kibbutzim and moshavim
TRANSCRIPT
RUNNING HEAD: KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM
Kibbutzim and Moshavim: The Historical and Current Social Context and Leadership
Involvement
Brittany Holm
Proposal for Applied Research Project in Leadership
Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership
Judson University
March 12, 2015
1
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KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 2
Approval Page
This applied research project was submitted by Brittany Holm under the direction of the persons listed below. The Division of Adult and Continuing Education submitted the project to the Graduate Council for approval. On April 2, 2015 the Graduate Council approved the applied research project in the Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership at Judson University.
_______________________________________________ __________________Marsha Vaughn, PhD DateApplied Research Project Mentor
_______________________________________________ __________________David L. Cook, EdD DateDirector of Master of Organizational Leadership Program
_______________________________________________ __________________Date
Dean for School of Leadership and Business—Center for Adult Professional Studies
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 3
Abstract
This study examines Israeli communal and cooperative settlements. These settlements are called
kibbutzim and moshavim. The purpose of this research is to explore the historical success that
arose from the development of kibbutzim and moshavim and how leadership was, is, and is no
longer involved. Research findings indicate that success within both kibbutzim and moshavim is
not merely economic but also the attempt of keeping community life alive. Leadership within
kibbutzim does drive the success of the organization. However, success within moshavim is
based on each individual farmer. While the findings show that economic success within both
organizations is important, ideological commitment took precedence over economic success
within the findings. The changes within the organizational structures of both kibbutzim and
moshavim were applied to Hughes’ et al. (2014) organizational framework. It was found that
kibbutzim and moshavim transformed in order to sustain as organizations following the debt
crisis. However, many kibbutzim and most moshavim have lost principles within their historical
ideology.
Keywords: Kibbutz, Moshav, Communalism, Co-operation, and Success
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 4
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………....5Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….5Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..8Justification………………………………………………………………………………..8
Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature…………………………………………………….10 Overview of the Related Literature……………………………………………………...10 Review of Historical Context……………………………………………………………10Review of Differences…………………………………………………………………...13 Review of Changes Taking Place within the Organizations………………………….....14Review of Leadership Involvement……………………………………………………..18Review of Organizational Framework and Leadership Styles………………………......19Summary of the Related Literature……………………………………………………...20
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………22Methodology……………………………………………………………………………..22Participants………………………………………………………………………………24Instruments………………………………………………………………………………25Procedures……………………………………………………………………………….26
Chapter 4: Findings……………………………………………………………………………...28Findings Overview………………………………………………………………………28Research Question 1……………………………………………………………………..28Research Question 2……………………………………………………………………..32Research Question 3……………………………………………………………………..36
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………..40Overview of Applied Research Project………………………………………………….40Implications of Findings…………………………………………………………………40Limitations……………………………………………………………………………….45Recommendations………………………………………………………………………..46
Appendix A Data Collection Instrument………………………………………………………..51Appendix B Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………..55
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 5
Chapter 1: Introduction
Imagine moving your family, a wife, and three children, to a desert wasteland surrounded
by landmines and, at the time, bordering an enemy country that wanted to drive your people into
the sea and erase the name of Israel forever! Michal and Eilat look back upon the decision they
made when they decided to move to the moshav. The government provided them with a plot of
land near the Dead Sea, they were responsible for cultivating and producing agriculture in a
desolate wasteland with no running water or electricity. Eilat worried they had made a mistake
bringing their children to this desert wilderness, which is the saltiest and lowest place on earth.
The farmland, surrounded by landmines and located on the Jordanian boarder, did not
seem like the greatest place to raise a family. Both Michal and Eilat had no idea that it would
take four years before they discovered how to grow anything in the salty arid earth they were
attempting to cultivate. Michal developed horticultural knowledge through reading the Bible and
discovered a way to cultivate in the salt saturated soil. Through ingenuity and innovation Michal
was able to cultivate and yield produce after four years. Today Michal and Eilat have a large
farm and their children are all grown. They look back at their accomplishments and are satisfied
that they have contributed to the development of not only their land, but also the development of
the State of Israel.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this research is to explore the historical success that arose from the
development of kibbutzim and moshavim and how leadership was, is, and is no longer involved.
“In order to achieve enduring performance potential, organizations need to undergo periodic
transformation, and therefore strategic leadership requires successfully navigating and leading
these changes” (Hughes et al., 2014, p. 16). The organizational transformation experienced
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 6
within both kibbutzim and moshavim will be applied to Hughes’ et al. (2014) statement on
organizational strategy and change. Hughes et al. (2014) further explain
Strategy is maximized when it also involves aspirational dimensions that touch the
emotions of all the stakeholders involved. Organizational mission, vision, and values are
important aspirational components that create meaning and purpose for these
stakeholders. These components serve to help people understand why the organization
exists, how it intends to make a difference in the world, and what the important beliefs
are that drive and connect the people in the organization. (p. 25)
The organizational structures of kibbutzim and moshavim have adapted to the political and
economic environments they have experienced since their beginning. However, close to eighty
percent of kibbutzim and nearly all of moshavim have lost concepts that once defined their
organizational structure. Both kibbutzim and moshavim will be examined in light of Hughes’ et
al. (2014) framework regarding organizational strategy.
While this research will not provide a comprehensive historical study of these
organizations, it will outline the culmination of events that led to their establishment and the role
they played in the rebirth of the State of Israel. Previous research has shown that these
organizations had prominent roles in the establishment of the State of Israel starting in the late
1800s when various forms of these organizations were established. Kibbutzim began to influence
the establishment of the State in 1910 when the first kibbutz, Deganya, was established (Livni,
2004; Abramitzky, 2011). Moshavim began to influence the establishment of the State of Israel
starting in the 1920s in British occupied Palestine, right up until 1948 when Israel declared their
independence (Sofer & Applebaum, 2006). Research also shows that changes were made within
these organizational structures as a result of the economic crisis during the 1980s (Kimhi, 2006;
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 7
Russell et al., 2011; Livni, 2004; Shapira, 2008a; Sofer, 2005). The study will explain these
structural changes, which took place within both kibbutzim and moshavim, as well as identify
what it means to be a successful kibbutz or moshav by ranking how many years they have been
in operation, economic indicators, and their growth since their beginning, as well as their attempt
of sticking to their ideological framework. Through interviews, the study will examine how
leadership drives the organization and the how leadership operates and operated within various
contexts. The leadership will then be examined to identify how it drives the success of the
organizations. The study will also identify how members view the changes that took place within
the structures of both kibbutzim and moshavim.
How do communal and co-operative settlements continue to function democratically?
Communal and co-operative settlements have been established throughout the world, both in the
past and the present. However, none have been more studied than the Israeli kibbutzim in the
past sixty years (Shapira, 2008a). Kibbutzim in particular have gained international interest
(Russell et al., 2013). Moshavim have not been as intensely studied as kibbutzim and little
research has been done on the leadership within moshavim, but they too have attracted the
attention of researchers. What made both of these organizations successful? And if they are
currently successful, how do they remain? How did these settlements contribute to the
establishment of the State of Israel? What role did leadership have in their success? Both
kibbutzim and moshavim are more than the average United States farm. Simons and Ingram
(2000) explain, “The kibbutz is the equivalent of a laboratory for organization science.” (p. 283)
While other communal and co-operative settlements operate around the world, kibbutzim and
moshavim are unique in structure and exclusive to the State of Israel. These organizations will be
examined closely throughout this case study. Research has shown both kibbutzim and moshavim
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 8
have experienced changes within their historical organizational structure (Shapira, 2008a; Topel,
2013). Leadership played a major role in implementing the changes within the kibbutzim
(Shapira, 2008a; Palgi & Reinharz, 2011). Some members view these changes within kibbutzim
as positive and some view them as negative. However, research does not clarify leadership
within moshavim and if leadership was the direct cause of the changes within the structure.
Research Questions
What components (economic indicators, ideological values, members, etc.) make the
organizational structures of a kibbutz or moshav successful?
How does leadership impact the success of a kibbutz or moshav and how does leadership
handle change?
Did leadership impact the changes made within both organizations and how do members
view these changes?
