Kilombero Valley Teak Company

Silviculture

Self

Assessment

Programme

2

Table of contents

Chapter Page Introduction 3

Silviculture Self Assessment Programme 4

1. Integrated Environmental Management 5

a) Site x specie matching 5

b) Conservation 6

c) Fire Protection 7

d) Harvesting 7

e) Mapping 7

2. Silviculture Management 8

1. Planning 8

2. Site selection 9

3. Access roads 9

4. Clear felling 10

5. Fuel reduction 10

6. Land preparation 10

7. Planting 14

8. Corrective coppicing 16

9. Weed control 17

10. Pruning 20

11. Hand pruning 20

12. Thinning 20

13. Diseases 21

Annexure A - Forest Audits 22

Annexure B - Planting Restrictions 23

Annexure C - Silviculture Regimes 24

Annexure D – Pre burn Questionnaire 25

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INTRODUCTION

This manual defines the key components of good Silviculture practice in KVTC. Silviculture

operations and their sequence have been defined and, where appropriate, critical timings

have been allocated. This combination of “best practice” and “self assessment” will enable

the forester and Development Manager to systematically assess the quality of the Silviculture

against the KVTC standard. This manual and procedures will also facilitate audits from other

disciplines.

For continuity and control, the manual will be maintained by the Technical Department of

KVTC. The success of the project will depend on regular input in order to keep the manual

up to date. It will therefore be appreciated if any changes (i.e. technological improvements)

to silviculture practices are submitted to the Technical Department, for inclusion in the

manual. The self assessment programme will be distributed to contractors, KVTC

management and internal auditors as new updates are produced.

AUDITING PROCESS

The Silviculture Self Assessment (SSA) programme comprises various levels of auditing.

Comprehensive Audit:

A complete Silviculture audit includes all aspects of the assessment programme. This is to

ensure that all levels of planning and support are in place and that correct silvicultural

procedures and standards are followed. The following assessments are recommended.

Level 1: First line assessment

Assessments of quality and standards to be maintained for every compartment

worked in. The self assessment programme combines Environmental Management

and Silviculture (Annexure a). First line supervision checklist/works order will be used

in conjunction with the self assessment programme to serve as an input into the next

assessment level.

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Level 2: First Party Assessment

A random assessment on Level 1 operations covering all age classes, species,

working circles in a representative way, and focusing on new plantings and areas of

intensive Silviculture. This assessment is done by the Silviculture Forester on a

regular basis and by the Technical Manager once every 3 months and by the

Development Manager once every 6 months. Records are kept at the Mtiki office.

Level 3: Second Party Assessment

Done by an assessment team possibly comprising of: Chief Forest Manager,

Environmental Manager, Technical Manager, Development Manager and any other

interested parties such as the visiting advisor to KVTC. This assessment is done

annually and the records are kept at the Ifakara Office.

Level 4: Third Party Assessment – Certification Assessment

Done by an independent certification body on request of management.

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SILVICULTURE SELF ASSESSMENT PROGRAMME

INTRODUCTION & PRINCIPLES

This Silviculture Self Assessment Programme integrates Environmental Management with

Silvicultural Management issues. The very nature of plantation forestry necessitates this

step as neither of the two management approaches can function in isolation.

It further provides elements which must be considered, and guidelines which should be

followed, in terms of the effect that Silviculture operations have on the total environment

in achieving sustainable plantation forestry given the values which society and the forest

industry rate as important.

The Silvicultural Community of KVTC supports the following principles in short.

a) Maintain the resource base

The maintenance of soil productivity and the subsistence of the quantity and quality

of water resources.

b) Maintain the sustained yield of goods and services

Optimizing the yield of timber, non-timber products and non-tradable services.

c) Maintain biodiversity

Plan and manage all land to mainta in ecosystem function and maintain indigenous

species diversity while accommodating important species.

d) Wise use of water

Without compromising the domestic and ecological reserve, to maximize fibre yield

by applying diversity while accommodating important species.

e) Optimize the socio-economic impacts of forestry

Ongoing attention will be given to participation of employees and neighbouring

communities with a view to promoting openness, access to resources and

opportunities, and a healthy and safe working and living environment. Provide for

the training and development of human resources.

f) Develop supportive institutional framework and policy

All operations will comply with relevant legislation while supporting appropriate

research.

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1. Integrated Environmental Management a) Site x Species Matching

• There are numerous factors that need to be taken into account, some of these

being:

i. Soils: types and depth

ii. Altitude: particularly cut-off values for water table, disease and insect

attacks.

iii. Aspect

iv. Climate: including weather phenomena, Mean Annual Temperature

(MAT), Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP), Hail Exposure and Wind

Exposure.

v. Market considerations: the need to improve timber quality has put

increasing pressure on forest land and mills to maximize timber yields.

