚ®…¬**

5

The language used by Y¡jμavalkya in this verse appears to bevague and ambiguous and more than one interpretation can bepossible from it. However, as it appears to us, it was not theintention of jurists to assign a one-fourth share to the daughter.They points to her marriage.Thus as a daughter she enjoys herfather’s property. Y¡jμavalkya fully supported the revival in thisfield.

Y¡jμavalkya allowed the wife, a one-third share in her husband’sproperty.

+…Y……∫…®{…… nx…” nI……Δ ¥…“Æ˙∫…⁄Δ |…™…¥…… nx…“®…¬*i™…V…x…¬ n…{™…∫i…fii…“™……Δ∂…®…p¥™……‰ ¶…Æ˙h…Δ Œ∫j…™…&**6

In the absence of the son the wife as a full heir of her husband’sproperty.


Y¡jμavalkya allowed the wife of a deceased husband a shareequal to that of her son.

™… n E÷Ú™……«i∫…®……x……Δ∂……x…¬ {…ix™…& EÚ…™……«& ∫…®……Δ ∂…EÚ…&*x… nk…Δ ∫j…“v…x…Δ ™……∫……Δ ¶…i……« ¥…… ∑…∫…÷Æ‰h… ¥……**7

This is not possible only if she gets any str¢dhan from herhusband’s house.

Some writers attempted to curtail the full share allowed to themother by suggesting that the expression ‘equal share’ must notbe interpreted literally. {…i…÷∞¸v¥…» ¥…¶…V…i……Δ ®……i……{™…Δ∂…Δ ∫…®…Δ Ω˛Æ‰i…¬*8 Itwas really intended to mean that just as much money as might benecessary for her maintenance. The Mit¡kÀar¡ points out that suchan interpretation is most unreasonable and maintains that sheshould get a full share.“+l… {…ix™…& EÚ…™……«& ∫…®……Δ ∂…EÚ…UÙ <i™…j…®……i……{™…Δ∂…Δ ∫…®…Δ Ω˛Æ‰i…¬ <i™…j… S… V…“¥…x……‰{…™…÷HÚ®…‰¥… v…x…Δ ∫j…“ Ω˛Æ˙i…“ i…®…i…®…¬* i…n∫…i…¬* +Δ∂…∂…£n∫™… ∫…®…∂…£n∫™… S……%%x…l…«C™…|…∫…R¬ÛM……i…¬**9

Most of the jurists accept the view of the Mit¡kÀar¡. However,the wife of a deceased husband could get this share only if hersons sued for a partition. This was indirectly the denial to givethe share to the wife as it was against the spirit of Hindu Law.Vijμ¡ne¿vara maintains that if a husband abandons his virtuouswife or willfully misappropriates her property and refuses torestore it, she can move a court of Law to get her grievancesredressed.

M…÷Æ˙…‰& ∂…π™…‰ {…i…÷& {…÷j…‰ n®{…i™……‰& ∫¥…… ®…¶…fii™…™……‰&* ¥…Æ˙…‰v…‰ i…÷ ®…l…∫i…‰π……Δ¥™…¥…Ω…Æ˙…‰ x… ∫…n¬v™… i…* < i… i…n {… M…÷Ø˚ ∂…π™……n“x……®……i™…Œxi…EÚ¥™…¥…Ω…Æ˙|… i…π…‰v…{…ÆΔ x… ¶…¥… i…* n÷Ã¶…I…… n¥™… i…Æ‰E‰Úh… ™… n ∫j…“v…x…Δ ¶…i……« ¥™…™…“EfiÚi™… ¥…t®……x…v…x……‰% {… ™……S™…®……x……‰ x… nn… i… i…n… n®{…i™……‰Æ˙{…“π™…i… B¥…¥™…¥…Ω…Æ˙&**

10


As a wife, a woman had direct share in her husband’s property.However, a forsaken wife was entitled to one-third of herhusband’s wealth. If wife was poor her husband should provideher maintenance. But if the property was divided during the life-time of husband, his wife was to get an equal share with her sons.The Mit¡kÀar¡ expressly declares that she can spend out of thefamily property only with the concurrence of the husband. 11

Y¡jμavalkya enunciated the doctrine of the dependence ofwomen. He also had given the life-long protection.

Æ˙I…‰iEÚx™……Δ {…i…… ¥…z……Δ {… i…& {…÷j……∫i…÷ ¥……v…«E‰Ú*+¶……¥…‰ Y……i…™…∫i…‰π……Δ ∫……¥……EÚx…j™…Δ x… C¥… S…Œi∫j…™……&** 12

Y¡jμavalkya is more liberal towards the rights of women. Theson and the widow should get an equal share of property. It is hisverses which were mainly relied upon by the courts when theyrecognized the right of inheritance of the widow on the failure ofsons.13 Vijμ¡ne¿vara attribute a verse to K¡ty¡yana which clearlysupports the widow’s right of inheritance.