Justification
The motivation for this research is to explore the historical context of kibbutzim and
moshavim, as well as leadership involvement within both organizations. The organizational
structure will be examined as well, and the changes that have taken place within both
organizations. The researcher is a Christian Zionist. It is her belief that the hand of God
Almighty directed the return of the Jewish people to Israel before, during, and after World War
II. Both the kibbutz movement and the moshav movement were instrumental in the establishment
of the State of Israel. They were Israel’s economic and agricultural backbone before and after the
1948 War of Independence. The researcher chose this study because a relative of hers was a
volunteer on Kibbutz Beit Oren and Kibbutz Shefayim. The researcher spent the summer of 2012
in Israel visiting kibbutzim and had the opportunity to spend time at a moshav while traveling the
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 9
country. She also recently discovered that her great-great grandmother was a Jewess from
Croatia. The researcher has a deep interest in the core factors which drove the establishment of
the State of Israel and both kibbutzim and moshavim played a monumental role in the country’s
rebirth. The researcher would also like others to be aware of these unique organizations, as well
as the role they played in the establishment of the State of Israel.
Definition of Terms
Communalism: The standard of individuals living together, sharing resources, and duties.
Co-operation: The standard of individuals working together for common goals.
Kibbutz (pl. Kibbutzim): Communal settlements in Israel, which members live together, share
resources, duties, and the community is based on equality among all members.
Moshav (pl. Moshavim): Co-operative settlements in Israel, which is the standard of individuals
working together for common goals, individuals can own property, and the structure is not based
on equality among all members.
Kibbutznik: An individual member or resident of a kibbutz.
Aliyah: When people of Jewish heritage immigrate/return to Israel.
Success: Years a kibbutz or moshav has been in operation, growth in economic indicators and
members, as well as the attempt of sticking to original values.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 10
Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature
Overview of the Related Literature
This chapter will explain the history of kibbutzim and moshavim by examining previous
research on these organizations. Previous research has explained the organizational structures of
both kibbutzim and moshavim and how these organizations have influenced the State of Israel.
The topic of leadership involvement is discussed in earlier research. However, it is limited when
it comes to the moshavim. Leadership theories and concepts will be reviewed as well. The
review of the related literature will begin with the history of kibbutzim and moshavim, the
differences between the two organizations, the changes taking place within these organizations,
leadership involvement, and leadership theories and concepts.
Review of the Historical Context
Previous research has explored the historical context of both kibbutzim and moshavim.
Often, communal settlements emerge when groups experience religious persecution. One
example familiar to the United States is Iowa’s Amana Colonies (Amana Colonies, 2014).
Religious persecution was the same driving force in the establishment of kibbutzim and
moshavim. The First Aliyah was the influence and the start of the Jewish settlements in Palestine
and arose between 1881 to 1884 and 1890 to 1891 (Weintraub et al., 1969). However, a Jewish
remnant was always present in Palestine. During the First Aliyah, twenty to thirty thousand
Jewish immigrants traveled to Ottoman-ruled Palestine from Eastern Europe and Russia to
establish Jewish settlements, which centered their social behaviors on Hebrew customs including
the revival of the Hebrew language (Livni, 2004; Weintraub et al., 1969). The immigration
resulted after Russian anti-Jewish riots, also called pogroms, which began in 1881 (Weintraub et
al., 1969). These settlements declined because immigrants lacked agricultural knowledge
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 11
(Weintraub et al., 1969). Between 1886-1888 Baron de Rothschild provided these settlements
with financial support (Potok, 1978; Weintraub et al., 1969). However, the settlements
financially supported by the Baron never received legal status (Weintraub et al., 1969).
Zionism was always at the heart of the establishment of these Jewish settlements. Livni
(2004) explains the foundations of the political Zionist movement, which was the foundation of
both organizations. Theodor Herzl founded political Zionism, which was the idea that a
homeland for the Jewish people was the only solution to anti-Semitism that was rising
throughout the world (Ben-Artizi, 2002; Livni, 2004; Palgi & Reinharz, 2011; Potok, 1978;
Shapira, 2008a). However, Herzl’s idea was not completely unique because there was always a
bond between the Jewish people and the Land of Israel (Potok, 1978). It was Herzl who was a
visionary and leader of his time in regards to Zionism. The political Zionist movement was
established in the late 1800s prior to the atrocities of the Holocaust (Livni, 2004). The first
Zionist conference was in Basle, Switzerland in 1897 (Potok, 1978). The congress then
established the World Zionist Organization, which embraced Herzl’s Zionist movement and
named him as president (Potok, 1978). Political Zionism was inaugurated in 1897 and Herzl was
able to accomplish the legal status of Jewish settlements in Palestine (Palgi & Reinharz, 2014;
Weintraub et al., 1969). The Zionist movement established three institutions, the Anglo-Palestine
Bank, the Jewish National Fund of Israel (handled acquisition of land), and the Palestine Office
(Weintraub et al., 1969). The World Zionist Organization (WZO) following the establishments
of the “kvutzot” sent a representative Arthur Ruppin in 1907, to establish and endorse the Zionist
movement by developing planned settlements in Palestine (Livni, 2004; Sofer, 2006,). The WZO
would purchase land in Palestine with the limited resources they possessed and would provide it
to Russian Jews who were willing to begin settlements (Livni, 2004).
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 12
Both organizations as they are today are a result of the Zionist Movement. Palgi and
Reinharz (2011) explain, “In the 1920s the Zionist establishment defined the moshav, in contrast
to the kibbutz, as the preferred form of settlement” (p.589). The State of Israel was founded on
agriculturalists including individuals from kibbutzim and moshavim, this contributed to the
State’s establishment (Kimhi, 2009). Kimhi (2009) explains, “Since the end of the 19th century,
Jewish settlers in Israel saw agriculture as a channel through which the link between the Jewish
people and their ancient homeland can be re-established” (p. 125). This idea stemmed from the
Zionist movement and its foundations.
Ben-Artzi (2002) explains,
Like utopian thinkers elsewhere, these pioneers were looking for a form of settlement that
would incorporate their social and economic aspirations into a system suitable for the
attainment of broader goals, whether political or social. Unlike the utopians, however, the
Jews in Eretz Israel did not aspire to develop a universal ideology that would make the
world a better place but rather concentrated, by and large, on achieving their own
objectives. (p. 163)
Sofer and Applebaum (2006) explain that in the 20th century, the national settlement authority,
which was titled the Land Settlement Department of the Jewish Agency, and is now the Jewish
National Fund, provided the development of the basic structure of the settlement, as well capital
and land. “Although the land that each kibbutz was located on was the property of the Jewish
National Fund, kibbutz members owned and operated other assets in common, working together
in kibbutz-owned economic ventures, eating their meals in central dining halls, and living in
kibbutz-owned housing” (Russell et al., 2013, pg. 1). The settlers of both kibbutzim and
moshavim then provided the labor and the management of the organization (Russell et al., 2013;
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 13
Sofer & Applebaum, 2006). Therefore, the land will always remain in the hands of the Jewish
National Fund and will be utilized by Jewish settlers.
These settlements are legal organizations and are organized as mutual societies, which
are categorized as four different settlements, kibbutz, moshav shitufi, moshav, and yishuv
kehillati (Sofer & Applebaum, 2006). This study is only concerned with two of those
settlements, which are Kibbutz (pl. Kibbutzim), which are communal or collective settlements,
and Moshav (pl. Moshavim), which are cooperative or smallholder’s settlements (Sofer &
Applebaum, 2006). Both kibbutzim and moshavim possessed a relationship with the settlement
authority and the State of Israel once it was established which was based on a mutual
understanding that all settlement efforts were partnerships established to accomplish the goal of
developing a Jewish homeland (Sofer, 2006).
A group of pioneers established the first kibbutz, Deganya, in 1910 near the Sea of
Galilee (100 Years of the Kibbutz, 2010; Livni, 2004; Palgi & Reinharz, 2011; Shpira, 2008).