This has resulted in the necessity of selecting the correct species for a

particular site.

vi. Nursery seedling availability: annual meetings are held to establish the

following year’s plant requirements.

b) Conservation

Conservation areas must be identified and demarcated. The data within Map server

,such as Areas of Special Interest (ASI), Evergreen forests, Miombo woodlands assist

in the identification of:

• Wetlands, springs, rivers and recharge areas

• Rare or endangered fauna and flora, problem animals and important breeding sites

• Riparian zones

• Corridors for animal movement and gene flow

• Existing or planned conservation areas

• Current and possible Natural Heritage Sites

• Archaeological, historical sites and graves

• Geological features such as caves, sinkholes, waterfalls, scenic features and view

sites

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This information can also assist in the identification of nature recreational sites.

c) Fire Protection

• Precautions, facilities and expenditure must be balanced with the perceived

current and historical risk of fire losses.

• Fire protection plans are to be updated before the start of the fire season each

year.

• A record of fires is to be kept to assist with risk management and to track

performance.

d) Harvesting

• Reference to the terrain classifications necessary for planning purposes.

• Soil sensitivity must be identified to determine time of felling, to minimize soil

damage and erosion.

• Planned extraction routes and slipping paths must be identified and established

prior to felling.

• Harvesting Miombo or Teak?

e) Mapping

• All roads, waterways, compartments, conservation areas, riparian zones must be

accurately mapped and changes to maps should be referred to the Technical

Department.

• It is the Forester’s responsibility to ensure that maps are accurate, complete and

current.

• The standard operations map is 1:10 000.

• Maps are annotated in-field, but are stored and manipulated in digital format by the

Technical Department.

• A register of maps sent in for changes must be kept.

• A map audit is carried out on a continuous basis.

• The Global Position System or aerial photography should be used for all map

changes where clearly delineated features are not available.

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• It is essential for the Forester to ensure that he is aware of all Permanent Sample

Plots, Areas of special interest and research trials within his plantation.

2. SILVICULTURE MANAGEMENT

1. Planning

a) Planting

• Observe distance from springs, waterways, ASI (To be specified)

• Note maximum hectares to be planted

• Note expiry date of the lease agreement

• All exotic self -sown trees within the wetland zones to be removed. This

includes open areas away from the streams, springs etc.

b) Soil surveys

Soil information plays a vital role in operations planning and plantation

management. All soil surveys are to be performed by the Technical Department.

This process at present takes place one or two years prior to the planting

program. All new acquired land will be surveyed in a systematic process eg.

move in a north to south direction over the total leased land.

c) Plant ordering

• A three to five year planting plan is to be drafted from the 66 year plan

• Detail that is contained in the Annual Plan of Operations (APO) may include

amongst others

§ Espacement

§ Stumps or seedlings

• An annual nursery meeting will be held with the objective of establishing

nursery requirements, seedling requirements and quality.

• These meetings are co-ordinated by the Technical Department

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• Frequent interactions during and before the planting season are to be held

between the foresters, nursery contractor and the Technical Department

2. Site Selection

Identifying the gross potential teak land on KVTC lease land

• Site selection follows the following process

§ Identification of possible sites by studying aerial photos

§ Ground verification by Technical Department

• Soil samples are taken with a soil orga every 50m

• Site classes are as follows

§ Site class ? - >1.5m red or reddish brown clay or clay loam

§ Site class ? – >1m red or reddish brown clay or clay loam

§ Site class ? – 0.75-1m sand clay or sand clay loam over mottling/

concretions or >1m sand loam

§ Site class ? – >1m loamy sand or 0.5-0.75 any texture over mottling/

concretions

§ Site class ? – >0.75m sand or >0.5m any texture over mottling /

concretion or poorly drained grey cracking clays (Mbuga soils) or

Impenetrable layer (hardpan, stones or gravel) within 1m of surface

• Site classes ?,? and ? are selected, with site class ? included by default

• Slope is restricted to 22.5°

• Environmental Impact Assessments are carried out with regards to fauna and

flora bio-diversity and potential impacts

• Migratory routes and suitable buffer zones are also considered

3. Access Roading

Preparation of roads to allow for the establishment activities

• Ensure an EIA has been completed and signed off by all relevant personnel

(attach to maps)

• A 1:5000 map containing contours, ASI’s, riverine areas and proposed roads

with marked culverts and future compartment

• Make allowances for the soil and road surface to cure prior to road construction

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• Ensure trees are felled with minimum damage to the surrounding forest

