Gender, Water and Poverty

KEY LINKS

GOVERNMENTCOMMITMENTS

ACTIONS ANDTOOLS FORIMPLEMENTATION

W O M E N ’ S E N V I R O N M E N T A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O R G A N I Z A T I O N

Untapped Untapped

Gender, Water and Poverty:Key Issues, Government Commitments And Actions for Sustainable Development

ContentsGender Differences in Water Use and Management 3

International Commitments on Gender/Poverty/Water insertAdvocating for the Connections 6Women Set Guidelines for Implementation 7Contacts and Resources 8

UntappedCo-AuthorsPrabha Khosla and Rebecca Pearl

Senior AdvisorIrene Dankelman

EditorAnna Grossman

Managing EditorJoan Ross Frankson

Editorial AssistantCyrena Drusine

Copy EditorLeslie Shaffer

DesignThe Handy Design Company

Printed on chlorine-free recycledpaper by Astoria Graphics

Copyright © January 2003

Women’s Environment& Development Organization355 Lexington Avenue, 3rd FloorNew York, NY 10017-6603, U.S.A.Tel: 212-973-0325; Fax: 212-973-0335E-mail: wedo@wedo.org www.wedo.org

WEDO acknowledges the generous funding from UNFPA that made this report possible.The views and opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of UNFPA.

“A safe water supply and adequate sanitation to protect health are among thebasic human rights. Ensuring their avail-ability would contribute immeasurably tohealth and productivity for development.”

— D R . G R O H A R L E M B R U N D T L A N D ,D I R E C T O R - G E N E R A L , W O R L D H E A LT H O R G A N I Z AT I O N

is essential to human beings and all forms of life. But pollution and lack of access to clean water is proliferating the cycle of poverty,water-borne diseases, and genderinequities.

At the United Nations conferences of the 1990s—beginning with the 1992 UNConference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazilall the way through to the 2000 Millennium Development Summit in New York,U.S.A. and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) inJohannesburg, South Africa—it became widely accepted that gender equality and women’s empowerment are essential to poverty eradication. But despite therecognition that advancing women’s human rights is key to breaking the cycle of poverty, implementation of this overarching policy agenda has been elusive.

This paper presents an overview of the relationship between gender, poverty andwater. The first section explores how, in every corner of the globe, women playa central role in managing water supply and distribution. It also examines howaccess to water and sanitation has implications for women’s health and economicactivities. Case studies highlight water projects and initiatives that have succeededin elevating women’s status.

Section two presents strategies for translating government commitments on gender, poverty eradication and water and sanitation into action by advocatingfor a gender perspective in all water and sanitation related policies. As a funda-mental component of sustainable development, water is a strong entry point forglobal advocacy on connected issues such as human rights, economic justice,poverty, reproductive rights, land, health, HIV/AIDS, and energy. Also in this sec-tion, women experts put forth their own guidelines for integrating gender inwater use and management for poverty eradication.

Section three, in the form of an insert, is a compilation of existing governmentcommitments on gender, poverty and water—including the World Summit onSustainable Development (2002 Johannesburg, South Africa); the UN MillenniumSummit (2000, New York, U.S.); the Fourth World Conference on Women (1995,Beijing, China); the International Conference on Population and Development,(1994, Cairo, Egypt); and global water conferences. Advocates can use this matrixas a tool for monitoring government action. At the end of the paper is a list ofwebsites, contacts and other resources that can be used to get involved.

Water

T he government com-mitments of the pastdecade provide a founda-tion for the eradication ofpoverty, water-borne dis-eases and gender

inequities. However, successful imple-mentation relies on a better under-standing of the different roles andresponsibilities women and men have in water access and use; health,sanitation and hygiene; environmentalhealth and ecosystem stability; andpublic versus private services.