Settlements or villages called moshava (pl. moshavot) had existed between 1882-1903. These
were small villages to which some co-operation was present (Ben-Artzi, 2002). In the 1920s the
modern day moshav began to emerge with the first established in 1921 (Sofer, 2001). There are
now 273 kibbutzim in operation in the State of Israel, in which half were established prior to
statehood (100 Years of the Kibbutz, 2010). Kimhi (2009) explains in 2005 moshavim were
around 35% of Israel’s rural population.
Review of Differences
Kibbutzim and moshavim differ in structure and operate differently. Kibbutzim operate
as ideological communalism, whereas moshavim are characterized by co-operation (Ben-Artzi,
2002). These settlements had major roles in the establishment of the State of Israel (Ben-Artzi,
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 14
2002; Livni, 2004). While movements drove kibbutzim, community counsels drove moshavim
(Ben-Artzi, 2002). Because kibbutzim functioned as ideological communal settlements,
historically and with the exception of few kibbutzim, members received the same wages,
property was owned communally, and everyone worked for the greater good of the organization
(Ben-Artzi, 2002; Shapira, 2008a). Moshavim run co-operatively, meaning members can have
their own plot of land, equipment or shops within the community, and members receive various
wages. The community comes together to help the settlement of the moshav succeed as a whole
by contributing help to others in the community and sharing equipment (Ben-Artzi, 2002).
Behaviors within the moshav such as financing, purchasing, and marketing, historically were
controlled jointly (Kimhi, 2009).
Kibbutzim and moshavim receive revenue through goods or services they sell such as
agricultural produce, which was their main source of revenue historically. However, this is not
the only good sold by these organizations in present day. Today, many kibbutzim generate
revenue through tourism, industry, commerce, and entrepreneurial opportunities. Some even
have historical museums on their properties that charge entry fees. Just as kibbutzim have gained
revenue through tourism, members of moshavim have also generated revenue through not only
agriculture but by renting out apartments to travelers from around the world who are visiting
Israel. Members of both organizations sometimes hold jobs outside of the organization as well.
These particular organizations are distinctive to Israel.
Review of Changes within both Organizations
Both kibbutzim and moshavim have experienced changes within their organizational
structure. In the 1990s individual kibbutzim began to provide members with various wages or
salaries, which led the federations and the Registrar of Cooperative Societies to warn the
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 15
kibbutzim that as result of changes made within the organizational structure, the kibbutzim to
which implemented these changes, would no longer be defined as a kibbutz under the
government but no action was taken following these warnings (Manor, 2004; Russell, et al.,
2011). Kibbutz Beit Oren in 1999 demanded that the government take action in regards to this
matter, and the “renewed kibbutz” kept its original definition with alterations to the original
structure (Manor, 2004; Russell et al., 2011). This is what initiated the changes in the kibbutzim
structure. The original definition was, “a cooperative society that is a separate settlement,
organized on the basis of collective ownership of assets, self-employment, equality and
cooperation in production, consumption and education” (Manor, 2004, p. 43; Russell et al., 2011,
p. 43). However, the “renewed kibbutz” has been defined as the following:
A cooperative society that is a separate settlement, organized on the basis of collective
ownership of assets, self-employment, equality and cooperation in production,
consumption and education, that maintains mutual responsibility among its members, and
whose articles of association include some or all of the following: (1) Relative wages
according to individual contribution or seniority; (2) Allocation of apartments; (3)
Allocation of means of production to its members, excluding land, water and production
quotas, provided that the cooperative maintains control over the means of production and
that its articles of association restrict the negotiability of allocated means of production.
(Manor, 2004, p. 43; Russell et al., 2011, p. 43)
Russell et al. (2011) explain that many kibbutzim have changed from past traditional
ways of life such as sharing income or members receiving the same wages. Now many kibbutz
members receive various wages based on the work they provide to the organization (Manor,
2004; Russell et al., 2011). Many kibbutzim are adopting individualistic ways of life and are
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 16
more concerned with personal gain rather than communality within the organization (Topel,
2013). After kibbutzim experienced economic hardships in the 1980s the kibbutz federation in
the 1990s, reformed the structure of the organization to make it economically sustainable
(Russell et al., 2011). Ben-Rafael (2011) describes the changes that have been occurring in the
organizational structure of kibbutzim as “far-reaching changes or FRCs” (p. 81). Ben-Rafael
(2011) explains, “It appears that renewal has helped many kibbutzim from a sudden threat of
economic and demographic catastrophe” (p. 81). Ben-Rafael (2011) further explains, “In the
1980s the kibbutz movement had lost its traditional backing from a favorable ruling coalition,
following the rise to power of the right in 1977” (p. 82). To be considered a kibbutz now, the
organization must provide members with the right to work, health services, children’s education,
and at least minimum income (Ben-Rafael, 2011). This varies from the past structure where the
organization provided equality to all members regardless of rank or status.
Many kibbutzim as a result of the transformation have two statuses within the
organization, members and nonmembers. Beginning in the 1990s a majority of kibbutzim made
the decision to rent housing within the kibbutz to nonmembers and some sold houses to
nonmembers (Russell et al., 2013). These nonmembers were considered temporary residents
(Russell et al., 2013). The changes also led to kibbutzim becoming less democratic. Autonomous
boards of directors control economic issues where as, historically financial matters were handled
by the General Assembly of members (Russell et al., 2013). “As the proportion of kibbutz
residents who are nonmembers continues to grow, many kibbutz communities have begun to
transform themselves into entities that function more like municipalities, and in which both
kibbutz members and nonmembers have rights of representation” (Russell et al., 2013, p. 120).
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 17
Nonmembers who are homeowners are given rights of representation in the governance by
Israeli law (Russell et al. 2013).
Just as kibbutzim experienced changes as a result of economic hardships, so too did
moshavim. Cooperative (Moshavim) villages constitute one-third of cultivated land in Israel
(Dolev & Kimhi, 2010). Moshavim experienced economic hardship in the 1980s and began to
lose their power base when the right wing came to power in 1977 (Kimhi, 2006; Sofer, 2006).
Sofer (2006) explains, the left wing before 1977 had been in power since the establishment of the
State of Israel. The government during this period chose to remove financial support and
protection policies that were in place for settlements (Sofer, 2006). The changes that occurred in
the organizational structure of moshavim was that the government made suggestions to settlers to
turn their land over for compensation or to build within their community as a non-agricultural
way to produce revenue (Sofer, 2006). This idea attracted individuals who were not interested in
producing agriculture but entrepreneurial individuals who were developers (Sofer, 2006). The
“Construction of residential neighborhoods within Moshav communities” is a change to the
organizational structure (Kimhi, 2009, p. 133). This brought abou bt a demographic change
within moshavim because outsiders joined the residential neighborhoods (Kimhi, 2009). “This
created conflicts between farmers and non-farm residents, that could potentially harm social
cohesion within the Moshav” (Kimhi, 2009, p. 133).
Changes have taken place within the population of moshavim. Sofer (2001) explains,
“pluriactivity” is when one or more members of a household possess employment outside of the
organizational structure of the moshav (p. 363). This is not a custom that originated in the early
establishments but is a progressive change throughout the years. Many of the younger
generations belonging to moshavim have either adopted pluriactivity, sought other opportunities
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 18
within the moshav not pertaining to agriculture, or they leave the moshav for other endeavors
(Sofer, 2005).
Review of Leadership Involvement
Within both kibbutzim and moshavim, members have a common goal and that is to
contribute resourceful benefits to the country such as agriculture, manufacturing etc. Ruggieri
(2013) explains, “Transformational leaders change each individual’s value system to construct a
new one constituted by common goals, and actively engages with followers by obtaining their
collaboration, and encouraging them to identify with an organizational vision beyond their own
self-interest” (p. 1172). The organizational goals historically were to contribute to the
establishment of the State of Israel and are now to continue to operate within the State. However,
both of these organizations have undergone transformation from what the organizational
structure once looked like. Historically the leadership of the kibbutz movement was intertwined
with the Labor Zionist movement (Livni, 2004). However, due to transformational leaders within
present kibbutzim, drastic changes have been adopted into the organizational structure (Shapira,
2008a). There are eighty kibbutzim that are still classified as collective and have chosen not to
adopt the changes (Livni, 2004). Changes meaning steering away from the traditional definition
of a communal kibbutz, “a cooperative society that is a separate settlement, organized on the
basis of collective ownership of assets, self-employment, equality and cooperation in production,
consumption and education” (Manor, 2004, p. 43; Russell et al., 2011, p. 43). Research shows
that there was an echelon of leaders within the kibbutz movement to which had influence within
the government as high as the Knesset (Shapira, 2014; Shapira, 2008a; Palgi & Reinharz, 2011).