• All trees and stumps are to be removed from the road area

4. Clear Felling

Removal of all non-restricted species as well as other vegetation from the area that

has been selected for establishment

• Stumps not to exceed 45 cm in height

• Timber to be cross cut and in contact with the ground

• Promote charcoal production by relevant villages prior to establishment

• Promote the collection of fire wood by the villagers

5. Fuel Reduction

This activity is concerned with the removal of all combustible material with in the

compartment

• Ensure a cool burn at all times

• Complete a cool burn procedure document (Annexure D)

6. Land Preparation

• Virgin lands: complete cultivation is often not allowed and guidelines for

manual pitting are to be followed

• Adequate soil tilth must be created to allow rapid early root growth and even

stands through optimum water and nutrient uptake

• Planting of the correct number of trees to optimize the site potential, yield and

fibre quality is necessary. Refer to Annexure C for the espacement

prescriptions

A. STUMP KILL

• Chemical (no registered applications)

• Manual kill

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• Bashing to kill stumps is only to be used when other means are not possible

• A 95% kill must be achieved

B. NO BURN

• This is the preferred technique for KVTC

• Slash left in place increases surface layer organic matter content and reduces

soil water evaporation

• A large proportion of the nutrients of a plantation are concentrated in the leaves,

twigs, bark, cambium and roots of the tree

• During harvesting operations this material should be spread across the site, or

stacked in windrows along the contour and as it decomposes, nutrients are

released slowly without excessive leaching.

C. BURN

• A no-burning policy should be practiced wherever possible. However, where

there is a high risk of the fire (from neighbours), or where excessive material has

accumulated on the surface resulting in a high fire risk e.g new land

• Burning of slash will only take place within the parameters of annexure D

• “Hot fires” can lead to considerable damage of a forest ecosystem

D. MARK AND PIT

Try to pit as soon as possible after marking as wind or rain will remove the marks

Ensure planting espacement is 3m x 3m

a) Single operation

• The T-pipe method may be used.

• The pits are then hoed open opposite the marks on the chain or T -pipe

• A ring will be scriffed 50cm from the centre in a circular shape

• Ensure the pit is made in the centre of the ring

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• The pit must have a minimum depth of 25x25cm into mineral soil, and any

soil removed from the pit must be placed on soil and not on slash or

waste.

• Stones, leaves and sticks are to be removed from the tilthed soil

Mark along chain, proceed to ring weed and pit. Ensure pit is 25cm x 25cm x 25cm

b) Two operations

• The same specifications apply as above, except that the operation is split

• The pits are pre-marked and then opened ahead of the planting operation

by a pitting team

• A weed control operation might be required to precede the marking

operation

E. PIT

• All the soil within the pit is to be dug over and any clods broken down.

All rocks and other solid objects, e.g. roots must be removed. The pit

must have a depth of at least 25cm into mineral soil. On the steep

slopes a pit requires more digging on the upper-side, so that a shelf is

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formed, and the surface of the pit must be tilted inwards, thus creating

additional freeboard

• Before any pit or shelf is dug, any grass growth or weeds in a ± 50cm

diameter from the centre of the marking-pit, must be cleared to allow for

the base of the protective spraying cone in subsequent weed control

operations

• No weeds or grasses and their roots are allowed to be mixed with the

planting hole’s soil

• It is preferable to keep soil in the planting hole if planting does not occur

immediately

• Although it appears to be a simple operation, careful and constant

supervision is required and some of the areas which require attention

include:-

i. Ensure that the pit dimensions are maintained, i.e. pit

uniformity

ii. Pits must be made in mineral soil and not just into the litter

layer

iii. Walls of pits must not be smeared or vertical. This inhibits

root growth across these soil boundaries

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Pit size 25cm x 25cmx 25cm

Remove all loose stones

Break up all soil clods

Remove leaves and other foreign material

7. Planting (Refer to Annexure B for planting restrictions)

A. SEEDLING QUALITY CHECK

The following characteristics should be evaluated and accepted without any

reservation prior to planting:

• Uniform sized seedlings

• Good root / shoot ratio

• Only one plant per root plug, with a straight upright stem, coming from the centre of

the bag

Ring clean 100cm

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• Root plugs should be well developed, not losing any of the growing medium with

very little air pockets and no J-roots

• White roots indicating active root growth should be present

• No signs of diseases

• No mechanical damage – wind scorch or broken shoots

• Ensure temporary shade for seedlings infield while awaiting planting

• All seedlings due for planting should be thoroughly soaked with water before

leaving the nursery. Out in the plantation a base is made where seedlings are kept

regularly doused with water.

Stumps

• Bind in bundles of 50

• Remove all root hairs

• Store in cool place

• Stumps are to be 25 cm long

B. SEEDLING TRANSPORT AND HANDLING

• Protect plants from wind and sun but ensure adequate ventilation during transport

• All plants must be well watered before being transported

• Care must be taken when packing plants in lug boxes; they should not be

compacted or left for too long periods in boxes

• Trays should be kept in a shaded environment before the plants are planted

• Do not place the plants out next to their respective planting pits ahead of time.

