kingdom animalia phylum chordata · 2020. 3. 1. · class myxini –hagfishes class...
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Kingdom AnimaliaPhylum Chordata
The vertebrates and their relatives
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Figure 23.02
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Phylum Chordata4 Characteristics of a chordate
1. A dorsal hollow nerve cord (spinal cord in
vertebrates)
2. A notochord (most vertebrates only have a
notochord during development – becomes
the backbone in vertebrates)
3. Pharyngeal Pouches (develop into gills in
fish and amphibians and becomes glands
and auditory canal in later chordates)
4. Post-anal Tail (disappears in humans)
**Thyroid Gland-secretes mucus that traps
food in pharyngeal cavity
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Four Chordate Hallmarks
• Dorsal tubular nerve cord
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Four Chordate Hallmarks
• Notochord – flexible rodlike structure;
extending length of body
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Four Chordate Hallmarks
• Pharyngeal pouches and gill slits
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Four Chordate Hallmarks
• Postanal tail – tail extends beyond anus
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**Fifth** Chordate Hallmarks
• Endostyle or thyroid gland – secretes mucous
that traps food particles in pharyngeal cavity
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**Sixth** Chordate Feature
• Ventral Heart – heart located ventrally
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Major Characteristics of
Chordates
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Phylum Chordata
Subphylum
Urochordata
Subphylum
Cephalochordata
Subphylum
Vertebrata
tunicates lancets Agnathans
Fish
Sharks
tetrapods
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Subphylum Urochordata
• Tunicates (also known as “sea squirts”)
– Look similar to other chordates during
development, but completely different as
adults
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Phylum Chordata 13
Subphylum Urochordata
• Defining characteristics
– Notochord and
nerve cord are
found only in the
larval stage
• Most of the urochordates
are filter feeders
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Filter
FeedingMy how we have changed!
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Phylum Chordata 15
Subphylum Cephalochordata
• Defining
characteristics– The notochord extends beyond
the nerve cord to the anterior
end of the animal
– The notochord is contractile,
formed as a longitudinal series
of flattened discs (rudimentary
vertebral column)
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Subphylum Cephalochordata
• Lancelets: live in the ocean with their body buried in
sand
– Have a definite mouth and no jaws
– Long pharynx with up to 100 gill slits
– Breathe through their body surface
– Have a simple digestive system, heart, and closed
circulation
– Notochord and nerve chord run entire length of body
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Amphioxus
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Video Resources for More Info
• Origin of Vertebrate System: https://youtu.be/232wtCuLsoI
• Evolution of Fish: https://youtu.be/DjthfvB47Mc
• Evolution of Vertebrates: https://youtu.be/nqoqxA8p_AM
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Subphylum Vertebrata
• 99% of chordates are vertebrates
– Fish >24,000 species
– Amphibian >4,000 species
– Reptiles >6,000 species
– Birds >10,000 species
– Mammals >5,400 species
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Phylum Chordata: The
Vertebrates
• Subphylum Vertebrata
• Nine extant classes
• First 3 commonly called fishes
• Remaining 4 called tetrapods (4 feet)
• All possess some form of segmented
vertebra
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Vertebrate Higher
Classification Superclass Agnatha - without jaws
Class Myxini – hagfishes
Class Cephalaspidomorphi – lampreys
Superclass Gnathostomata – with jaws Class Chondrichthyes – sharks, rays, chimaeras
Class Actinopterygii – ray-finned fishes
Class Sarcopterygii – lobe-fin fishes
Class Amphibia – frogs, salamanders
Class Reptilia – snakes, lizards, crocodiles
Class Aves - birds
Class Mammalia - mammals
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1st fish
Proto-vertebrate
Tunicate larvae Adult tunicate
lancelet
Possible evolution of 1st fish
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Adult tunicate Larval tunicate
Amphioxus
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1st dinosaur
end of dinosaurs
1st reptiles
1st amphibians
1st land plants
1st fish
1st invertebrates
Millions of YearsGeologic Time Scale
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Pikaia
Fossils dates back to
Cambrian 540-500 mya
Early Chordate ancestor may have given rise to 1st vertebrate
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Fish Evolution
• Fish were the first vertebrate to evolve
• Evolved about 540 mya
– Were jawless and covered in armored plates
• Devonian Period = Age of the Fishes
– Fish developed both jaws and fins at this time
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Evolution of Jaws in fish
agnathostome gnathostome
1st appeared 400 mya
chondocranium
palatoquadrateHyomandibular arch
Meckel’s cartilage
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Fishes
• Aquatic vertebrates characterized by:
– Fins (Movement)
– Scales (Protection)
– Gills (Breathing)
– There are fish with exceptions!– Can you name any?