{…ix…“ ¶…i…÷«v…x…«ΩÆ˙“˛ ™…… ∫™……n¥™… ¶…S…… Æ˙h…“*i…n¶……¥…‰ i…÷ n÷ Ω˛i…… ™…tx…⁄f¯… ¶…¥…‰k…n…**14

Sm¤tik¡ras like ViÀ¸u and Y¡jμavalkya say that who inherits theproperty shall perform the sr¡dha and shall offer the Pi¸·as to thethree ancestors15 . In the verses of Y¡jμavalkyasm¤ti.II. 135-136the word wife stands for the widow. ViÀ¸u and Y¡jμavalkya wereready to accept the widow’s right of inheritance of her deceasedhusband.

Y¡jμavalkya lays down that when number of a family havereunited after separation, the surviving male coparceners willsucceed the deceased and not his wife.

∫…Δ∫…fiŒπ]ıx…∫i…÷ ∫…Δ∫…fiπ]“. ∫……‰nÆ˙∫™… i…÷ ∫……‰nÆ˙&*16 This clearly showsthat Y¡jμavalkya intended to recognize the right of inheritance of


the widow provided her husband was not a member of the joint-family at the time of his death. Taking advantage of this fact,Vijμ¡ve¿vara recognized widow, if the husband had separated fromthe joint family before his death.i…∫®……n˘{… ÷j…∫™… ∫¥…™……«i…∫™… ¥…¶…HÚ∫™……∫…Δ∫…fiŒπ]ıx……‰ v…x…Δ {… Æ˙h…“™… ∫j…“ ∫…Δ™…i…… ∫…EÚ±…®…‰¥… M…fiºh……i…“ i…Œ∫l…i…®…¬*17

Taking the same view of this point and quoting V¤ddha manuthe Mit¡kÀar¡ would have granted the right to offer oblation onher deceased husband and thereby to entitle her to inherit theproperty of the husband.

+{…÷j……& ∂…™…x…Δ ¶…i…÷«& {……±…™…xi…“ μ…i…‰ Œ∫l…i……*{…xi™…‰¥… nt…k…Œi{…hbΔ EfiÚi∫x…®…Δ∂…Δ ±…¶…‰i… S…**18

All the prominent jurists have reached the same conclusion ofVijμ¡ne¿vara. This shows that all the authoritative digests andcommentaries established the widow’s right to inherit herhusband’s property.

Vijμ¡ne¿vara could have liberalized the law by drawing furtherdeductions from the text of B¤haspati which declares that no onecan touch the property of a person as long as his wife is alive. Sheis allowed to enjoy the property of her husband irrespective ofthe consideration, whether her husband had separated from thefamily or not, before his death.

As a mother, women received high esteem in early society. InManusm¤ti a verse is attributed to it.

={……v™……™……x…¬ n∂……S……™…« +…S……™……«h……Δ ∂…i…Δ {…i……*

∫…Ω˛ª…Δ i…÷ {…i…fix…¬ ®……i…… M……ËÆ˙¥…‰h…… i… ÆS™…i…‰** 19

An ¡c¡rya is more glorious and gracious in esteem than tenUp¡dhy¡yas; a father is even more glorious and gracious thanhundred ¡c¡ryas; but a mother in profundity and aroma of graceand glory, stands of a still higher pedestal than thousand fathers.


Y¡jμavalkya has also given high esteem to the women in thesociety. He allows the widowed mother to get a share equal tothat of her son20.

The Mit¡kÀar¡ however rightly points out the utterunreasonableness of this interpretation and maintains that thewidowed mother must get a full share21. Most of the Jurists haveaccepted this view. This was employed in Modern Law Courts.

Thus the status of women is reflected through the inheritanceof property. In the Y¡jμavalkyasm¤ti we can see a progressivestand in the matter of property rights of women, in contrast withother major Sm£tik¡ras. Various standpoints taken by him as wellas his commentator Vijμane¿vara as regards property rights ofwomen are not only progressive, but also have exercised stronginfluence in the formation of Modern Law of the matter.

Notes1. Mit¡. On Y¡jμavalkyasm¤ti (Y.S.) II,P.114-1162. Ibid.Ê´É¦ÉÉMÉÉä xÉÉ¨É p¥™…∫…®…÷n…™… ¥…π…™……h……®…x…‰EÚ∫¥……®™……x……Δ i…n‰EÚn‰∂…‰π…÷

¥™…¥…∫l…… {…i…®…¬*3. YS.II.135-1364. Mit¡.on Y.S. II.136.5. Y.S. II.124.6. Y.S.I.767. Ibid.II.115.8. Ibid.II.123.9. Mit¡. On.Y.S. II.136.10. Ibid.II.3210. i…∫®……n¬¶…i…÷« Æ˙SUÙ™…… ¶……™…«™…… + {… p¥™… ¥…¶……M……‰ ¶…¥…i™…‰¥… x… ∫¥…‰SUÙ™……*