Water Access and Water UsesIn most cultures, women and menhave different roles and responsibili-ties in the use and management ofwater. Women and girls are responsi-ble for collecting water for cooking,cleaning, health and hygiene, and ifthey have access to land, growingfood. In rural areas, women walklong distances to fetch water, oftenspending 4 to 5 hours per day carry-ing heavy containers and sufferingacute physical problems. In arid anddrought-prone areas the challenge is

compounded. In urban areas,women and girls can spend hourswaiting in line to collect intermittentwater supplies at standpipes. Theinordinate burden of fetching waterinhibits women’s and girl’s involve-ment in other activities such as edu-cation, income generation, culturaland political involvement, and restand recreation.

Conversely, men in rural areasalmost never fetch water, and if theyown or have access to land theirinvolvement with water is

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S 3

BangladeshGender, PovertyAlleviation andIrrigationIn Bangladesh, the Grameen Bank andits sister organization, the GrameenKrishi Foundation (GKF), found thatproviding women with access to irriga-tion water was ineffective if they didnot also have access to land, credit,seeds and fertilizer. By providing theseresources to women, as well as negoti-ating lease agreements with landown-ers, women’s income from irrigationactivities increased by as much as 10times what they would have earned inwage labor or in traditional femaleactivities. The program linked agricul-tural productivity and poverty allevia-tion to women’s empowerment,increasing women’s self-confidenceand reducing their dependence onmale intermediaries.Adapted from Jordans, E. and Zwartveen, M. (1997).A Well of One’s Own: Gender Analysis of an Irrigation Program in Bangladesh. Bangladesh,International Irrigation Management Institute andGrameen Krishi Foundations, International WaterManagement Institute.

Gender Differences In Water Use and Management

IndiaWomen’s Participation inWatershed ManagementIn 1995, the Self-Employed Women’sAssociation (SEWA), a trade union of215,000 poor self-employed women,launched a ten-year water campaign torevive water sources in drought-pronedistricts of Gujarat, India. Women com-prised seven out of eleven members ofwatershed committees set up at villagemeetings, and the chairperson was alsoa woman. As part of the program, thecommittees performed soil and mois-ture conservation work, creating a greenbelt and grass cover for better retentionof water. They also created an irrigationfacility to guarantee drinking water.These projects decreased soil salinity,resulting in more fertile land and a moresustainable source of income forwomen, while generating employmentopportunities for about 240 women.Adapted from SEWA (1995). Women, Water and Work—SEWA’s Membership Campaign. Discussion PaperPresented at the NGO Forum on Women Beijing 1995 inthe theme session, Rural Women in the 21st Century,Empowered through Employment and Organisation, heldby International Labour Organisation. Ahmedabad, India.

C A S E S T U D I E SGender refers to the roles andresponsibilities of women and menand the relationship between them.Gender, therefore, does not simplyrefer to women or men, but to theway behaviors and identities aredetermined through the process ofsocialization. These roles and expec-tations are culturally specific andthey can and do change.

Gender Mainstreaming is theprocess of assessing the implica-tions for women and men of anyplanned action. It is a strategy formaking women’s as well as men’sconcerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design,implementation, and evaluation ofpolicies and programs in all politi-cal, economic and societal spheres,so that women and men benefitequally and inequality is notperpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality [bytransforming the mainstream].Source: UN Economic and Social Council, 1997

related to agriculture or livestock.Furthermore, because men’s work isconsidered a part of the productiveeconomy of paid labor, it is generallyseen as more worthy of infrastructureinvestments. As a result, there maybe infrastructure for irrigation, butnot for safe drinking water withincartage distance or for other activitiesconsidered part of the care economy.This limits women’s engagement in arange of economic activities thatdepend on access to safe water, likethe preparation of food and otherproducts for local markets.

The absence of women in decision-making positions results inthe creation of policies that fail toaddress women’s needs and concerns.Women’s equal participation at alllevels of decision-making is critical toachieving a more equitable provisionof water and sanitation services.

Health, Sanitation and HygieneThe World Health Organization esti-mates that 80 percent of all sicknessin the world is attributable to unsafe

water and sanitation. Water-bornediseases kill 3.4 million people,mostly children, annually. Millionsmore are sickened with diarrhea,malaria, schistosomiasis, arsenic poi-soning, trachoma, and hepatitis—dis-eases that are preventable by accessto clean water and health care infor-mation. Women bear the main bur-den of caring for those who are ill.This not only limits their incomegenerating activities and education,but medical costs associated withfamily illness increase householddebt and deepens poverty.