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Groups of Extant Fishes
• Class Cephalospidomorphi – lamprey
• Class Myxini – hagfishes
• Class Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous
fishes
• Class Osteichthyes – bony fishes
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Hagfish
Class Agnatha
Subphylum
Vertebrata
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• Strictly marine
• No bone
• Rasping tongue
• No lateral line organs
• 5-15 pair gills
• Partial open circulatory system
• Holonephros and neotenic pronephros
• Numerous slime glands in skin, secrete copious
amounts of mucus
• Separate sexes, but all individuals have ovitestis,
• Eggs deposited at sea; direct development; totally
marine
Hagfish characteristics
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Hagfishes• Thought to feed on dead and dying fish
using a toothed tongue to scrape a hole in
the fishes side, but after autopsies found
only marine worms in digestive tract
• Have 6 hearts and an open circulatory
system
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Agnatha (jawless fishes)
• Lack: paired fins, scales, & well developed vertebrae
• Hagfish (slime eels)– Mucus for protection
– Feed on decaying flesh
• Lampreys– Parasitic
– Anadromous
• Marine adults, breed in freshwater
– Vampire fish
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Lamprey and Hagfishes
• Are jawless fishes
– Have mouths of soft tissue and no true teeth
• Have no bones
• Are the only vertebrates that do not have
vertebral columns as adults
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Lamprey
• Are filter feeders as larvae and parasites
that suck blood and tissues of fish as
adults River Monsters
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Lamprey Characteristics
• Oral disc/buccal funnel, with epidermal denticles
and rasping tongue; active "predatory parasites”
• No bone
• Nostril on top of head
• Well-developed vertebrate eyes
• Well-developed Lateral Line system
• Best developed pineal “eye” of any aquatic
vertebrate;
• 2 pairs of semicircular canals;
• Uniformly 7 pairs of gills
• Cranium cartilaginous, open on top
• Opisthonephros
• Eggs deposited in freshwater; freshwater larva;
many species have freshwater adult, but most
migrate to sea and have marine adult stage
(anadromous).
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Class Chondrichthyes
• Include sharks & rays
• Very successful class
• Called cartilaginous fishes because skeleton is cartilage not bone
• Approx. 750 species
• Have paired appendages
• Many have acute senses
• Sharks have a lateral-line system
• Allows shark to detect water pressure changes
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Fish Senses: Lateral Line
• Fish exhibit cephalization (brain)
• Many fish have Chemoreceptors for an extraordinary sense of taste and smell
• Lateral Line System –allows fish to sense movement and vibration
Shark's Lateral Line Explained
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Class Chondrichthyes
Sharks, skates, raysSubphylum
Vertebrata
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Cartilaginous Fishes
• Includes sharks, rays, skates, sawfishes, and chimaeras
• “Chondros” = Greek word for cartilage
• A typical shark has 3000 teeth arranged in 6 to 20 rows
• Not all are carnivores, the largest sharks are filter feeders
• Some have flat teeth for crushing mollusks and crustaceans
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Characteristics
• Posses jaws with teeth, cartilaginous skeleton, paired fins
• Scales (denticles) have same origin and composition as teeth
• Possesses 5-7 gills
• Spiral valve intestine
• Ureoosmotic strategy
• Lateral line
• No swim bladder
• Heterocercal tail
• Relatively unchanged (480 mybp)
Sharks, skates, rays, chimera
Class Chondrichthyes
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Basic Shark Anatomy
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Modern Sharks
• Planktivores
• Carnivores
• Parasites
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Gill arch from basking shark
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Cookie cutter shark
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pores
Detects weak magnetic fields produced by other fish
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Ovipary- eggs enclosed in
capsule; eggs are laid and
hatched outside the mother
Ovovipary- give birth to
young, eggs develop in
uterus
Vivipary- give birth to
young, placental
connection
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• Totally fossil, early jawed fishes;
• Bony armor usually present around head-trunk,
generally flattened body, tend to be bottom-
adapted with eyes rather dorsal (other various
designs);
• No true teeth
• Notochord persistent, un-constricted.