Mit¡. On Y.S.II.52.11. Y.S.I.85


12. Ibid II.135-13613. Quoted by Vijμ¡ne¿vara attributed to K¡ty¡yana.14. Mit¡ On Y.S.II.135-136.15. Y.S.II.138.16. Mit¡. On YS.II.13617. Ibid.II.135-136.18. MS.II.45.19. ™… n E÷Ú™……«i∫…®……x……Δ∂……x…¬ {…ix™…& EÚ…™……«& ∫…®……Δ ∂…EÚ…&*

x… nk…Δ ∫j…“v…x…Δ ™……∫……Δ ¶…i……« ¥…… ∑…∂…÷Æ‰π…… ¥……** (YS.II.115) {…i…÷∞¸v¥…» ¥…¶…V…i……Δ ®……i……{™…Δ∂…Δ ∫…®…Δ Ω˛Æ‰i…¬** (YS.II.123)

20. Mit¡. On YS.II.136.

[We are commencincing a New feature, Debate, from this issue onwardswith a view to promote live discussion on contemporary trends in the studyand evaluation of Indology. Anybody interested can join the debate by sub-mitting their article.The editor reserves the right to accept or reject an arti-cle submitted. In this article Dr. Dharmaraj Adat presents the theme paper.He will reply the doubts and criticisms in the concluding article of this de-

bate session

Editor]

Baudha Sankara Narayana Philosophies andThe Advaita Tradition of India

Dr. Dharmaraj AdatScholars have discussed, though rarely, the relation between

Buddhist philosophy and the philosophy of Sri Narayana. Butignoring the historical undercurrent, a research intellect considersBuddhism as a developed form of Upanisadic thought and putsforward an idea that Buddhist philosophy and Sri Narayanaphilosophy are one and same. Not much effort is needed for sucha conclusion. For this, some doctrines should be proclaimed as‘ultimate truths’ and stick to these doctrines to conclude theirjudgments. This is the only conclusion that an exercise like thiscan lead to. How a modest intellectual, who is not ready to copwith these conclusions that rely purely on hereditarily transferredmythological expositions and legends, can bow to them? Theconclusion that unites the Buddhist philosophy and Sri Narayanaphilosophy is certainly subjective. Unfortunately, not only thosesectarian scholars but consensus scholars also fallen into suchtraps.

Prof. K. Balaramappanikkar, a renowned, prominent scholarof previous generation, who received respects from the people ofKerala, especially from those who belong to Sri Narayna. In hiswell known book – ‘Sri Narayanaguru Prabandhangaliloote’ (Sri

Debate

Kira¸¡val¢ 157Advaita tradition of India Debate

Narayanaguru through essays) he focuses on to illustrate an ideathat the Advaidic principles rose from Sri Buddha, shined in SriSankara and spread through Sri Narayana.

It is interesting to see how Buddha became the source ofAdvaidic thought. It is widely accepted among scholars that theGaudapadakarika is the base of Sankara’s philosophy. Somescholars believe that the author of Gaudapadkarika is a followerof Buddha. Prof. Balaramappanikkar begins his views byconsidering Buddha as the founder of Advaitic principles byputting forward the second opinion above, which is not widelyaccepted. He writes – if Gaudapadakarika can be considered as aBuddhist text then it should be accepted that Buddha is the founderof Advatism.

He clarifies that the evidences put forward for this opinion arethe names of Buddha (Buddhist names) seen in the benedictoryverses and the Buddhist terms present in the text. This can beaccepted for an argument. Still it is wrong to conclude, based onthis rather weak support, that Buddha is the founder of Advaitism.The leaders of S.N.D.P moment, now-a-days, stick upon the idiomof ‘be proud of telling caste’. How one can consider SriNaryanaguru as the creator of caste pride? The same is applicableto the view of Balaramapanikkar that it should be neglected.

While studying Buddha and analyzing his philosophicalsystem, a researcher should consider the fact that Buddha had notwritten down any of his philosophical ideas. The disciples ofBuddha codified those teachings that are attributed to him severalyears after his demise. It is a limitation. The followers of Buddhafirst split into Hinayana and Mahayana and again into severalother groups. All of these groups, which explain mutuallycontradictory ideas, loudly proclaim that they are the actualfollowers of Buddha.

One of the most effective methods that the dominant systemshad adopted to uproot the ideas and movements, which were

158 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr. Dharmaraj AdatDebate

formed against the established social conditions and popularamong people due to the pressure of circumstances, is to infiltrateinto those movements. It is a historical fact. Not only the historyof Bhakti movement, Congress and S.N.D.P movements, but thehistory of Poland and Soviet Union are also best examples of thisinfiltration. The decline of Buddhism and its extinction in Indiaare the initial steps of this historical reality. Later, the Buddhistphilosophy, which is praised by a group, became influenced bythe ideas drawn out from the Uapnishadic stake by the spokesmenof the priesthood like Nagarjuna. Moreover, based on these ideas,there was a tendency- which became firmly rooted in India- toclaim that the Buddhist Philosophy is Upanisadic itself. ThereforeBuddhism is part of Hinduism and Buddha is one among the tenincarnations of Vishnu. This forms another point of discussion.

Yet it is not considered here. But a simple question should beanswered. If Gaudapadakarika is a Buddhist text itself, then howcan Buddha be the creator of the ideas in it? The author ofGaudapadakarika is Gaudapada. Hence Gaudapada himself isresponsible for each and every line of it. Gaudapada has not quotedeven a single line or concept of Buddha in the entire text sayingas the words of Buddha. So a conclusion can be arrived at is thatGaudapada is the founder of Advaita doctrine. Instead,Balaramappanikkar ascribes the Advaitisam to Buddha. It is alsonotable that he takes Madhva and Ramanuja as his companionsfor this purpose.