There is little found on leadership within moshavim seeing that each individual farmer is
responsible for their own agricultural products.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 19
The next section will discuss an organizational framework, as well as leadership styles,
which will be applied to the organizational structures of kibbutzim and moshavim and the
leadership within them. The principles of the following organizational framework, as well as the
leadership styles will be applied in chapter 5 to the literature review and the findings.
Review of Organizational Framework and Leadership Styles
The changes within the organizational structures of kibbutzim and moshavim will be
applied to the following framework, as well as the leadership styles that led to the changes:
In order to achieve enduring performance potential, organizations need to undergo
periodic transformation, and therefore strategic leadership requires successfully
navigating and leading these changes” (Hughes et al., 2014, p. 16). “Strategy is
maximized when it also involves aspirational dimensions that touch the emotions of all
the stakeholders involved. Organizational mission, vision, and values are important
aspirational components that create meaning and purpose for these stakeholders. These
components serve to help people understand why the organization exists, how it intends
to make a difference in the world, and what the important beliefs are that drive and
connect the people in the organization. (Hughes et al., 2014, p. 25)
The organizational idea presented by Hughes et al. (2014) suggest that while organizations do
have to transform with the ever changing times and circumstances, it is important to maintain the
organizational values within the organization’s long-term strategy. Leaders within an
organization which needs to adapt to the ever-changing environments, must be able to transform
in order to sustain.
Transformational leaders are able to easily adapt to complex situations that arise in an
organizational context (McIntosh & Tolson, 2008). Transformational leaders inspire followers to
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 20
transform in order to improve the organization (McIntosh & Tolson, 2008). They encourage
collaboration within decision-making processes among all of their followers (McIntosh &
Tolson, 2008). Hughes et al. (2012) explain that servant leadership is characterized by sacrifice
and service. Robert K. Greenleaf developed the term servant leadership. Greenleaf (1970)
describes servant leaders as being empathetic, good listeners, aware of their surroundings, and
persuasive. They also have foresight, they conceptualize, they are community builders, they are
stewards, and are committed to the wellbeing of their followers (Greenleaf, 1970). Trust within a
servant leader is built among followers through the competence and values the leader holds, as
well as the empathy they show to others (Greenleaf, 1970). Followers will trust a leader who
understands and is concerned for the needs of their people (Greenleaf, 1970). Followers also
value intuition in a leader and servant leaders’ intuitions concern the needs of their followers
(Greenleaf, 1970).
Summary of Related Literature
These organizational structures emerged from changing times, including the continuous
persecution of the Jewish people. Kibbutzim and moshavim history was built on dedication,
drive, sacrifice, love for their country, religion, and love for their people. These settlers were the
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson of their time and place of origin. Ben-Gurion, the first Prime
Minister of Israel, was a kibbutznik himself and is buried at Kibbutz Sde Boker located in the
Negev desert. The changes that have taken place within these organizational structures appear to
be an adaptation to the ever-changing times. This research was presented as they apply to the
research questions: What components (economic indicators, ideological values, members, etc.)
make the organizational structures of a kibbutz or moshav successful? How does leadership
impact the success of a kibbutz or moshav and how does leadership handle change? Did
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 21
leadership impact the changes made within both organizations and how do members view these
changes?
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 22
Chapter 3: Methodology
This section will explain the methods and approach that was taken in the gathering of
data, as well as in the analysis of the data. The methodology including the case selection and
process, participants, instruments, and procedures were developed to address the research
questions. This section will explain the various components of the data collection and analysis
process including the methodology, the case selection process and context, the participants of the
study, the instruments used in the study, and the procedures taken in collecting the data.
Methodology
Kibbutzim and Moshavim the historical and current social context and leadership
involvement is two descriptive case studies in one article. The Institutional Review Board
approved this research study on May 9, 2014. The organizations (kibbutzim and moshavim)
researched were analyzed using parallel form and content analyses, meaning both organizations
were researched in a parallel manner and the organizations are examined as they relate to written
and spoken communications on the topic of both kibbutzim and moshavim. Content analysis is
the research process of analyzing previous studies, a framework, and the data that is collected
and finding themes within those three categories (Patton, 2002). These organizations are
explained in great detail while comparing both organizational structures, as well as the element
of leadership involvement. Data was collected from interviews with present members, past
volunteers, and individuals that have researched these organizations. Participants were
interviewed via Skype, phone, or written interviews through email.
Case Selection Process and Context
The case selections were developed through an intrinsic purpose, meaning the researcher
wanted to learn more about these unique organizations located in the State of Israel (Thomas,
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 23
2011). The intrinsic interest of these organizations led the researcher to consider theses
organizations from a leadership perspective, as well as from an organizational structural
perspective. The intrinsic purposes led the researcher to analyze these organizations within two
descriptive case studies, meaning both organizations were analyzed in a descriptive manner in
one comparative study, meaning these organizations were compared in a general sense.
However, both organizations are structurally different. Therefore they were compared in their
historical context having arisen from the same ideological movement. These organizations are
far different in organizational structure. However, both organizations stemmed from political
Zionism. Therefore, they were examined together in a comparative manner.
One of the researcher’s relatives was a volunteer at two kibbutzim, Beit Oren and
Shefayim in 1975-1976. She grew up hearing stories about the unique organizational structure of
kibbutzim. This is what first led her interest of kibbutzim. The researcher decided to choose both
organizations because of her past experience visiting numerous kibbutzim and staying at a
moshav in 2012. This experience enthralled her senses. She discovered the extraordinary success
these organizations played in the establishment of the State of Israel, and wondered what
leadership looked like in these organizations. The researcher believes people should be aware of
these incredibly unique organizations and the obstacles members had to conquer in operating and
sustaining both kibbutzim and moshavim. As well as the influential role these organization had
in the establishment of the State of Israel and the government of Israel. These organizations
served as an influential role within the State of Israel at a specific time and place in history.
While these organizations played a vital role in the establishment of the State of Israel, they have
experienced some difficulties as a whole. Many kibbutzim today are becoming too large and the
organizational structure is changing from the original framework. The ideals behind the original
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 24
structure have been altered in most kibbutzim. The moshavim are becoming more like a village
as seen in the West rather than sticking to their original co-operative structure.
Participants
The participants were Israelis who were present or past members of one of the
organizations and individuals that have researched these organizations for many years. Data was
also collected from one participant who currently lives outside of Israel who had volunteer
experience at two kibbutzim. The participants were selected based on the knowledge they
possess on these particular organizations. Eight individuals were interviewed for this study.
Three of the participants are members of a kibbutz, one is a member of a moshav, three of the
participants have researched these organizations, and one was a volunteer at two different
kibbutzim. Two of the three participants who have researched these organizations are experts in
the area of moshavim, while the other researcher has done extensive research on both
organizations. Seven of the eight individuals currently live in the State of Israel, while one lives
in the United States.
The individuals were interviewed via Skype, phone, or through written interview
depending on the individuals’ availability. Three participants agreed to participate in Skype
interviews. Two agreed to phone interviews, two agreed to written interviews through email, and
one agreed to a face-to-face interview. One kibbutznik was born on a kibbutz. There were six
men and two women who participated in the interviews. Each participant was asked questions
regarding the organizational structure of either a kibbutz or a moshav based on their particular
expertise. They were also asked questions pertaining to leadership and how it is involved within
the organizations, how leadership handles change, and how members view the changes that have
been made.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 25
The following is a list of participants’ first names and their relationship to either a
kibbutz or moshav: Nathaniel, Naftali, and Micah are members of a kibbutz; Yoni is a member
of a moshav; Isaac, Aaron, and Sarah are researchers of either kibbutzim or moshavim; and Rena
was a volunteer at two different kibbutzim. Nathaniel has lived on the same kibbutz for just
around thirty years and has also done some research on these organizations. Naftali was born on
a kibbutz and has lived there his whole life. He has and continues to do extensive research on
kibbutzim. Micah has also lived on his kibbutz for just around thirty years and has done research
on kibbutzim as well. Yoni has lived at the same moshav over fifty years. Isaac has done
extensive research on both kibbutzim and moshavim, while Aaron and Sarah have done
extensive research on moshavim. Rena was a volunteer for around two years at various
kibbutzim.