Class
Placodermi
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Class Placodermi
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Class Osteichthes
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• Posses jaws with teeth
• bony skeleton
• paired fins
• 4 paired gill arches covered by operculum
• Intestine- simple, no spiral valve
• Swim bladder
• Lateral line
• Homocercal tail
• Scales- cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid
Class
Osteichthyes
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Class Osteichthes
• Called Bony fish• Most diverse of all fish• Have skeleton made of bone• Have paired fins• Allowed evolution of 4 limbed
amphibians (tetrapods)• Possess scales for protection• Have bony flap called operculum
–Covers fish gills and acts like a water pump each time fish respires
• Have Swim bladder for buoyancy
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Basic Fish Structure
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Operculum-Gill Cover
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Bony Fishes
• Skeletons are made of calcified bone
• Includes fish we are most familiar with:
Sunfish, Trout, Crappie, catfish,
Larghmouth Bass, etc.
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Fish Ecology
• Some fish can live in both salt water and
fresh water
– Anadromous Fishes – spend most of their
life in the ocean but move to fresh water to
breed
– Catadramous Fishes – spend most of their
life in fresh water but move to the ocean to
breed
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Body Systems of Fishes
• Fish feed in a variety of ways including parasites, carnivores, herbivores, etc.
• Most fish breathe using gills– Gills are feathery filaments containing a network of capillaries to
increase surface area for CO2 and O2 exchange
• Fish have two chambered heart and closed circulation
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Body Systems of Fishes
• Fish digestive systems are similar to that of humans
• Excretory system is slightly different
• Ammonia is excreted by diffusion of water through gills and by use of kidneys
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Body Systems of Fishes
**How does the action of peeing differ in a marine environment vs fresh water?
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I got to go pee!!!
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Osmoconformers
vs.
Osmoregulators
What is the difference?
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Osmotic Challenges
• Osmoregulation- regulates solute
concentrations and balances the gain
and loss of water
• Osmoconformers, consisting only of some
marine animals, are isoosmotic with their
surroundings and do not regulate their
osmolarity
• Osmoregulators expend energy to control
water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or
hypoosmotic environment
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Hagfishes
• Osmoconformers
• Only vertebrate that is isotonic to seawater -
much like marine invertebrates
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Osmoregulators
• Aquatic vertebrates - gills are chief organs of excretion/osmoregulation
• Kidneys first evolved as osmoregulatory organs in fishes to remove water (freshwater) or conserve water (marine)
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Do I
drink
water
?
Do I
drink
water
?
Describe
my pee.
Describe my pee.
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Figure 44.3
(a) Osmoregulation in a marine fish (b) Osmoregulation in a freshwater fish
Gain of waterand salt ionsfrom food
Excretionof salt ionsfrom gills
Osmotic waterloss through gillsand other partsof body surface
Gain of waterand salt ionsfrom drinkingseawater
Excretion of salt ions andsmall amounts of water inscanty urine from kidneys
Gain of waterand some ionsin food
Uptake ofsalt ionsby gills
Osmotic watergain throughgills and otherparts of bodysurface
Excretion of salt ions andlarge amounts of water indilute urine from kidneys
Key
Water
Salt
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Body Systems of Fishes
**How does the action of peeing differ in a marine environment vs fresh water?
– Salt water fish lose water and thus conserve bodily fluids by having concentrated urine
– Fresh water fish gain water and to have dilute urine
– Fish that move from fresh to salt water alter their kidney function to adapt to tonicity!
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Fish Anatomy
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Fish Senses
• Swim Bladder – adjust buoyancy
– How does pulling a fish from 40 feet of water
affect the size of its swim bladder?