The surrounding air and sun will burn the delicate roots within minutes and they

will become clinically dead

D. PLANT AVAILABILITY

• Keep up good communications between forests and nurseries to identify any

problems in supply well in advance.

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E. PRE-PLANT SPRAY

This activity is concerned with the application of herbicide to the compartment in order to

prevent competition between the young trees and weeds.

• Pre-plant spray is carried out if there is sufficient weed growth prior to planting

• A slash operation will be carried out if weeds exceed 50cm in height (this is done

14 days prior the pre plant spray)

• Chemical treatment done within 5 days prior to planting

• Weeds should not be allowed to exceed 30cm for practical and economic control.

Repeated sprays may be necessary

• Glyphosate is used for most conditions

• Application rates of 6lt per ha is a pre requisite

F. PLANT

Establish trees on prepared land

• Where possible, planting should be limited to the months suitable for teak

establishment

• Plants must be kept moist infield

• Plants must be stored in a cool shady place infield

• Planting must NOT be done on a production driven basis

• Plants must be planted with adequate soil moisture and with the necessary water

and super absorbents

• Free water is required with seedlings

• It is essential that the root plug be placed vertically into the pit. The necessary

precautions against root distortion must be taken (eg. lifting seedling 1cm from

base, etc.)

• Plants should be planted deep.

• Super absorbents, are usually applied at 500ml per tree at a rate of 5gr of product

per tree. The super absorbent must be thoroughly mixed for 15 minutes prior to

use. Optimum results are achieved when the mix has a fair amount of free water

During the planting process, attention should be given to the following points

specifically; planting hole preparation, ring clean, planting depth, root distortion,

vertical root plug and watering.

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Ensure sufficient free water

within the Aqua soil mix.

Pre pare planting hole with

sufficient space for gel mix

and seedling

Step 1

Step 3

Step 2

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Pour the aqua soil slurry into

the planting hole, remain

holding the plant during the

process and gradually start

filling in the soil around the

seedling

Firm the soil lightly around the

base of the seedling and level

remaining soil around

G. PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Although teak seems to have very few enemies, we are in the process of having our

farms inspected.

Step 4

Step 5

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H. FERTILISE

• Fertilising takes place with the use of Aqua soil at 5g per tree

I. BLANKING

Blanking is the term used for replanting any seedlings which have died infield since

planting took place.

• The mortality assessment must be carried out 3 weeks after planting (Annexure E).

Included into Annexure E is a stock count.

• Blanking must be done within 4 weeks after planting

• Where the first blanking percentage was high a second blanking should be

considered within the following 2 weeks

• Compartments must have at least 90% stocking 6 weeks after planting

• The same techniques and criteria apply for blanking as for planting

• A stocking survey should be done at 12 months after planting

8. CORRECTIVE COPPICING (animal damage)

• Remaining shoot must be the dominant shoot, firmly attached, lowest on stool

• Ensure correct well maintained tools are used

• Do not damage the remaining stem

• Ensure all litter remains within the compartment boundaries

9. WEED CONTROL

Teak is highly intolerant of competition from weeds. For optimum growth it is advisable

to keep plantations free from competing weeds for a period of two years. Weed

control programmes need to be actively managed, and often changed to suit the

characteristics and requirements of each compartment. A typical weed control regime

would be (Annexure E):

• Pre-plant spray

• First ring weed and cone

• Second ring weed and cone

• Chemical hoeing (spot weed)

• Chemical hoeing (spot weed)

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Example of poor weed control:

Spraying in cases such as this

may lead to lethal or sub lethal

damage to young teak.

A. CHEMICAL

Care must be taken not to spray the tree itself. Herbicides have a harmful effect on

seedling growth and should only be used when the weather is favourable. Careful

calibration is essential to avoid both under and over spray. The nozzles have

different specifications, depending on the application, the swathe width and water

volume required. The nozzles must be carefully selected and maintained. Nozzles

play important roles within herbicide application, only brass and stainless steel

nozzles are to be used (NO PLASTIC).

a) Pre-plant spray

• Pre-plant spray is carried out if there is sufficient weed growth prior to planting

• This is normally done within 5 days prior to planting

• Weeds should not be allowed to exceed 30cm for practical and economic

control. Repeated sprays may be necessary

• Glyphosate is used in most conditions. Refer to the Agrochemical Code of

Practice for controls over all chemicals.

b) Post plant full cover spray

• A full cover spray (with the agreed chemical and equipment at the agreed

rate), both the line and inter row are sprayed as a single operation.