Water and sanitation facilities areused by both women and men, butmaintenance of family health is most-ly viewed as a female responsibility.As a result, women may determinethe appropriate domestic use ofwater, but are rarely involved indecision-making on sanitation andhygiene issues. For example, theavailability and placement of toiletshas a huge impact on women but inmany communities women mustwalk a long distance to use facilities,

often risking their personal safety—there is an increased incidence ofsexual and physical assault when toi-lets are in a remote location. In ruralareas where toilets may be unavail-able, deforestation and loss of vege-tation have forced women and girlsto rise earlier and walk further insearch of privacy. Toilets are alsounavailable for vast numbers of poorwomen who work in urban centers.About 1 in 10 school-age Africangirls do not attend school duringmenstruation or drop out at pubertybecause of the absence of clean andprivate sanitation facilities in schools.

There is also a need for gender-sensitive education on proper sanita-tion and hygiene practices and thismust be made available to men aswell as women. With limited invest-ment, education could have atremendous impact on some com-mon water-borne diseases, such asmalaria and cholera. Currently, most health and hygiene education programs are aimed at women, ascaregivers and managers of thehousehold.

Environmental Health and Ecosystem StabilityExtensive degradation of ecosystems,polluted water, contamination ofgroundwater and aquifers, mega-dams, salinization, over-consumptionof water in rich countries and by the rich in poor countries, as well as the impact of extreme poverty,have all contributed to an environ-mental catastrophe in the world’swater supply.

In their roles as caregivers andhousehold and natural resource man-agers, women are most affected bythe current global water crisis.Women use vegetation and forests—for medicinal plants, food and fuel, aswell as for income generation—butthese ecosystems rely on a healthywater supply. As the environmentdeteriorates, women’s livelihoodsbecome increasingly vulnerable.

Population growth is accompanied

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S4

Water policies and water managementsystems should be gender-sensitive.They should reflect the division of labor —paid and unpaid—between men andwomen in all settings related to water.

— T H E 2 0 0 1 I N T E R N AT I O N A L C O N F E R E N C E O N F R E S H W AT E R , B O N N , G E R M A N Y

The best approach to protecting theworld’s ecosystems is ensuring thatwomen are involved in integrated landand water use planning.

— T H E M I N I S T E R I A L D E C L A R AT I O N O F T H E 2 N D W O R L D W AT E R F O R U M 2 0 0 0

by a corresponding increase in therate at which resources are used,including water. Achieving sustainabledevelopment will require comprehen-sive solutions to the interrelated chal-lenges of rapid population growth,global environmental degradation and poverty. Ensuring women’sreproductive health and rights is inte-gral to this effort. This includeswomen’s control over the numberand spacing of children, maternalnutrition, prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.

Public versus Private ServicesWater is a common good and human right, and should not be com-modified for profit; yet increasinglywater and sanitation services are

being privatized by multinational corporations. The World Bank andInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)have aggressively pursued thisapproach, arguing that water man-agement by large corporations willbe more efficient and save govern-ments money. In at least eightAfrican countries, opening the watersector to privatization was a condi-tion for receiving an IMF loan. Thus,countries that are already heavilyindebted and have cut spending onsocial services have been forced toprivatize water systems in order toborrow money.

Poor women, as managers ofhousehold and community water andrelated responsibilities, have beenfirst to signal problems with water

privatization, including: astronomicalprice hikes, in some cases consuminga large portion of monthly income;water cut-offs due to unpaid bills;lack of accountability mechanisms forusers; deterioration of water quality;and hygiene issues. In someinstances, poor and working womenhave been forced to decide betweenpaying for water and feeding theirchildren. Protests against the sale ofpublic water services to multinationalcorporations have been mountedacross the globe, from Bolivia toUkraine, and even in the UnitedStates. The city of Atlanta, Georgiarecently returned its water system to public control after four years of privatization, citing poor service and price increases.