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Exposed Swim Bladder
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Fish Reproduction
• Oviparous – egg laying; includes both
internal (some sharks) and external (most
fishes) fertilization
• Ovoviviparous – eggs develop inside
mother’s body and are nourished by egg
yolk; young are born alive
• Viviparous – the mother’s body nourishes
the developing young which are born alive
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What’s Exam Going to Look
Like• See examples of practice exams on
website
• Mixture of Multiple choice
• Matching
• Short answer/fill in the blank
• Anatomical section
Great Reading Resource for Vertebrates
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Targets to Know
• Major characteristics of Arthropoda,
Echinodermata, and Vertebrata
• Taxonomy within each phylum (unless
otherwise stated in lecture)
• Evolutionary advances in respiration,
circulation, locomotion and reproduction
across the phyla
• Know anatomical structures of both
external and internal from exemplars used
in class
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Class Amphibia
• Amphibians gave rise to all other land
vertebrates
• Amphibian means “double life”
– As larvae they are typically aquatic filter
feeders or herbivores breathing through gills
– As adults most species are terrestrial
carnivores that breathe through their moist
skin and have lungs
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Adaptations to Life on Land
• As the amphibians developed in the late Devonian Period 360 mya they needed to adapt to terrestrial life
– Keep from drying out
– Breathe using lungs, not gills
– Bones in limbs allow movement
– Ribs to support and protect internal organs
• Amphibians dominated the Carboniferous Period 345 to 285 mya
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Amphibian Body Systems• Amphibians have a well developed
digestive system similar to that of humans
• As most amphibians develop lungs as adults, some are lung-less and only breathe through their skin
• They have closed circulation and a 3 chambered heart with a double loop system similar to that of a human
• Ammonia is disposed of in urine through the use of kidneys
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Amphibian Reproduction
• Most amphibians lay their eggs in water;
fertilization is external
• Some salamanders fertilize internally
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Amphibian Reproduction
• In most cases of external fertilization, the male will attach itself to the female. Eggs and sperm are released simultaneously and encapsulated in a jelly that attaches to aquatic plants.
• The jelly nourishes the developing embryos
• Tadpoles hatch and metamorphose into adults
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Amphibian Reproduction
• Most amphibians
abandon their eggs
once they lay them.
• Some care for both
eggs and young
• Some incubate their
eggs in unusual
places: in their mouth,
on their back, or in
their stomach
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Amphibian Senses
• Amphibians have a well developed brain
and spinal cord similar to that of a fish
• Eye’s are protected by a nictitating
membrane
• A tympanic membrane, or eardrum, is
located on either side of the head
• Many have a lateral line system similar to
that of a fish
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Groups of Amphibians
• Order Urodela: Salamanders and Newts
• Order Anura: Frogs and Toads
• Order Apoda: Caecilians
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Salamanders and Newts
• Have long bodies and tails
• Both adults and larvae are carnivores
• Most adults are terrestrial and live in damp
forests
• Some salamanders, such as mud puppies,
keep their gills and live in water all their
lives
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Frogs and Toads
• Have the ability to jump
• Frogs have longer legs and can jump
farther than toads
• Frogs are closely tied to water; toads are
more terrestrial
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Caecilians
• Least known of the amphibians
• Are legless and burrow in moist soil or
sediment
• Feed on small invertebrates such as
termites
• Some have scales
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Amphibian Ecology
• Most are a great meal for birds and
reptiles
• Some have toxins to poison predators
• Some have bright colors to warn of their
toxins
• Some mimic the bright colors of others
and are harmless
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Amphibian Ecology
• Amphibian populations are declining worldwide due to several factors with 1/3 of 6,000 species listed as threatened over 100 species have gone extinct in last 30 yrs.
• Global Warming
• Decreasing Habitat
• Depletion of the Ozone
• Water Pollution
• Introduced Aquatic Predators
• Fungal Infections
• Increasing human population!
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Amphibian Anatomy
• We can use amphibian anatomy to model
our own complex anatomical systems
• Many of the systems we have already
discussed, but we now cover them a bit
more in depth
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Respiratory System
Exchanging of gases via two well developed lungs
Major Structures:
1. Mouth
2. Trachea
3. Lungs (left & right)
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Cardiovascular SystemProcess of exchanging oxygenated blood
with deoxygenated blood via a heart a
series of arteries and veins
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Cardiovascular SystemProcess of exchanging oxygenated blood
with deoxygenated blood via a heart a
series of arteries and veins
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Digestive System
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Class Reptilia
Characteristics
• Ectothermes- used to be
known as cold blooded
• Have scales
• Amniotic egg
• Dry skin
• 3 chambered heart (except
crocks)6,500 species
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Class Reptilia
• Land vertebrates with a well developed
skull, a backbone and tail, and four limbs
– Exemptions: snakes have no legs, and turtles
have a shell formed of fused vertebrae?
• Can a turtle lose its shell?