Precautions need to be taken to protect trees up to canopy closure during

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the spraying operations, when using a non-selective herbicide. Cones

should be used where trees are small enough.

c) Spot Spray / Chemical Hoeing

§ Spot spraying is conducted when the target weed is small and conning is no

longer an option due to the size of the teak. Care must be exercised not to

allow spray-drift onto the trees.

§ A sufficient ring will be required prior to the chemical hoe (see photo

p13)

d) Poly sprayer and Hatchet

• This method is used to treat unwanted teak regeneration. The weed control

operator makes a cut into the stem as low to the ground as possible. The

cut should be at the same height on the stem. The cut should be

approximately 1,5cm deep and slope slightly downwards the stem. A poly

sprayer is then used to apply the herbicide mix. Each stem of a multi-stem

teak should be treated.

• The advantages to this method are twofold

§ Herbicide is only applied to the target area (poly sprayer ), no

waste

§ Surrounding vegetation is not sprayed, therefore allowing for a

speedy recovery of the treated area

Continuous hack around stem

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B. MECHANICAL

Brush cutters

• Teak regeneration and other vegetation can be cleared, using a brush cutter

C. Manual

Ring weed

• Takes place prior to a chemical operation

• The scriffed area should be 50cm in diameter from the seedling (con ing)

• The scriffed area should exceed the outer leaves by 20cm (chemical hoe)

Slashing

• This operation will only be used when the weeds have reached a height of

>30 cm (increase danger of chemical damage )

• Ensure that a chemical spray follows the slashing operation (look for

sufficient growth on slashed material)

10. PRUNING

• Pruning should be limited to the dry winter months to avoid disease.

• Pruning consists of the removal of living branches close to the stem and is

only required where trees grown for veneer or high quality saw timber have

relatively persistent branches

• The branches which have been removed are left scattered on the ground

where they fall. The only areas which are to remain branch free is a 3 meter

(1 tree row) wide strip along the road, for fire protection purposes. The

pruning regimes are listed in Annexure C.

• Avoid damage to the cambium

• Only use well maintained equipment

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An example of a well maintained

pruning saw

11. Hand pruning

The removal of epocormic shoots which develop after each thinning and pruning

operation (Annexure C)

• Epocormic shoots are removed to the last pruning height

12. THINNING

• In general, the first thinning should take place early and be heavy enough to

eliminate suppressed trees and those of poor form. Even spacing of the

remaining trees is of prime importance, at all subsequent thinnings. Thinning at

frequent intervals ensure a well developed long-living crown as well as the

development of straight stems.

A. Marking

• The critical factor in this operation is that at rotation age, the specified number of

stems remains.

• A trained marking team should be used to ensure that the correct number of

stems remain

• Ensure best quality and trees are well distributed

• Determine average diameter at breast height

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• Trees to be marked for thinning

§ Deformed and weak trees

§ Trees with buttresses

§ Heavy branching

§ Trees below average diameter

• Marking to be done with water based white paint on two sides of the tree at

breast height

• In the event of a re- mark a water based yellow paint will be used

B. Thinning Control

• Thinning controls need to be conducted after the stands have been marked. The

marking should be done within a year prior to the actual thinning operation.

Thinning controls ensure that the marking operation was satisfactory, and ensure

that the stability factor has not been compromised.

• Advice from the planning department may be sought in circumstances of

abnormal stands.

C. Thinning operation

• The thinning operation will form part of the harvesting plan for KVTC and will

therefore be integrated into the working plan. The thinning regimes are listed in

Annexure C.

13. DISEASES

There are a number of serious pathogens that attach commercial plantation tree

species. The incidence of these causal agents of disease may occur at any stage of

the tree’s development, commencing from the nursery stage and going through to

mature trees ready for clear felling. Take note of the following

Defoliators

1. Hyblaea purea

Description:

- Greenish-yellow in colour with black heads ( larvae)

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- The full crown is purple- grey or black above and greenish-yellow beneath

with a black head. About 25mm- 35mm long.

Damage:

- Larvae eat soft leaf tissues by skeletonising. It makes shelters by rolling

over the edge of the leaf and fastens it with silk. Then it feeds from inside

these shelters and eats the whole leaf.

- Uneaten portion of the leaf dries up and falls.

Control:

- Chemical and biological agents ( Bacillus thuringiensis )

2. Pyrausta machaeralis ( teak skeletoniser )

Description:

- Bright yellow moths having pink or reddish marking.

- Caterpillar is with a sap green body above and pale yellow having two

yellow or reddish- purple dorsal lines and a yellow head with dark brown

markings. About 22mm- 25mm long.