Madhva and Ramanuja characterised Sri Sankara as ‘disguisedBuddha’ to make his contributions to Advaita Vedanta a big zero.Without considering the fact behind this decision that Sankaraphilosophy took its form from the energy of the later BuddhistBrahmins like Nagarjuna, Prof Balaramappanikkar makes Buddhathe first Advaitin by taking the word Buddha from ‘disguisedBuddha’ and concluded it as the real Buddha.


Thus he satisfies himself by making Buddha as a preceptor ofAdvaita, calling Buddhadvaita as Dharmikadvaita, Sankaradvaitaas Vaijnanikadvaita and Sri Narayanadvaita as Prayogikadvaita.Further he discovers that Advaita is a concept, which consists inVedas and particularly in Upanisads, and is originated by Buddha,developed by Sankara and completed by Sri Narayana.

Before entering into a discussion how Buddhism- an atheistphilosophy- and the philosophies of Sankara and Sri Narayana,which are theistic in nature were united together; the subjectiveand sentimental approaches of the scholars of previous generationthat drove to a conclusion that is far away from truth, need to bediscussed. The old erudition has no hesitation to repeat again andagain the ideas that were existing through generations and theviews of Balaramappanikkar are not free from it. For instance letus quote a subject that he often repeats in his work –s£dramakÀarasaÆyuktaÆ d£rataÅ parivarjayet (A learned Surdashould be casted off). This line is praised as the stand in state daisof Indian caste system. Traditionally Manu is considered as theauthor of this line. No one has questioned this conclusion, as thehate of Manu towards Sudras is popular. Several scholars ofprevious generation have quoted this saying of Manu in theirarticles. Without having a bit of thought Balaramappanikkar alsorepeats this s£dramakÀarasaÆyuktaÆ …….as this verse is actuallyfound in Manusmrti. It means that the Sudra who is educatedshould be expelled. Not only Balaramappanikkar, but also scholarslike Vidyavacaspati V Panoli has mentioned this. Present scholarbeing interested in this matter has examined each and every lineof Manusmrti. But this line hasn’t found anywhere there in. Thisargument may be based on the simple assumption that Manu, theforce behind C¡turvar¸ya which took Strong stand towards Sudras,must have written this verse. Without having proper notice somescholars referred this in their works as quoted from Manusmrti.Others do this harmless mission in their works as being trustedby this opinion. No one tried to find out whether it is true or not.


One who tries to find out reality can conclude it as a falsestatement.

One who closely studies the Buddhist philosophy and Sankaraphilosophy can understand that the above-mentioned conclusionsof Balaramappanikkar are repetitions of the traditional views.

The comparison of philosophies should not be done followingthe footprints of the similarity of the words used by Philosophers.But the historical necessities that lead to the formation of thesesystems and the effects of these on society on time being shouldbe considered and analyzed. It is a fact that same word representsdifferent thoughts in different philosophies at different times. Eachthought and philosophy takes its form according to their socialconditions. The Philosophy of Vedic texts are not the philosophyof Brahmanic texts. The Upanisadic philosophy again differs formboth these. The Philosophical tendency in Itihasas, Puranas andSmrti texts differ from each other. The reason behind this diversityis that all these were written in different periods of time at differenthistorical situations and with difference in realizing theirobjectives. The appearance and expressions of each historicalcrisis, which existed in each situation, are different. On eachsituation new ideas and Philosophies took origin withdistinguishing properties to overcome these crises. Continuousre-reading and re-evaluation of history affirms this.

The Rig.Vedic age represents simple social - economical unity.It can be said that at the end of Rgvedic age there originated sub-divisions based on caste. When this society developed in the agesof Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, the solidarity of a class-whichwas not separated- wrecked and castism took over it. This processis reflected clearly in the Brahmanas. And in Upanisads thesuperior-inferior separation is clearer between manual labour andmental labour. And at the time of Puranas, Itihasas and Smrtitexts the four class system or Indian Feudalism reached its


perfection and the ripples of dominant culture of the Brahminsand priests has been stamped all over.

The age of Buddha was a period in which the federal tribalcommunities were disintegrated due to the communal conditionsand marked the beginning of castism. Buddha and his philosophyemerged with the flags of nonviolence, fellow feeling and charityas a remedy for the uncertainty, mental agitation and tremblingaroused in society at the juncture of a social change when acommunal condition disappeared and new capital conditionreplaced its place. Buddha at the same time gave strength to thenew social condition and became reliever of those who areafflicted. That is why he gained wide popularity among people.

The age of Sankaracarya is a period in which the Indian Feudalsystem changed its structure from centralized to the sovereigntyof small native states and villages. The moral indebtedness toassure the support of the people for the new rulers is done bySankaradarsana. Sankara’s analysis of illusory-existing-spiritualareas and the philosophical views based on these gave supportwithout reservation to the rulers to chain the working class intocultural silences and to impose sovereignty over them. Thus hesucceeded in achieving the support of the ruling class speedily.