Instruments
The instruments used within theses case studies were semi-structured, open-ended
interviews. There were two methods of interviews, one for individuals whose expertise are
kibbutzim and one for individuals who possess knowledge on the organizational structure of
moshavim. Questions were given to participants in advance for preparation and included
questions relating to changes, leadership, structure, and historical information. The questions
were developed to investigate the current structure within both organizations and how it differs
from the organizational structure of the past. See Appendix A for the data collection instrument.
All interviews were recorded via either video recordings, audio recordings, or written recordings
through email. Follow up questions were asked through email when clarity was not reached.
Clarity was reached when follow up questions were answered through a written email response.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 26
Participants provided detailed responses with further sources to research focusing on leadership
and changes within the organizational structure.
Procedures
The procedures were developed based on the research design of two descriptive case
studies in one comparative study. The study is explanatory, as well as illustrative. Through data
collection found in the interviews, both kibbutzim and moshavim were looked at in comparison.
Participants were asked approximately 25 questions through Skype, phone, face-to-face, or
written interview. Data collection provided the researcher with similarities of both organizations
and dissimilarities. Questions were asked pertaining to changes within the organizational
structure of both kibbutzim and moshavim and if leadership handled or drove these changes.
Questions were also asked regarding success within both of these organizations whether it be
economic or ideological success, meaning the preservation of values.
Data was analyzed by looking for themes (content analysis) within responses from
participants. Themes were identified in participant responses as they related to each research
question. The themes were then applied to the research as well as the frameworks within this
study (Patton, 2002). When identifying themes, the relationship participants have with the
organizational structure of kibbutzim and moshavim was taken into consideration because a
member has more knowledge and experience in terms of how the organization operates than a
volunteer. The data was also analyzed to see how leadership or lack of leadership impacts the
organization.
Transcription happened during and after each interview. Recorded interviews were
reviewed numerous times and information necessary to this study were transcribed and reported.
Interviews began with question one of the data collection instrument and progressed in a linear
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 27
manner with follow up questions being asked when necessary (see Appendix A). Based on the
data collected through the interviews, results were examined to identify the answers in
comparison to the research questions, 1) Which were related to what makes the organization
successful, 2) How is leadership involved and how does leadership handle change, and lastly, 3)
How does leadership impact changes and how do members view these changes. Participants
provided articles for further research including numerous articles and books. These articles and
books were analyzed and added to the literature review to be used in this study. Spoken
interviews through Skype lasted between thirty minutes to two hours. Notes were taken during
the interview along with the recording of the interview. Phone interviews lasted thirty minutes,
and notes were taken along with the recording as well. Data collected through written interviews
were received by email. All spoken interviews were transcribed before data analysis began.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 28
Chapter 4: Findings
Findings Overview
This section will look at the findings as they relate to the research questions. The findings
show evidence that the organizational structure of both kibbutzim and moshavim have changed
from the original structure, and the role of leadership has changed as well. The findings also
show what components make a kibbutz or moshav successful by examining what success means
to participants of the study. This section will examine the findings through the data collection
found in the interviews with former members, researchers, and a kibbutz volunteer. This section
will outline findings as they relate to the research questions based on participant responses.
Participant responses will be presented as they relate to the research questions and not in the
order to which the participants participated in the interview. Therefore the findings will be
presented theme by theme rather than the order in which the participants were interviewed.
Research Question 1
What components (economic indicators, ideological values, members, etc.) make the
organizational structures of a kibbutz or moshav successful?
Success in general is measured in numerous ways depending on the situation,
circumstance, or even individual. Within organizations in the United States, success is often
based on how economically successful an organization is. Economic success plays a huge role in
many organizations. While discussing both kibbutzim and moshavim with the eight interview
participants, it was identified that the kibbutzim and moshavim that are in operation today are
successful historically because they are still in operation and have sustained throughout the
years. However, can they continue to exist while losing their ideological way of life? Nathaniel
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 29
and Naftali explained how success within kibbutzim is more than economic success. Nathaniel
explained,
My kibbutz is successful economically. However, the success of the kibbutz is not
necessarily economic success. Of course when you succeed economically you can allow
yourself to invest on social life, education, and other services. But the spirit of the kibbutz
is at least partly an ideological one and a culture one. Along the years, successful
kibbutzim were considered those who were lucky enough to establish a rich social life
based on mainly four things: open democracy, solidarity, communal social life (sharing
the income and outcomes), and equality on rights.
Naftali explained, “My kibbutz is successful. The standard of living inside the kibbutz is better
than outside the kibbutz.” However, both participants see kibbutz life as more of an ideological
way of life. Those who move to the kibbutz for the standard of living “do not believe in the
kibbutz principles and prefer their own interests over communal interests.” Nathaniel explained
that his kibbutz is economically successful but not a success as it relates to the original
ideological framework of kibbutzim which includes the four principles he mentioned earlier.
“None of these principles exist fully now, only partly.” Naftali explains, “Many kibbutzim today
are not kibbutzim at all. They are just a place that is called kibbutz but in reality it is not much
different than any suburb of midlevel or higher level class.”
The kibbutzim have economic indicators to monitor economic success and they are made
known to all members without releasing information that can be used by competitors (Naftali).
“There is an economic manager and an economic analyzer with an economic committee that
analyzes which economic activity is profitable and which is not.” Naftali explained,
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 30
Economic success makes it too big for members to be able to execute their democratic
rights. When the kibbutz is successful it will go up and become too big for the members
to control democratically and it becomes oligarchic. It becomes too large, too
complicated to control. So the kibbutzim have to devise a special arrangement to relive
democracy. In such a case, my kibbutz is still a commune but it is a commune that many
of its members are not believing they are really partners to the commune because it is
controlled undemocratically.
Micah explained how the changing of values and the infiltration of American values is
the largest threat to the ideological framework of kibbutzim. Micah’s kibbutz has been in
operation since 1983. It is a fairly new kibbutz. “I joined the kibbutz because I believed it
constituted a more just way of life and it was a way of trying to change the world to be a better
place.” Micah was not born in Israel but traveled from the West because he believed in the
ideology of the kibbutzim. “My kibbutz is not a wealthy kibbutz. Success is based on values but
economics does play a very important role as well.”
Rena recalls the importance of productions within the kibbutzim she volunteered at.
However, community life was very much alive and everyone enjoyed meals together in the
communal dinning halls. “Living on a kibbutz is a stress free life. There were no monthly bills,
no mortgages, and no car payments. The kibbutz handled all financial matters. Everyone worked
together as a family and your existence was taken care of by the commune.” The American way
of life, meaning a larger house or an expensive car, was not yet visible within the kibbutzim she
volunteered on. Rena also recalls her boyfriend (a member of the kibbutz) having to reserve the
communal car that was shared among all members of the kibbutz when he came home from the
army. She explains that money is important within any organization. However, the sense of
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 31
community, rather than a sense of outdoing your neighbor, was the ideology, which led her to
desire the volunteer work on a kibbutz. “As a volunteer I saw success as finding true happiness
and that was found living on the kibbutz because it was like one big family.”