Damage:

- Leaves are uniformly skeletonised and before falling turn brown

Control:

- Chemical and biological agents ( Bacillus thuringiensis )

Disease/Pest

Borers

1. Apate monachus (Black borer)

Description

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- 20mm long, shiny black beetle with square shaped anterior end and the

head being concealed below the thorax

Damage

Attacks indigenous and introduced species. Adults fly into plantations at night,

and during the day bore globular shaped tunnels (6mm diameter) obliquely

upwards in the main stem. Sawdust and grass on the ground below the trees

indicate that tunnels are occupied and several beetles may be found in one

tunnel. There can be up to six tunnels in one stem.

Control

Chemically by using insecticide

2. Hypsipyla spp. (Mahogany shoot borers)

Damage

Attack results in destruction of the apical shoot causing and significantly

reducing economic value of the timber

Control

Consistently effective control methods do not currently exist

3. Xyleutes ceramicus (Teak beehole borer)

Damage

- Caterpillars bore into the wood causing timber deterioration

- Occurs at sites where teak grows best

- Attacks teak trees of all ages regardless of size

Control

- Fumigants

- Insecticides

- Fungus Beauveria bassiana

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4. Acalolepta cervina (Teak canker grub)

Damage

- Attacks teak stems less than 4 meters above ground, predominantly in the

first meter

- Only 2 to 4 year old trees are in danger

- The larvae feeding under the bark causes callus forming and the stems

swell in the shape of a ring

- Damage leaves the tree susceptible to wind breakage

Control

Scraping off larvae during the early larval stage or using calcium carbide during

later stages.

5. Dirphya nigricornis (Yellow headed borer)

Description

- Adult beetles are 25 mm long with long black antennae

- The body is brown with the head, thorax and anterior quarter of the elytra

yellow.

Damage

- Wilted tips on primary branches and broken branches are diagnostic

- A row of evenly spaced holes down in one side of a branch is characteristic

- The young larva bores into the shoot, causing it to wilt, and bores down the

primary towards the main stem leaving a series of ejection holes

6. Paranaleptes reticulata (Cashew stem girdler)

Description

- The beetle is dark brown with orange and black wing cases and very long

antennae, more than 5 cm long

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- The adult beetle is the pest

Damage

The beetle girdles or ring barks cashew branches of about 50mm diameter,

with the result that the branch dies above the damage. It then lays its eggs

singly beneath the bark of the dead branch and the larvae tunnel in to the dead

wood

Control

Fair control can be achieved by removing and burning the dead branches

containing the larvae.

7. Anthores leuconotus (White borer)

Description

Adults are 30 mm long, brown with characteristic white markings covering three

quarters of the elytra.

Damage

- The young larvae often kill the tree

- Infected trees commonly show yellowing of foliage and wood

shavings extruding from the bark or roots below soil level.

The round emergence holes of the adults in the trunk are characteristic.

- The young larva bores downwards just below the bark, often

ring barking the tree in the process

Control

Insecticides

8. Powder- post beetles of ghoon borers ( belonging to family Bostrychidae and

Lyctitade)

9. Sapwood borers ( of family Cerambycidae, Scolytidae)

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10. Pin- hole and shot- hole borers ( of family Platypodiadae, Scolytidae)

- These borers (8, 9, 10 ) attacking the felled tree and timber with their

tunnels confined wholly or mainly to sapwood and tunnels into the

heartwood.

- The control measures for these species of ambrosia beetles comprise early

extraction of timber from the felled area, rapid seasoning in full sun in the

open, removal of the bark, complete immersion of logs in water until

conversion, storage under usual hygienic principles.

Termites

Damage

All growth stages of the tree can be attacked.

The most critical phase to the seedlings is during the first year: 4-6 months in

the nursery and first 4-6 months after planting out.

In the nurseries, termites cut or ring-bark the stem at ground level and damage

the root system.

Damage to the transplanted seedlings or saplings can take four forms:

1. The stem is cut near the base

2. Attack just below the ground surface extends upwards until the stem

is ring-barked or downwards until the tap root tapers off and is

severed

3. The roots are penetrated and hollowed out

4. The stem is penetrated and galleries excavated within it

Usually termite attack is minimal after canopy closure, but losses can occur.

In general, trees under stress, due to lack of moisture, disease, physical

damage, etc . are more susceptible than healthy trees.

30

Once timber are felled, trees remain susceptible to termite attack, and indeed

many tree species which were relatively resistant while growing, become

susceptible, especially as the logs dry out.

Cause

The most widespread damage is caused by the genera Macrotermes,

Microtermes and Odontotermes, although localized attacks by Ancistrotermes,

Allodontermes and Pseudacanthotermes are also common.