Sri Narayana philosophy originated at a historical point whenthe feudal system and its morel fervour declined and new capitalistsystem and its morel fervour has emerged. Narayanaguru leadsthe attempt to place the renaissance thought of the fresh capitalsystem, which is based on the principles of equality, independenceand brotherhood by throwing away the tattered feudal values.

From this it is clear that the age, social situations and historicalrelevance of Sri Buddha, Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana aredifferent. While the social values changed rapidly, Buddha taughtpeople to change the law of nature and the only thing in this worldwhich does not change is change itself. He also taught people


that life is full of miseries, and it has a cause and it can beovercome. The Foundation stones of the philosophical thoughtof Buddha are the three streams. These are called the theories ofAnitya, Anatma and Duhkha.

As pointed out, during the age of Sri Sankara, small nativestates arouse instead of centralized kingdoms. It can be consideredas another age of Indian feudalism after the Gupta age. Thephilosophy of Sankara succeeded in undertaking the two missionsviz. maintaining the continuity of feudal values based on the fourclass system and attaining the support of the people towards thefeudal lordship as the symbol of power. Sankara who proclaimedParamarthika (Divine or eternal truth) as the only truth and theexistence of Pratibhasika and Vyavaharika as comparative, putforward a social philosophy which accepts the difference in theVyavaharika, caste-creed sovereignty and their customs andobservance. It can be said that Sankara Philosophy accept Advaitaat theoretical level and plurality at practical level.

The philosophy of Sri Narayana is based on Advaita not onlyat theoretical but also in practical level. The philosophy of SriNarayana can be said as the philosophy dually influenced by theSaivadvaita and Tamil Saivism originated after Sri Sankara. SriNarayana’s position is against the well known attitude of sankarathat Sudra is a moving funeral pyre and has no right to educationand power. Guru taught that every one has equal right to educateand education opens the road towards power and independence.

Buddhism is atheistic. Buddha, who proclaimed that all aretransient, sorrow and materialistic, denied the existence of atma.They deny the all-controlling god also. Buddha has not broughtgod while dealing with the destiny of mankind. He has neitherwritten any devotional lyric nor implemented any type law ofadoration to console people who lived in an age of misery andadversity. His proclamation was to remove the miseries driven


by the worldly desire. Debi Prasad Chatopadhyaya, the famousphilosopher is quoted here –

“It is noteworthy that at the time the formation of mostimportant reality by finding out the reason for the miseries andsuggesting its remedy, Buddha has no intention to point out theexistence of god as the supreme power without whose consenteven a blade of grass cannot move as indicated by others. Howcan one explain the complete indifference of Buddha towardsgod at the decisive context of thinking about the important problemabout the fate of Human beings? It has only one answer. Buddhahas complete conviction that god is unreal. (IndanNirisvaravadam, Chinta Publishers, Thiruvananthapuram, 1st

edition, page 128)

Buddha had corrected the view that to conquer the body andmind of the people belief in god is necessary. The eloquence,which forced to consider materialists as barbarians, savages,cheaters and gluttons, are being cut out here. Buddha taught theworld through his life that one could become the messenger ofworld love and world humanism without the god, which is crutch.Buddha believed that the lifestyle based on god would changepeople into lazy, irresponsible and weak. Virtue evolves fromvirtue and immortality from immortality. Nothing is god oriented.Hence Buddha establishes the doctrine that it is meaningless toworship gods and performing rites for any results. Hence he madeno devotional lyrics.

Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana follow theist philosophy in Indianthought. Though there is difference in their views both accept theimmortality of the supreme soul. While Úankara proclaims‘Brahaman is real and the perceiving world is unreal’ Guruproclaims ‘everything real’. While Guru announces that thecreation, creator, created things and elements for creation are goditself, Sankara announces that all these are the play ofSagunabrama, which remains in the existing part and is false. Sri


Sankara has written several devotional lyrics and introducedreligious rites to uplift the ordinary people towards salvation bytempting them. Though he proclaims that there is no god,Sagunabrahma and world is in the eternal part. Guru has alsowritten several devotional lyrics. He conducted severalinstallations of temples also. But the aim of conducting these ritesis to bring up physical and mental purity of the common men.His expulsion of the toddy, chicken, and several other barbaricrituals along with evil spirits is not for any other aim. Hisinstallations that begin from stone up to the mirror stressed onthe correction of the feudal believes and rites. (Blame on us, asnow it is not like what he imagined). It also remember the sayingof Guru that ‘now the need of the society is schools and factoriesnot temples’. (It is also to be pointed out that sanskritisation havemade marks on the deeds and writings of Guru. It does not matterhere.)

From this point it is crystal clear that the philosophies ofBuddha, Sankara and Narayana accepted different standpoints inhistorical occasions, Philosophical aspects and social views. It isnot wrong to infer that the practical side of Buddhism hasinfluenced Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana philosophies. Buddhais the first teacher in the field of widening the religion. He senthis disciples to each and every corner of the world to popularisehis thoughts. It is well known that other prophets also to popularisetheir religion have used this trick. While Sri Sankara spread hisideas through debate and establishing monasteries, Sri Narayanapopularised his views by encouraging Sri Narayana DharmaParipalana Sanghas. By viewing the present status of SankaraMuths and S. N. D. P. movement, it will not be fault to concludethat they too will have the same fate as that of the Buddhist groupsin impending future.