When success pertaining to moshavim was discussed with Isaac, he explained, “Both
kibbutzim and moshavim were and are very successful because they are the backbone of the
Israeli agriculture and were the backbone for the emergence of the State of Israel as a Jewish
homeland based on the Zionist idea.” However, “Almost all of the moshavim and about 80
percent of the kibbutzim lost some of the very basic ideas which structured the ideological
framework” (Isaac). Sarah explained how ideological commitment is one key component that is
linked to success of moshavim based on certain studies that have been carried out. “Studies
carried out many years ago attributed the success to several factors, such as location (urban
fringe/center vs. periphery), agricultural potential, length of existence, ideological commitment
and ethnic composition of the community” (Sarah). Yoni explained how economic success of
moshavim is based on the economic success of the individuals within the moshav. He further
explained,
Today, the successful moshav is one that keeps the community together socially. It is a
small community so all of the municipal issues are handled jointly and when people have
enjoyed the atmosphere, they enjoy celebrating holidays with the neighbors, cultural
activities, the kids go to all kinds of activities together, when this is done successfully
then people feel that they belong to a community that they want to belong to.
Yoni explained how some moshavim have been successful in keeping this community aspect of
living alive. But economic success is not as a whole but individually (Yoni). Aaron explains
along the same lines that successful moshavim are ones “which keep community life alive, as
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 32
well as those that are expanding demographically.” “The successful moshavim are those in
which people stay for a long period of time and those that may attract second generation”
(Aaron).
Based on participant responses as it relates to Research Question 1, economics does play
a role in the success of kibbutzim and moshavim. However, success is also linked to ideological
commitment. Participants discussed sense of community and the feeling of togetherness as a
large component of success. The following research question will discuss the topic of leadership
as it relates to kibbutzim and moshavim, as well as how leaderhsip impacts success.
Research Question 2
How does leadership impact the success of a kibbutz or moshav and how does leadership handle
change?
Leadership plays a large role in any successful organization. Two organizations in the
State of Israel, which have proven to be a historical success, are both kibbutzim and moshavim.
The ideology behind both organizations has been around over one hundred years and the
organizational structure of a kibbutz has existed just over one hundred years. While moshavim
have survived just shy of one hundred years. If these organizations as a whole were not
historically successful, they would not still be in operation today.
Micah explained that leadership within each individual kibbutz directs the course of the
kibbutz and determines what is important for the organization. “The leadership really depends on
the personal motivation of the people who have leadership abilities.” Naftali explained that the
general assembly is the leadership of each individual kibbutz and the general assembly of his
kibbutz is not very large. Therefore it is a small amount of people who direct what the kibbutz
does (Naftali). Nathaniel and Naftali explained how leadership was influential in the changes that
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 33
took place following the economic crisis. Nathaniel explained concerning his own kibbutz, “The
main job of this leadership was done already by changing the kibbutz into a very different kind
of community.” While some kibbutzim leadership was concerned with bringing their own
kibbutz out of the economic rut, others saw these changes as an opportunity to better themselves
and their own economic position (Nathaniel). It is important to note, “Leadership varies on each
kibbutz. Each kibbutz has its own story” (Nathaniel). Members of Naftali’s kibbutz see the
kibbutz as undemocratic and they do not fight for things in the general assembly because they
feel they are not treated fairly by the leadership. “In kibbutzim like ours, in mine, the leadership
here just was a free rider on the new wave and they misled all the way to improve their own
position, mainly economic but also political and social” (Nathaniel). Nathaniel and Naftali
explained that their kibbutzim are economically successful and members enjoy a nice standard of
living. However, Nathaniel’s kibbutz lost the sense of community they once had due to the
changes leadership made to the structure of the organization.
As a volunteer, Rena did not see the leadership influence within the kibbutzim she lived
at. “The leadership influence was not visible as a volunteer.” However, the sense of community
was visible and alive. “The ideological structure of kibbutzim was present, the sharing of
resources the communal way of life such as dining together in the communal dinning hall”
(Rena). The ideology that formed the organizational structure of the kibbutzim as a whole could
be seen as a volunteer in the 1970s, and it had not yet been transformed. “The communal sharing
of income, the communal sharing of transportation, and the community life together was a reality
in everyday life” (Rena).
Moshavim and kibbutzim have always belonged to the same political side throughout
Israeli history (Isaac). There was competition between the kibbutzim and moshavim and in order
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 34
to get higher political status, as well as allocation of economic means, leadership within both
organizations were always trying to establish the proper role for their organizations (Isaac). “So
in this case, the role of the leadership of the old moshavim movement was very important but not
for each moshav especially” (Isaac). Both organizations were part of the Labor political party
and the labor movement. According to Isaac,
Within every successful kibbutz, you can find very good leadership. The leadership was
crucial throughout the early years of development and later throughout the process of
changes that took place during the economic crisis which both kibbutzim and most of the
moshavim almost went bankrupt. Leadership within the moshav was not as crucial in
economic development but was important in getting the moshavim a proper role in the
Israeli agricultural policy and even in politics.
Yoni explained that historically each family within the moshav was provided their own
plot of land to cultivate and members of the moshav or co-operative were provided services by
the co-operative. Following the debt crisis in 1985, the co-operative function within moshavim
stopped almost entirely leaving family farms on their own. Leadership now, as it relates to
moshavim, is not significant anymore because members are all responsible for themselves. Yoni
further explained,
It was relevant in the past and leadership was very important because most of the farmers
really trusted the leadership. They had no skills to compete with outside forces, to
negotiate with banks, to make economic decisions. They knew of the farm so they
depended on the leadership to a great extent. When there was good leadership, people
that really cared about the organization and did the best for its success and were qualified
enough, then the whole co-operative benefited.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 35
“There are some functions that are still run by the co-operative because of the land issue. The
land here is nationally owned. Each moshav leases the land from the government and this is part
of the only reason these co-operatives still exist.” Yoni explained that leadership historically was
very important and many farmers were able to place their trust in the leadership. He explained
the changes within the structure as,
In the moshav it was complete dissolution of the co-operative. Before the crisis people
did not even have bank accounts because the moshav took care of their financial issues
and immediately after that people had to run to the bank and learn to write checks. That
was the major change. Most people were full-time farmers and had troubles adjusting.
The leadership in the moshavim movement today deals mainly with land rights and the
agricultural public image. But leadership within each moshavim is not significant now days.
Historically, leadership handled economic decisions and the farmers within the co-operative
relied on leadership to handle these affairs justly and accurately.
Participant responses as they relate to Research Question 2 express the historical
importance of leadership within both kibbutzim and moshavim. Leadership within kibbutzim
today still impacts the success of the organization. However, leadership within moshavim is no
longer present. Participants whose expertise was in the area of kibbutzim explained how
leadership does drive the direction of the kibbutz and did impact changes within the
organizational structure. This will lead to Research Question 3 discussing how leadership
impacted change within kibbutzim and moshavim and how members view the changes.
Research Question 3
Did leadership impact the changes made within both organizations and how do members view
these changes?
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 36
Nathaniel and Naftali explained how leadership in many kibbutzim, as a result of the
financial crisis, became more concerned with individual needs than with the needs of the
organization as whole. “Leadership of the kibbutzim, not of the movement but the lone
kibbutzim, some of the leadership believed they were saving the kibbutzim” (Nathaniel). “I am
enjoying the standard of living. I do not have any complaints, but I lost my community. I feel
very alone here and I think others do to. You are not supported by the community anymore”
(Nathaniel). “The leaders started as servants or idealists” (Naftali). However, with time
leadership changed or transformed the aim of the organization to a more
individualistic/capitalistic way of life rather than a communal way of life (Nathaniel & Naftali).
Nathaniel discussed how the kibbutz has a status recognized by the government but the
changes made in his own kibbutz gives two statuses to people who live in the kibbutz. There are
“members who have share in the revenue and in the economic production means of the kibbutz.”
These individuals are members of the commune. However, one of the changes that has been
made to the structure of the kibbutz is that they joined together with an outside organization to
establish a new neighborhood with individuals who are not members but are part of the
municipal organization (city counsel), which has no relation to the economic membership of the
commune. Both members and nonmembers living in the new neighborhood possess municipal
status according to the State of Israel. However, they do not share in revenues or economic
means. The individuals living in the new neighborhood are usually children of members who are
older. They are citizens of Israel and are members of the municipal organization.