Control

- By using controlled release granules (CRG) which liberate their

active ingredient slowly into the soil over one to three years depending on

the specification

- By killing the queen of the nest

- By using tree species which are termite-tolerant e.g. Grevillea robusta,

Cassia spp. or Markhamia sp.

- By using indigenous tree species

- By delibera te over planting

- By using healthy and vigorous planting stock

Fungi

Pathogenic diseases

1. Root rots

Description:

- Attacks the tap root causing yellow fibrous rot and the wood tends to

separate along annual rings in the late stages of decay which gives a

laminated appearance.

Damage:

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- Mostly restricted to roots, causes mortality due to root rot.

- Trees become wind- blow

Control:

- Removal of infected stumps and use of well drained sites.

Cause:

- Peniphora rhizomorpho-sulphurea

2. Root rots

Description:

- Causes white mottled roots with o range- yellow lines and leads to

development of pockets in the bleached area.

Damage:

- Mostly attacks heartwood, sometimes sapwood.

Control:

- Removal of infected stumps and use of well drained sites.

Cause:

- Polyporous zonalis

3. Pink disease

Description:

- Causes hollowness with the disintegration of the decayed heartwood.

- Trees of all age classes are infected.

Cause:

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- Corticium salmonicolor

4. Canker disease

Description:

- Causes water- soaked scars on the stem from lesions developing under the

bark accompanied by exudation of gum and tannin, vertical and transverse

cracks.

Damage:

- Leaves turning yellow, shedding prematurely.

Cause:

- Nectria hameatococca

5. Heart rot

Description:

- Causes white spongy rot in association with Polyporous zonalis ( causes

white mottled rot)

- Between the bark and the wood

Cause:

- Fomes lividus

6. Powdery mildews

Description:

- The heavy coating of leaves by fungus growth retards photosynthetic

activity

- Appears soon after rains

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Damage:

- Affect growth

Cause:

- Uncinula tectonae

7. Leaf rust

Damage:

- Leaves damaged

- Nurseries problem

- Premature defoliation retarding growth of the plants

Cause:

-Olivea tectonae

Control:

- Opening of the canopy helps to keep it under control.

Other control methods for fungi:

- 1. Lopping the infected branches and cutting the heavily infested trees

during thinning.

- 2. Injecting small doses of selective phytocides such as Copper sulphate

and Fernoxone into the attacked trees.

- 3. Application of chemical herbizidal spray 1:1 dimethyl, 4:4 bipyridylium

during early summer, when teak is leafless.

- 4. Selection of hardy races of teak for plantation purposes.

- 5. Sanitation cutting of affected branches, 0,3m below the point of infection,

and if necessary of the trees, when they are devoid of foliage keeps the

parasite under control.

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Physiogenic diseases

1. Water blister

Description:

- A light yellow coloured sap from the stem dripping down the bark and drying

up leaving a brownish to blackish discolouration.

Cause:

- Primary cause is high root pressure

Control:

- Nothing can be done, because the cause is physiological. Avoid raising teak

plantations where the disease usually develops.

2. Leaf spot diseases

Description

Characteristic symptom is the development of light brown necrosis at the

margin of the leaves, which gradually advances towards the midrib The disease

spreads to the upper leaves, petiole and ultimate ly to the terminal bud and

stem tip leading to the drying up of upper portion of the stem.

Leaf spot caused by C. gloeosporioides is characterized by the development on

interveinal, dark brown spots which coalesce to form large necrotic areas. The

disease occurs commonly confused with Phomopsis leaf necrosis.

Cause

- Phomopsis spp. or Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

35

Damage

Spots develop on leaves severely affected by these two leave spot get dried up

and defoliate.

Disease can spread through the en tire nursery and 2-8 month-old seedlings are

in most danger.

Affected seedlings will die in the absence of control measures.

14. Other damages

Climatic factors

1. Drought

- Particularly the young seedlings are sensitive.

- Ability of teak trees to pass through the annual desiccation period by

remaining dormant and deciduous through shedding of leaves is a natural

adaptation to withstand drought.

- In abnormal dry years, the trees remain leafless longer than usual.

- Trees, which have tap roots going down to the hard layer with vigorous and

large spreading roots in the sub - soil, have better chance to survive. ( Plant

seedlings deep)

2. Wind and storms

- The damage due to wind throw is often disastrous to plantations.

- Young teak plants in plantations are laid prostrate, while middle- aged trees

are usually broken about middle of the stem and old trees are generally

uprooted.

- Various diseases attack wind damaged teak trees

- The treatment of wind damaged areas generally consists of the cutting back

young crops, coppicing middle- aged crops and restocking old crops.

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3. Flood

- In nurseries plants are generally destroyed by flooding.

- Rivers and streams in high rainfall areas often carry a heavy discharge and

overflow their banks which sometimes results in uprooting of the standing

teak trees apart from washing away of the silt and sand and exposing their

root systems.