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Reptile Evolution
• The oldest reptile fossils date back to the
early Carboniferous Period some 350
million years ago
• Dinosaurs of the Triassic and Jurassic
Period ruled the earth until 65 million years
ago
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Reptile Body Systems
• Reptiles are ectotherms – rely on interactions with the environment to control their body temperature
• Reptiles have well developed lungs, three chambered hearts, and a well developed brain and spinal cord
• Reptiles’ legs are rotated farther under their body than amphibians allowing them to carry weight and walk on land more efficiently
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Anatomical comparison between
Sarcopterygian, amphibian, and reptile.
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Reptile Reproduction
• Internal Fertilization – males have a penis
to place sperm in the female’s cloaca
• Most are oviparous
– Turtles leave their nests unattended while
alligators protect their nest
• Some snakes are ovoviviparous
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Ovipary- eggs enclosed in
capsule; eggs are laid and
hatched outside the mother
Ovovipary- give birth to
young, eggs develop in
uterus
Vivipary- give birth to
young, placental
connection
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Reptilian Eggs
• Reptiles have amniotic eggs – named after
one of the four membranes around the
developing embryo
– Amnion: produces watery environment
around embryo
– Yolk Sac: contains nutrient rich yolk that
feeds embryo
– Chorion: allows gas exchange
– Allantois: stores waste
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Amniotic Egg
Yolk sac
Amnioticcavitywithamnioticfluid
Chorion
Amnion
Albumen
Yolk(nutrients)
Allantois
Embryo
Shell
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Groups of Reptiles
• Order Squamata: lizards and snakes
• Order Crocodilia: alligators, crocodiles,
caimans, and gavials
• Order Chelonia: turtles, tortoises,
terrapins
• Order Rhynchocephalia - tuataras
Orders not important
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Lizards and Snakes
• Most lizards have legs, clawed toes,
external ears, and movable eyelids
• Some lizards do not have legs and look
more like a snake
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Alligators, Crocodiles, and their
Relatives• Alligators and Caimans
live only in fresh water and almost exclusively in North and South America
• Crocodiles live in both fresh and salt water and are native to Africa, India, and Southeast Asia
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Turtles, Tortoises, and Terrapins
• Turtles – live in or near water
• Tortoises – are terrestrial
• Terrapins – live in brackish water
– Carapace: Dorsal side of Shell
– Plastron: Ventral side of Shell
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Ecology of Reptiles
• Many are in danger due to loss of habitat
• Humans also hunt them for food, pets, and
their skins (for bags and boots)
• Many conservation efforts are underway,
but more are needed worldwide
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Evolution of Birds
• Oldest known
fossil is
Archaeopteryx
which lived
during the
Jurassic Period
150 mya.
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• Birds are very
closely related to
dinosaurs, with
new DNA
sequencing
advancements
placing stronger
statistical support
for birds evolving
from early
dinosaur-like
reptiles.
Evolution of Birds
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Class Aves
Characteristics
• Endotherms- Warm blooded
• Feathers and wings
• Hollow bones
• Horny bill
• Lungs have air sacks
• Hard egg shell
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Class Aves
• Characteristics of
most birds
– Maintain a constant
internal body
temperature
– Covered in feathers
– Have two legs for
walking and perching
– Front limbs are wings
– Most are adapted for
flight
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Feathers
• Used for flight and warmth; several types
– Contour Feathers: provide the lifting force and
balance needed for flight
– Down Feathers: trap air close to the body and keep
the bird warm
– Powder Down: found on ducks and other birds that
live on or in water; release a fine powder that repels
water
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Body Systems of Birds
• Endotherms: can generate their own body
heat; warm-blooded
• Smaller birds must eat more in relation to
its size due to Surface Area to Volume
Ratio
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Feeding habits of Birds
• They lack teeth and therefore do not chew
• Beaks are adapted to the types of food
they eat
• Bird Digestion
– Crop: enlargement of the esophagus used to
store food
– Gizzard: has muscular walls and small bits of
gravel used to grind food
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Respiration
• Birds have very efficient lungs that provide oxygen rich blood during both inhalation and exhalation
• Inhaled air enters posterior and anterior air sacs it then travels through the lungs and is exhaled
• Therefore the air flows into the air sacs and out of the lungs in one single direction, always providing oxygen rich air
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Circulation and Excretion
• Two loop circulatory system, similar to that of
humans
• Ammonia is removed by the kidneys, converted
to high concentration uric acid and defecated
(bird droppings); similar to reptiles