Nathaniel explained, “In years past, successful kibbutzim were those who were able to
maintain four principles: open democracy, solidarity, communal social life (sharing the incomes
and outcomes), and equality of rights.” These principles are no longer fully present in most
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 37
kibbutzim, only partially. The changes were made as a result of the economic crisis. However,
Nathaniel explained, “We did not feel like we were in a crisis and it was our leaders who
convinced us that we better make changes now before it was too late.” Some members within
Nathaniel’s kibbutz opposed the changes made by leadership but it was not popular to voice this
opposition. It was not popular to oppose the leadership and the decisions they were making
within the organization. As a result of the changes within Nathaniel’s kibbutz, he believes that
his kibbutz no longer functions as a kibbutz.
Naftali explained that his kibbutz is successful. However, he explained that the kibbutz
movement as a whole is not successful. The standard of living in Naftali’s kibbutz is better than
if individuals were to live outside of the kibbutz. Economic success often makes it difficult for
members to execute democratic rights because the organization becomes too large. The leaders
within kibbutzim began as servants or idealistic leaders but following ten or fifteen years of
success they became more interested in their economic and political position. Instead of serving
the interests of the commune, they served their own interests and reaped economic benefits as a
result. Naftali further explained that before the 1980s the kibbutz was a commune where all
resources were shared. There is the threat of members leaving because many kibbutzim are not
implementing their principles and because they believe in democracy. There are many kibbutzim
today that are not really a kibbutz but just use the name. “The leaders concealed that they were
changing the real aim of the organization.”
Yoni explained that local leadership within moshavim is no longer relevant and every
family farm is on its own. In the past, leadership was important and would negotiate with banks
in order to make economic decisions. “Before the economic crisis, members of the moshav did
not even have bank accounts because the moshav took care of their financial issues.” Following
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 38
the crisis people were on their own, they had to open their own accounts, and even had to learn
to write checks. Historically, when there was leadership who cared about the organization the
people of the moshav prospered and the organization was successful. The only reason moshavim
still exist is because of the land issue, meaning the land is owned by the State. Economic success
varies by individual because everyone is on his or her own. The challenge of the moshav today is
keeping the community together and keeping social life alive. The social aspect of the moshav
takes precedence over the economic aspect within moshavim. Following the economic crisis the
co-operative was no longer fully operating as a co-operative and the major change as a result of
the crisis was that everyone was on their own financially. Furthermore, Yoni asserts, “Some
moshavim, which had leadership that only cared about their own business and not about their
neighbors, usually did not do well economically.”
Sarah explains that historically the moshavim movement’s leadership was influential
within the government. However, today their influence is limited. Sarah explained that one threat
to moshavim as a whole is the “lack of strong national leadership.” “Historically the moshavim
were organized in national movements that were affiliated to political parties. The leadership of
the movements had a strong influence on the operation of the moshavim in part through the
cooperative organizations. Today their impact is very limited” (Sarah). When asked the question,
“Does leadership drive or hinder the success of the organization as a whole?” Aaron explained,
“Leadership is more at the regional council level. The ‘regional council’ is the major
development agent which leads the aspired changes.”
Through the findings as they relate to Research Question 3, it is seen that leadership did
impact changes within kibbutzim and moshavim. Findings of participants whose area of
expertise is kibbutzim, displayed the impact leadership had on changes made within the
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 39
organizational structure. Some members view these changes as unsuccessful because they feel
they are losing their ideological commitment and their community. One participant whose area
of expertise is moshavim explained that leadership is no longer important locally but it is at the
“regional council” level. This level led the changes within the organizational structure. The
following section will discuss the implications of the findings, limitations of the research, and
further research recommendations.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 40
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion
Overview of Applied Research Project in Leadership
The purpose of this research was to explore the historical success that arose from the
development of kibbutzim and moshavim and how leadership was, is, and is no longer involved.
After reviewing the data, as well as the research, the changes that have taken place in both
kibbutzim and moshavim apply to Hughes’ et al. (2014) strategic organizational framework. This
section will identify the implications of the findings by triangulating the applications of the
research with the data, and the research and the data with Hughes’ et al. (2014) framework, as
well as the leadership styles discussed in the literature review. This section will also discuss the
research limitations and the recommendations for further research.
Implications of the Findings
Themes were identified in the data, which was collected from participant responses.
These themes will be examined as they relate to each research question. The conclusions will be
discussed as the literature relates to the themes. Lastly, the findings as they relate to the
literature, will be examined in light of Hughes’ et al. (2014) framework, as well as the leadership
styles.
What components (economic indicators, ideological values, members, etc.) make the
organizational structures of a kibbutz or moshav successful?
According to the findings, individual participants defined success differently. Most of the
participants agreed that success is seen in multiple ways. However, a common theme seen within
the responses of the participants was the considerations of success as it relates to the preservation
of values within both kibbutzim and moshavim. While most participants explained the
importance of economics, Nathaniel pointed out that his kibbutz is economically successful.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 41
“However, the success of the kibbutz is not necessarily economic success. Along the years,
successful kibbutzim were considered those who were lucky enough to establish a rich social life
based on mainly four things: open democracy, solidarity, communal social life (sharing the
income and outcomes), and equality on rights” (Nathaniel). The structural changes, which took
place following the economic crisis, led to many kibbutzim and moshavim to alter or transform
the historical ideological structure that once defined them.
As one participant explained the togetherness of living on a kibbutz is no more. He feels
alone within the kibbutz community. Rena explained, “As a volunteer I saw success as finding
true happiness and that was found living on the kibbutz because it was like one big family”
(Rena). She too enjoyed the togetherness of the community and saw this as a success. However,
many kibbutzim are losing this ideological aspect, which once defined who they were.
Participants who were researchers or members of moshavim explained that changes within
the structure have led them to be more like a regular village rather than a cooperative society.
Success within moshavim is now based on each individual rather than the cooperative as a
whole. However, as Yoni explained,
Today, the successful moshav is one that keeps the community together socially. It is a small
community so all of the municipal issues are handled jointly and when people have enjoyed
the atmosphere, they enjoy celebrating holidays with the neighbors, cultural activities, the
kids go to all kinds of activities together, when this is done successfully then people feel that
they belong to a community that they want to belong to.
Aaron explained along the same lines that successful moshavim are ones “which keep
community life alive, as well as those that are expanding demographically.”
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 42
As seen in participant responses, community life and the community aspect of the historical
ideology have transformed as a result of the structural changes following the economic crisis.
The participants who are members of kibbutzim saw these changes as negative because they are
steering away from the values that once defined who they were as an organization within Israeli
society. Their concern is that the government in the future will eliminate the kibbutz status
because of the structural changes. Successful moshavim according to participants are those that
keep community life alive. Can both kibbutzim and moshavim continue to be successful, if
structural changes are leading them away from their historical ideological commitment? In light
of Hughes’ et al. (2014) framework, both kibbutzim’s and moshavim’s strategy could be
maximized if they involve their historical aspirations in order to achieve enduring success.
However, the structural changes were made to pull them out of the economic rut. But could they
have stuck to their ideological commitment and still removed themselves from the depressed
economic position they were found in?
How does leadership impact the success of a kibbutz or moshav and how does leadership
handle change?
Based on the findings, leadership varies from organization to organization. Therefore,
leadership varies from kibbutzim to kibbutzim, as well as moshavim to moshavim. Shapira
(2008b) explains as it relates to kibbutzim, “Leaders started out as transformational, but with
success and growth became oligarchic and autocratic conservatives” (p. 1). As Micah explained
leadership within each individual kibbutz directs the course of the kibbutz and determines what
is important for the organization. Leadership saw the structural changes as a way to bring
kibbutzim out of the economic hardships they were in. Nathaniel asserts that local leadership is a
big factor when impacting the direction of a kibbutz rather than the movement’s leadership.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 43
“Leadership definitely impacts the success of the organization” (Nathaniel). “Leadership of the
kibbutzim, not of the movement but the lone kibbutzim, some of the leadership believed they
were saving the kibbutzim.” “The leaders started as servants or idealists” (Naftali). As explained
in the literature review, servant leaders sacrifice for their followers and serve the needs of their
members (Greenleaf, 1970; Hughes et al., 2012). Transformational leaders promote collaboration
among members and inspire followers to transform in order to improve the organization
(McIntosh & Tolson, 2008). Therefore, leadership within kibbutzim originally sacrificed and
served their community. They were also transformational as Shapira (2008b) explained.