Animals

1. Rodents

Although not a common occurrence in teak, the following should be noted

• Damage is commonly caused by gnawing the stems of newly planted trees up

to two years old, in grasslands being converted to forestry, especially, but not

solely along water ways. Sometimes branches are gnawed. Attacks may be

worse in drought years when normal food (grass, roots and shoots) becomes

scarce or unpalatable. During years of late rains the rodents may climb into

young trees up to 4m height and ring bark the crowns or branches.

• Biological control through the provision of perches for raptorial birds is

recommended. The seedlings / trees should receive a meter wide ring weed

and trees should receive an initial pruning of lower branches, which must be left

scattered for the rodents to utilize. The perches must not have a T-piece fitted

as this restricts perching from two directions only – which may be unsuitable

due to wind direction. Raptors need to take off into the wind, and without the T-

piece they can land from any direction

• Different length / height poles is preferable to standard height perches

• Perch top end diameter should not be less the 6-7cm, so that the larger raptors

such as Lizard buzzards can also make use of the perches

2. Monkeys and Baboons

Monkeys and baboons break the top shoots off the teak in search of small insects and

worms, and on occasions they also uproot young seedlings

• Local villagers are contracted out to scare the baboons and monkeys

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3. Elephants

Elephants destroy whole compartments; they remove the bark of pushed over trees.

This will continue for a period of 4 years, after which they seem to leave the teak

alone

• The local game warden and a few selected village personnel are employed to

scare off the elephants

• Electrical fences are to be erected around newly planted areas and teak

compartments up to 4 years of age

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Annexure A

39

ANNEXURE A Audit Documents

Stock Assessment Sheet

Compt. No Ha's

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 2 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 4 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 5 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 6 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 7 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 8 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 9 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

10 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? B ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

No. of living trees = ? ………………. Distance A-B = ? …………… Distance A-C = ? …………… Survival ABxAC =xxx?

xxx ? xxx = xxxx plots per ha's xxxxx x ? ………………... = stems/ha Stocking [A-B] X [A-C] =? ……………..?

10 000 ? ? ………… = ? ……………. Plots/ha ? x? = ? stems/ha

? ? …………...?xxxx x 100 =………….% stocking

40

ANNEXURE B

PLANTING RESTRICTIONS

The Guideline for Environmental Management in Commercial Forests in South Africa (used

as guideline for KVTC), is currently being re-written and will accommodate the recently

formulated scientific process for the delineation of wetlands and riparian zones. Until such

time as the industry document has been edited and incorporated into KVTC policy, the

following procedure will be adhered to:

• No planting within 30m of a permanent stream of 50m from a wetland.

• Where no restrictions have been documented – this applies to most of our re -afforestation

areas – no planting is to take place within 20m of a delineated wetland or riparian zone.

In the case of a wetland, the delineation will include the “permanent, seasonal and

temporary zones”. The delineation of streams (category B and C streams) will include

riparian vegetation and associated soil.

For other areas of special interests (ASI) please refer to the ASI register for the relevant management recommendations.

41

ANNEXURE C

SILVICULTURAL REGIMES

Techona Grandis - Thinning

Age Thin Hand

Prune

Comments

Plant xxx 3.0 x 3.0m espacement

x xxx yes Dominant height >16 meters

xx xxx yes

xx xxx yes

xx 0 0 Clear fell

Techona Grandis - Pruning

Age Prune

height

Hand

Prune

Comments

2 Lowest

set

Access pruning

1st pruning xmeters Yes Prune when xcm diameter is at a height of

xmeters

2nd

pruning

x meters Yes Prune when x cm diameter is at a height of x

meters

3rd

pruning

x meters yes Prune when x cm diameter is at a height of x

meters

Annexure D

42

Pre Burn Questionnaire Cmpt No……………….

1 2 3 4 5 No of days since last rain 3 5 8 10 15

Fuel load Grass Light

Branching Heavy

Branching

< 20cm Diameter

Logs

> 20cm Diameter

Logs Temperature 15°C 17°C 20°C 22°C 25°C

Steepest slope < 5° < 8° < 10° < 12° < 22° Wind speed (min)

12 km/hr 9 km/hr 6 km/hr 3 km/hr 0 km/hr

Wind speed (max) 12 km/hr 15 km/hr 18 km/hr 19 km/hr 20 km/hr

Score

Total

Yes <18

No >18

Is there a plan and a map Yes No

Are there control lines Yes No

Sufficient personnel Yes No

Sufficient equipment

Yes No

Results: If yes was answered 5 times, burning may proceed If No was answered for any of the questions, burning operations are to be cancelled Forester sign …………………………………….

43