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Senses of Birds
• The brains of birds are very well
developed
– Birds can see color very well and UV light
– Birds can hear very well
– Smell or taste are not well developed
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Bones and Muscles
• Most birds can fly. Others are adapted for
swimming and running
• Bones are light, strong, and adapted for
flight; many bones are fused to provide a
study base for flight adaptations
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Bird Reproduction
• Both male and female reproductive tracts
open into the cloaca
• The sex organs, internal in both sexes,
increase in size during mating season
• Birds rub their cloacas together during
mating to transfer sperm
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Eggs and Incubation
• Eggs are amniotic but unlike reptile eggs
have a hard outer shell
• Eggs must be incubated by the parents
since they are endotherms
• Young must be cared for after hatching
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Ecology of Birds• Birds are very ecologically important
– Hummingbirds are involved in pollination
– Some birds eat seeds without digesting them and therefore spread the seeds
– Many birds keep insect populations in check
• Many birds migrate by guidance of stars, Earth’s landmarks, and Earth’s magnetic field
• Birds are good indicators of environmental health; bird numbers dwindled with the use of DDT
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Class Mammalia
• Characteristics of mammals
– Endotherms
– Have mammary glands and nurse young
– Have hair
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Evolution of Mammals
• The earliest mammals evolved about the same time as the early dinosaurs but remained in the shadows until the giant reptiles disappeared
• First ancestors of mammals appeared during the Permian Period about 290 to 250 mya
• First true mammals appeared during the Jurassic Period 210 mya
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Mammal Evolution
• When the continents
split about 60 mya,
three groups of
mammals were
isolated from one
another.
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Staying Warm
• Animals have hair to help insulate their bodies.
• They also have subcutaneous fat to keep them warm and many have sweat glands to cool them off.
• Smaller mammals have higher metabolism than larger ones in order to create enough body heat to keep warm.
• Mammals eat about 10 times as much food as a reptile in order to stay warm.
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Comparison of Vertebrate
Forelimbs
• When comparing the bones and bone
structures of all vertebrates - birds,
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals – you
can see many of the same bones with very
similar functions
• Refer to Figure 32-7 in the text (Page 826)
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Mammal Reproduction
• Internal Fertilization occurs in mammals
• Mammals are divided into three groups
based on methods of development and
birth
– Oviparous: egg-laying mammals are called
monotremes
– Viviparous: includes both placental mammals
and marsupials
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Caring for Young
• All newborn mammals feed on their
mother’s milk
• Some newborns are helpless at birth and
must be cared for
• Others are able to see and walk within
minutes after birth
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Monotremes
• Monotremes are the egg laying mammals
• They share two notable characteristics with reptiles
– Both the reproductive and urinary systems open into a cloaca
– “Monotreme” means single opening
• Only three species of monotremes exist today: they are found in Australia and New Guinea
– Duckbill Platypus and two species of Spiny Anteaters
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Laying eggs and caring for young
• Monotremes lay eggs that are incubated
outside the body
• They hatch into young animals in about 10
days
• The young are nourished by their mother’s
milk that they lick from pores on the
mother's abdomen
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Marsupials
• Marsupials give birth to live young that complete their development in an external pouch
• Examples include kangaroos, wombats, koalas, and Tasmanian devils
• A short time after internal fertilization a small embryo leaves the mother’s body, crawls across the fur, and enters the marsupium (pouch) where it attaches to a nipple to nurse
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Placental Mammals
• Placental Mammals are those that are most familiar to us.
• Placenta – organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother
• Gestation – the time it takes from conception to birth in mammals (can vary from 2 weeks to 2 years depending on the mammal)
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Orders of Mammals
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What’s Exam Going to Look
Like• See examples of practice exams on
website
• Mixture of Multiple choice
• Matching
• Short answer/fill in the blank
• Anatomical section
Great Reading Resource for Vertebrates
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Targets to Know
• Major characteristics of Arthropoda,
Echinodermata, and Vertebrata
• Taxonomy within each phylum (unless
otherwise stated in lecture)
• Evolutionary advances in respiration,
circulation, locomotion and reproduction
across the phyla
• Know anatomical structures of both
external and internal from exemplars used
in class