Historically, leadership did impact the success of moshavim. However, now success varies
by individual farmers. The individual farmers are in control of their own success rather than the
cooperative. Aaron explained, “ Leadership is more at the regional council level. The “regional
council” is the major development agent which leads the aspired changes.” Therefore local
leadership does not steer the direction of moshavim and every family farm is on their own. As
with the kibbutzim, the changes made were a result of the economic crisis. The organizations
were able to rise out of the economic crisis as a result of the structural changes.
Did leadership impact the changes made within both organizations and how do members
view these changes?
The organizational changes that took place within kibbutzim and moshavim were a result of
leadership implementation. Participants whose area of expertise is kibbutzim explained how
leadership changed the structure of the organization to overcome the economic crisis. Aaron
explained concerning moshavim, “Leadership is more at the regional council level. The ‘regional
council’ is the major development agent which leads the aspired changes.” The changes made
follow Hughes’ et al. (2014) organizational framework concerning transforming in order to
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 44
sustain. “In order to achieve enduring performance potential, organizations need to undergo
periodic transformation, and therefore strategic leadership requires successfully navigating and
leading these changes” (Hughes et al. 2014, p. 16). However, in the process of changing the
organizational structure in order to sustain their position within Israeli society, the ideological
principles that once defined them were traded for the structural changes. These changes were
contradictory to the following organizational framework by Hughes et al. (2014).
Strategy is maximized when it also involves aspirational dimensions that touch the
emotions of all the stakeholders involved. Organizational mission, vision, and values are
important aspirational components that create meaning and purpose for these
stakeholders. These components serve to help people understand why the organization
exists, how it intends to make a difference in the world, and what the important beliefs
are that drive and connect the people in the organization (pg. 25).
If strategy is maximized when an organization holds true to their values and principles, can it be
minimized by the abandonment of values or principles? Participants explained their concern that
the Israeli government will one day say they no longer have status as a kibbutz because of the
changes made within the organizational structure. Therefore in this case, strategy would be
minimized because the aspirational components were traded for structural changes. However,
because of transformational leadership, these organizations were saved from bankruptcy, which
could have led to a premature dissolution. Individual kibbutzim and moshavim may have not felt
the economic hardship, and leadership may have taken advantage of the situation within
kibbutzim to improve individual positions. However, as Nathaniel explained, “Leadership of the
kibbutzim, not of the movement but the lone kibbutzim, some of the leadership believed they
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 45
were saving the kibbutzim.” Could have leadership saved kibbutzim and moshavim from the
debt crisis without removing core principles that defined who they were ideologically?
Limitations
This section will outline the limitations of this research study. There were restrictions to
the research because it was done within the United States through technology sources.
Considering the intrinsic reasons behind the case selection, the researcher is someone with
limited knowledge in the area of kibbutzim and moshavim, and gained understanding in the area
of organizational structure through participant responses and research. This limitation caused the
researcher to seek participants with first-hand experiences and participants who have researched
these organizations for numerous years. The researcher was limited on time because of the
timeframe of the graduate program she was enrolled in.
Only one participant was interviewed face-to-face. The remainder of the participants
were interviewed via Skype, phone, or through email. This is a limitation to the study because
more data could have been gained through onsite interviews, by reading body language, field
notes, and gaining perspective on each individual organization. The study would have been more
conducive if the researcher was able to travel to Israel to interview participants. More data could
have been gathered if all of the interviews were done through Skype rather than written through
email. More individuals were asked to participate. However, only eight participants agreed to the
interview. This is another limitation because the data could have been extensive if more
individuals agreed to participate in the interviews. Knowledge regarding organizational structure
was gained through research and participant responses. Little knowledge was gained regarding
leadership within moshavim, historically and currently at the regional counsel level, which did
not provide a complete understanding of their impact. While it was understood that leadership at
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 46
the regional counsel level inspires present changes, it was not understood if they led the changes
after the debt crisis.
Recommendations
For further research, the question should be raised, “Could leadership have promoted
collaboration and inspired change based on common goals and still have kept the principles
beneficial to their historical ideological commitment?” “Could leadership within both
organizations have followed the organizational framework by Hughes et al. (2014) concerning
organizational strategy?” Another question that should be raised in further research is, “Is it
possible for kibbutzim to be individualistic in terms of economic issues, and yet able to keep
community life alive as many moshavim have? There are still kibbutzim that have stuck to
traditional organizational values. However, the kibbutzim that have promoted changes are a
majority within Israel. Therefore, there is a chance that all kibbutzim will succumb to these
changes. These questions should be considered in further research. An additional
recommendation would be to ensure that the researcher is able to collect field notes within the
State of Israel and not abroad. This would improve the research quality, as well as the data
collection process.
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 47
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KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 50
Appendix A
Data Collection Instrument
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 51
Data Collection Instrument
Answer the following if you live on a kibbutz:
1. What kibbutz do you currently live on?
2. How long have you lived on your kibbutz?
3. Were you born on the same kibbutz? A different one? Or not at all?
4. If you answered a different one, how many kibbutzim have you lived at?
5. If you answered not at all, how did you decide to become a member of your kibbutz?
6. Are you a volunteer on your kibbutz? If not, what is your position within the kibbutz?
7. If you answered volunteer, what does your daily work consist of?
8. If you hold another position within the kibbutz, what does the daily work of that position
consist of?
9. How many individuals are members of your kibbutz?
10. How does your kibbutz generate revenue?
11. Based on members, revenue, and the years your kibbutz has been in operation, would you
consider your kibbutz to be a successful organization?
12. Does leadership impact this success? If so, how? If not, why?
13. How do the younger generations, the in-between generations, or the older generations
view life on a kibbutz?
14. How often do individuals leave the kibbutz?
15. What age group most often leaves?
16. What are some of the reasons they leave?
17. What threats do you think stand against modern kibbutzim as a whole?
18. What drives motivation of members?
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 52
19. How was leadership historically involved in kibbutzim and specifically your own
kibbutz?
20. How does leadership drive or hinder the success of the organization today?
21. How were kibbutzim influential in the establishment of the State of Israel?
22. What are some of the present changes that have been made within the organizational
structure of kibbutzim? How do those changes make kibbutzim different from the
organizational structure of the past?
Answer the following if you live on a moshav:
1. What moshav do you currently live on?
2. How long have you lived on a moshav?
3. Were you born on the same moshav? A different one? Or not at all?
4. If you answered a different one, how many moshavim have you lived on?
5. Do you own property within your moshav?
6. What position do you hold within your moshav? And what kind of work is required for
that position?
7. Do you see that “pluriactivity” (the household acquirement of income sources from home
businesses, wages from work outside the moshav, and/or any income acquired not from
agriculture) is common within moshavim? And do you see this within your own moshav?
8. How many individuals are members of your Moshav?
9. Based on members, revenue, and the years your moshav has been in operation, would
you consider your moshav a successful organization?
10. Does leadership impact this success? If so, how? If not, why?
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 53
11. How do the younger generations, the in-between generations, or the older generations
view life on a moshav?
12. How often do individuals leave the moshav?
13. What age group most often leaves?
14. What are some of the reasons they leave?
15. How does leadership drive or hinder the success of the organization as a whole?
23. How was leadership historically involved in moshavim and specifically your own
moshav?
24. What threats do you think stand against the modern moshavim?
25. How were moshavim influential in the establishment of the State of Israel?
26. What are some of the present changes that have been made within the organizational
structure of moshavim? How do those changes make moshavim different from the
organizational structure of the past?
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 54
Appendix B
Acknowledgments
KIBBUTZIM AND MOSHAVIM 55
Acknowledgements
The researcher would like to thank all individuals who participated in the study’s data
collection process, as well as the individuals who provided additional research information. She
would also like to thank the professors at Judson University for the guidance during the research
process, and for the help she received from family. Lastly, she would like to thank God for
guidance and direction throughout the graduate program.