Social philosophy of AdvaitavedantaDr.G.Narayanan

No Philosophy can exist without society. When the currentsystems of thought fails to satisfy the moral and spiritual ambitionsof a society a new system arises. Hence no system can stay out ofthe society that parented it. More over, philosophy is a culturalproduct.

Among Indian philosophical systems, the two m¢m¡msas-p£rvam¢m¡msa and uttaram¢m¡msa –represent Brahmanism. Bothare direct outcome of brahmanic religious speculation. The ancientVedic literature has four branches viz. Samhita, Brahmana,Aranyaka and Upanishad. The samhita contains hymns. Thesewere chanted in yagas. The yagas and related rituals form thesubject matter of Brahmanas. Aranyakas deals with the rituals ofvanaprastha Asrama. The subject matter of Upanishads ispredominantly the knowledge of atman and its results. TheBrahmanic ritualistic religion that dominated the society in earlytimes received severe attack from Buddhism, Jainism andMaterialism. This logical and philosophical attacks forcedBrahmins to fortify their there religious order and methodology.The result of this effort is p£rvam¢m¡msa and uttaram¢m¡msa.

Since 5th C B.C, Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed royalpatronage. Emperor Asoka had extended all support to Buddhistsand sent missionaries to abroad to propagate Buddhism. On theother side, Chandragupta mourya sought Jainism and joinedMonastic order. The revival of Brahmanism commenced withthe establishment of Sunga dynasty. It received further supportand patronage from Guptas. Almost all the important literature

166 Kira¸¡val¢ Dr. G.NarayananDebate

of Indian orthodox philosophy and religion were written betweenB.C. 2nd and A.D. 4th centuries. Along with this the law books ofY¡jμavalkya and Manu became dominant.

On philosophical side, Jaimini wrote p£rvam¢m¡msa sutras andBadarayana Brahmasutras. Both these works attacked Buddhisttheories. áankar¡ch¡rya’s advaitavedanta vehemently attacked thepositions of Buddhists, Jains, Samkhyas, charvakas and minorreligious cults. At the same time áankar¡ch¡rya was not ready toaccept the p£rvam¢m¡msa theories as it is. Thus he left an optionbefore hindus either to follow the way of Karma that lead tosuffering or the way of knowledge that lead to ultimate liberationfrom the cycle of brith and death. In his commentary on Bhagavad-Gita he pointed out that the path of karma fetches prosperity. Butthe path of knowledge will free one from the cycle of births anddeaths by bringing him mokÀa. Hence the path of knowledge issuperior to karma1. This position helped him to attack ritualistreligion of p£rvam¢m¡msakas and counter the arguments ofBuddhists and jains.

The philosophy of áankar¡ch¡rya lives some confusion here.While commenting on the first aphorism of brahmasutra he saidthat any person who processes four essential requisites is eligibleto study advaitavedanta2. This criterion permits even an outcastwho possess these essential requisites can learn advaitavedanta.But later commenting on apa¿£dr¡dhikara¸a, he declared, followingManu, that a j¡ti¿£dra is not eligible for Vedanta3. At the sametime some scriptures suggest a reading that á£dra too have rightfor brahmavidya. Two narratives in chandogyopanishad that dealtwith this issue are the narrative of Satyak¡maj¡b¡la and thenarrative of Raikva. Satyak¡ma, son of J¡b¡la-a housemaid, whileseeking higher studies was asked about his father. He enquired itto his mother but in vain. Hearing his answer that he doesn’t know

Kira¸¡val¢ 167Social philosophy Debate

who his father is, the teacher solved the issue ruling that only aBrahmin could keep the vow of truth and taught him4. Thenarrative of Raikva is more interesting one. Raikva, a man whohad realised Brahman called J¡na¿ruti, the king who approachedhim to learn Brahmavidya, á£dra. After obtaining immense richesand the daughter of J¡na¿ruti, Raikva imparted him Brahmavidya5.áankar¡ch¡rya’s struggle to establish that the term á£dra inUpanishad is used not in the sense of j¡tis£dra should be noted6.

The narratives given above were quoted by certain section ofscholars to show the liberal view of Upanishads on caste andrights. But the first narrative reflects the opposite sense than theone intended. It assures that only Brahmins can keep the wow oftruth. This view is not liberal at all, but sectarian. In the secondepisode, áankar¡ch¡rya tries to prove the ineligibility of á£dra.áankar¡ch¡rya’s bias toward Brahmanism is evident in all hiswritings. Further the man¢À¡paμcaka of áankar¡ch¡rya and thelegend connected with it remained us the illogical position ofadvaitavedanta on equality and rights.

The logic of advaitavedanta envisages an egalitarian society.But, whether it was practiced or not, is a question. Internalevidences from áankar¡ch¡rya’s works reply in negative. Butmodern reformers used the logic of advaitavedanta to rejuvenateHinduism. Yet, many scholars who accepted and followed thephilosophy of áankar¡ch¡rya criticised him for his bias.