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S 5

Tanzania Gender andSanitation In eastern Tanzania, urinaryschistosomiasis, a water-related disease, was most common amongboys, and women and girls between10-40 years of age. The incidenceamong boys was related to the boy’sswimming habits. Among women andgirls, the disease was associated withthe local practice of washing clotheswhile standing in schistosomiasis-infested water. This finding had impli-cations both for the hygiene educationprogram and for the wells project,which had banned washing clothes atthe hand pumps and so forced womento continue their use of open water.Adapted from: Marie Fry quoted in Ian Smout and SarahParry-Jones. Integrated Development for Water Supplyand Sanitation. Developing a practical guide to main-streaming gender, WEDC, 1999.

Ukraine Women Organize for Safe and Accessible Water Supply Luzanivka, Ukraine was a center forcleaning railway oil tanks and the city’s inadequate sewage systemmeant constant overflows of sewageinto peoples’ homes and onto thestreets. When women approached thelocal authority they were told thatthere were no funds to address theproblem. That’s when MAMA-86, anenvironmental organization formed bywomen following the 1986 disaster atthe Chernobyl nuclear plant, steppedin. Women from the local chapter metwith residents, launched a politicalcampaign and filed a legal suit againstthe local authority. As a result, thegovernment allocated resources to finish construction of a sewage pump,financed environmental works in thedistrict, and closed the hazardous oil-tank cleaning facility.Adapted from: Khosla, Prabha, MAMA-86 and the

Drinking Water Campaign in the Ukraine, prepared forthe Gender and Water Alliance, 2002.

HondurasAccessing Reliable andAffordable WaterUnited by their need for reliable andaffordable water, and by the burden of high water prices from private vendors and license holders, women inlow income urban neighborhoods inHonduras have taken on and managedtheir own licensed water vendingpoints. The results are lower and fixedwater prices, part-time employmentto poor single women with children,and use of the group’s surplus forneighborhood projects. Women in the area have also used their own localwater supply for income generationthrough beer brewing, teashops and a launderette.Adapted from Espejo, N., Gender and the Managementof Drinking Water Supply in Low Income UrbanCommunities in Latin America, IRC International Waterand Sanitation Centre, 1993.

C A S E S T U D I E S

T he on-going follow-upprocesses of two UnitedNations conferences—the 2000 MillenniumSummit and the 2002World Summit on Sus-

tainable Development (WSSD)—areentry points for women’s advocacyin the global arena.

The Millennium DevelopmentGoals (MDGs), a set of numericaland time-bound targets adopted by189 governments at the MillenniumSummit, is an integrated approach tosustainable development. There areeight Millennium DevelopmentGoals, which are a composite of thedevelopment commitments from theUN conferences and summits of the1990s. (See box). They also representthe most comprehensive approach topoverty eradication in history. How-ever, these goals limit gender equityto primary and secondary education(Goal 3).

The WSSD Plan of Action offersrenewed commitments to povertyeradication, including specific refer-ences to women in the centralthemes—water and sanitation, energy,agriculture, health, biodiversity andecosystems.

Most governments and many civilsociety groups have invested in theimplementation and impact of these

two international agreements. Inaddition, the holistic approach ofboth agreements means that progressin one area can influence progress in another, thus strengthening link-ages on the issues, including theconnections between gender equity,poverty eradication and waterresources management.

Gender Equality:The Guiding PrincipleWomen’s empowerment must be pro-moted as integral to broader issues ofhealth, education, economics, politics,legal systems and decision-makingbodies in order for there to be realtransformation.

Commitments to gender from pastUN conferences must be reintegratedin the Millennium DevelopmentGoals. In particular, Goal 7 includesthe target of halving the proportionof people without sustainable accessto safe drinking water by 2015. Inte-grating a gender approach into theimplementation of this goal woulddirect water and sanitation sectorinstitutions to develop gender poli-cies that improve water distributionbased on the different water uses bywomen and men.