Notes and References1. Vide. Sambandha bh¡Àya on Bhagavad G¢ta by áankar¡ch¡rya

2. á¡´karabh¡Àya on Brahmas£tra I.i.13. Ibid I-iii-34-38

4. Ch¡ndogyopaniÀad IV-iv-(1-5)5. Ibid IV-ii-(1-5)

6. Vide S¡´karabh¡Àya on Brahmas£tra I-iii-(34-38) and

Ch¡ndogyopaniÀad IV-ii-(1-5)

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176 Kira¸¡val¢

Review

Debates In Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial andContemporary.A.Raghuramaraju.Oxford universityPress,New Delhi,2006.ISBN 0-19-567151-1 /978-0-19-567151-3

Dr K Muthulakshmy

To quote the words of A.Raghuramaraju, the author of the book“Debates in Indian Philosophy: Classical, colonial andContemporary”, the task of philosophy is not only to work withreadymade problems as available in philosophicalsystems….Equally important task of philosophy is to formulatenew discourses, systematize loose arguments, and explicate inlogical terms the scattered insights’’. This is true of this bookalso. This book tries to bring out the debates in contemporaryIndian philosophy. At the same time it also acknowledges itscontinuities and discontinuities from classical and colonialstreams of Indian philosophy.

The fundamental argument the author puts forward is thatdebates and differences were the nerve centre of classical IndianPhilosophy. But during the colonial period ,a tendency to patchup the differences and project a monolithic and homogenousphilosophical face of India emerged. And so, the earlier nature ofdebates has to be regained today to bring out the complex natureof contemporary Indian philosophy.

In this context, he presents three important debates pertainingto contemporary Indian Philosophy. The first one is betweenSwami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi.(Swami and Mahatmaparadigms; state and civil society).The second one is betweenSavarkar and Gandhi (From politicizing religion to spiritualizing

Kira¸¡val¢ 177

politics.) And the third is between Sri Aurobindo andKrishnachandra Bhattacharya (Relation between science andspiritualism) The prominence the Advaita Vedanta gained andthe ways even Advaita was modified during Nationalist periodare explained by the author.

These debates do not adhere to the tools and methods ofclassical Indian philosophical tradition only. Nor do they blindlysubscribe to the path laid out by western philosophy. Moreimportantly, they are sensitive to contemporary issues likecolonialism, nationalism, modernity, tradition etc.

This book is certainly one of the important works oncontemporary Indian philosophy. And very relevantly, all the threeterms employed here, ie, contemporary, Indian and philosophyare subjected to thorough analysis by the author.

178 Kira¸¡val¢

Annual Index of Articles published

in Kira¸¡val¢ Vol-1;Books- 1&2

Dr.P.Chithambaran- Influence of Sankara on later Philosophers;KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.91-101

Dr.Dharmaraj Adat-Buddha Sankara Narayana Philosophies andthe Advaita tradition of india; KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.153-161

Dr.Geethamony Amma-Prak§ti and Puru¿a in ClassicalS°Δkhya, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.126-136

Dr.N.Kalpana-Position And Status of Women In Yajnavalkyasm§ti, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.144-152

Dr..M. Manimohanan - The Sphota theory of meaning with spe-cial reference to the Vakyapadiya of Bhartrhari, KV.Vol-1, Book-1,P.7-40

Dr.K.Muthulakshmi-Sanskrit,English and Malayalam: Sometrajectries of Admixure,KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.41-48-------------------------(Review article) Debate in Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial and contemporary, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.176-177

Dr.G.Narayanan-Nirvikalpakapratyaksha in Advaitavedanta,KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.57-69.................................Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta,KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P. 165-167

Dr.Reeja.B.Kavanal-Influence of Natyasastra In the Dramas ofKalidasa, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P. 137-143

Dr.C.S.Sasikumar-Karnabhara: Atrue Tragic play in Sanskrit Lit-erature, KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.49-56

Dr.S.Sivakumar- Abhava in Navya Nyaya: Definition and Applica-tion-70-78

Kira¸¡val¢ 179

Dr.S.Sobhana-The Concept of Aumk°ra in theM°∏d£kyopani¿ad, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.118-125

Dr.S.Suresh Kumar-Dialectic of Vidy° and Avidy° in Indian

Philosophy: A General Survey, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.102-117

Dr.N.Sundaram- {ÉÎhb÷iÉÉOÉhÉÒ& B¨ÉÂ. BSÉÂ ¶ÉÉºjÉÒ, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,

P.171-175

Dr.R.Vijayakumar- Dr.N.Gopala Panicker: A scholar par Excellence,KV.Vol-1,Book-1, P.79-81

------------------------------------------------ ................iÉÖ±ªÉÉºªÉ|ÉªÉixÉÆ ºÉ´ÉhÉÇ¨ÉÂ ºÉÚjÉ´ªÉÉJªÉÉxÉ¨ÉÂ*,

KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.168-170

180 Kira¸¡val¢

Submission & Subscription Kira∏°val¢, the journal of Sanskrit Research foundation is

published with the intention to keep up the rich academictradition of Thiruvananthapuram in the area of Sanskrit learning..The journal covers contemporary trends in the study of Sanskrit.and related subjects and problems in methodology.Contemporary Indology surpasses classical Indology in allaspects. The new trends in social sciences and cultural studiesinfluenced ‘new Indology’ to a great extent. Philosophy,literature, grammar, fine arts etc. were analysed and discussedin the light of new ideologies. In this milieu we would like toreconsider our traditional knowledge systems to make themtransparent.

We are inviting excellent original research papers fromscholars. Kira∏°val¢ is conceived as peer reviewed journal toensure quality. Eminent academicians and experts form ourreview panel. We are expecting co-operations from all.

Submission GuidelinesManuscripts should be typed in a 12 pt. font and double-

spaced on one side of plain paper, with wide margins to allowfor editorial notes and instructions to the printer. Equations andsymbols should be typed if possible; in any case, clarity isessential. The first page of the manuscript should contain thearticle title. Each page of the manuscript should be consecutivelynumbered, including pages of references and captions. As wefollow a double-blind reviewing procedure, authors arerequested not to include their name or affiliation in theirsubmitted papers. Self-identifying citations and references inthe article text should be avoided. Authors should thus makesure that their names and/or affiliations are NOT mentioned

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on any of the manuscript pages. If authors do include theirnames on submitted papers, anonymous reviewing cannot beguaranteed. You can mention your name and other relateddetails in the covering letter. You can send the papers directly tothe editor or the section editors. You are advised to send twocopies of the manuscript neatly printed on one side of the paper,along with a soft copy (M.S.Word). Your personal details, textand notes and references should be collected as separate word(.doc) files.

Space is too precious. Hence we request to site the source intext itself and collect the ‘works sited’ at the end of the paper.More clearly you are advised to follow M.L.A. style

SubscriptionTo subscribe Kira∏°val¢ please send your subscription

amount to the following address either as cheque, DD or MO.DD and cheque should be in favour of SANSKRIT RESEARCHFOUNDATION payable at any bank at Thiruvananthapuram.AmountSingle Issue - Rs.75.001 year (Four Issues) - Rs.300.00

SecretarySanskrit Research foundationT.C. 39/37Vrindavan GardenThiruvananthapuram -36

[email protected]

182 Kira¸¡val¢

News

Kira¸¡val¢ ReleasedDr.S.Rajasekharan,

Pro-Vice Chancellor ofSree SankaracharyaUniversity of Sanskrit,Kalady, had Released theResearch Journal ofSanskrit Reseach

Foundation, Kira¸¡val¢in a function organisedat the S.S.U.S. Regional centre , Thiruvananthapuram on1.10.2009 by giving the copy to Dr .K.E.N Kunjahammad,

noted critic, activist and academician.

ObituaryDr.R.Karunakaran (1927-2009)

We deeply regret to report the demise of Dr. R. Karunakaran,

Rtd. Professor of Sanskrit, on 13th october 2009. Born in 1927

at Edakkadam,Kollam, he had his higher stud ies on sanskrit at

Madrass. He passed ‘Advaitavedanta Siromoni’ from University

of Mardras, M.A and Ph.D from the University of Kerala. His first

appointment was at the department of Malayalam Lexicon,

University of Kerala, in June 1955. In 1959 he joined

Govt.Sanskrit college as lecturer in Vedanta. He became the

professor of Vedanta and the acting Principal of Govt.Sansktit

college, Thiruvananthapuram. Later he served as the Principal

of Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetham under the ministry of

Education, Govt.of Ind ia. He was the Principal of Tirupati and

Puri vidyapeethas. In 1978 he joined the Department of Sanskrit,

Kira¸¡val¢ 183

University of Kerala as Reader. He was the d irector of Center

for Vedanta stud ies attached to the department of Sanskrit for

a long period. He has undertaken a project, f inanced by U.G.C,

on Vedantamahakosa.

‘The concept of ‘Sat in advaitavedanta’ is his magnum opus,

in which he successfully explained the advaita notion of Sat in

the background of ind ian philosophy. During his tenure at

Kendriya Sanskrit vidyapitha he was the general Ed itor of

Agamakosa. He critically ed ited and published Darsanamala

of Sri Narayana Guru and ‘Vedantadarsana’. He worked in

Thailand for two years as visiting Professor. He was the patron

of Sree Sankara Vidyapeetha at Edakkadam.

184 Kira¸¡val¢

SUBSCRIPTION FORMI/We would like to Subscribe Kira∏°val¢ . Please

send the journal to the Following address.

Name: .................................................................Address: .................................................................

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.................................................................Pin: .................................................................Telephone: .................................................................Mobile: .................................................................E-mail: .................................................................

Details of amount paidM.O/D.D/ Cheque No. ........................................................

The M.O/D.D/ Cheque should be sent to

The SecretarySanskrit Research FoundationSomavihar, T.C. 39/ 37Chala, Thiruvananthapuram-36

Note

DD and cheque should be drawn in favour of ‘Sanskrit Re-search Foundation’

(Please cut this form and send along with your subscription)

kiranavali vol 1 book2 2009

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