In WSSD commitments to global-ization, energy, capacity-building andscience and technology—where the

plan fails to mention the role ofwomen—action should be taken toensure that implementation includesgender. Notable commitments to sanitation, women’s land rights inAfrica, and women’s health rightsshould be foremost on governmentagendas for follow-up.

The ToolsAdvocates must push governments touse gender sensitive tools to ensureMDG targets and WSSD goals are met.Gender disaggregated data and gen-der-responsive budget initiatives aretwo such tools.

Gender disaggregated data is nec-essary for improving women’s accessto information and managementprocesses such as watershed manage-ment. Gender budgeting is a criticaltool for ensuring that governmentpolicies and spending promote equityand human rights.

Rather than advocating forincreased budgets for women, genderbudget initiatives allow governmentdepartments, non-governmentalorganizations, and other stakeholdersto assess the differential impact ofspecific policies on women and men.

In their own interest, women advo-cates must also promote the need formechanisms to monitor and regulatevoluntary partnerships between multi-national corporations, governmentsand civil society. These partnershipshave been promoted as a possiblegovernment tactic for achieving thegoals of the Millennium Summit andthe WSSD. But without regulationsand a system for monitoring suchpartnerships pose a serious danger inthe form of power imbalances thatlead to greater harm than benefit. Thishas often been true in the case ofpartnerships on water privatization.

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S6

Advocating for the Connections

Implementing water-supply and sanitation programmes is a nationalresponsibility that requires women’s participation at every level of planning.

— A G E N D A 2 1 O F T H E 1 9 9 2 U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O NE N V I R O N M E N T A N D D E V E L O P M E N T, R I O D E J A N E I R O , B R A Z I L

Beyond the UNAlthough it remains the dominantarea for furthering peace, humanrights, sustainable development andsocial development, women’s advoca-cy must reach beyond the UnitedNations. Increasingly the internationalfinancial and trade institutions—theWorld Trade Organization (WTO), theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)and the World Bank—are determiningglobal water policy.

As governments relinquish controlof domestic water systems underpressure from these international insti-tutions and regional trade agreements,transnational corporations are gainingunprecedented access to national andlocal water supplies. As a result,short-term private sector profits aretaking precedence over actual humanneeds, and women’s central role inwater resources management contin-ues to be ignored. Therefore, womenmust take their advocacy to theseinstitutions. Pushing for gender equal-ity and greater coherence in theseinstitutions is critical to achievingdesired policy outcomes.

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S 7

Nijmegen, Netherlands, December 2002:At an expert consultation, organized byWEDO with support from the UnitedNations Population Fund, women setguidelines for implementing governmentcommitments to gender equality,poverty eradication and access to

water and sanitation.

Integrate Gender in WaterPolicies and Institutions• Government policies and programs

must be guided by the principle thatwater is a human right and by a holistic approach to water resourcesmanagement.

• Women’s empowerment and the equitable provision of water servicesmust be integral to poverty eradicationstrategies.

• National ministries, water and sanita-

tion departments and local govern-ments must adopt and implementgender policies in consultation withpoor women.

• Governments must protect the knowledge, innovations, and practices ofindigenous and rural women.

Support Women’sEmpowerment and Build theCapacity of Local Women’sOrganizations• Local women’s organizations must

have access to information and decision-making at all levels on issues related topoverty and water.

• Governments must allocate resources to women’s organizations for capacity-building, training, and theestablishment of women’s water

networks to enable equal managementof water resources.

• Local governments and public sectorunions must build alliances withwomen’s organizations to managewater resources and jointly establishtime-bound targets.

Monitor GenderMainstreaming in Povertyand Water Programs • Governments must collect gender-

disaggregated data and develop gender-sensitive indicators in all sectors,including water, sanitation, agriculture,and irrigation.

• Governments must apply a gender lens to all aspects of policymaking—from administration and engineering,to access and control of resources.

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger2. Achieve universal primary education3. Promote gender equality and empower women4. Reduce child mortality5. Improve maternal health6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases7. Ensure environmental sustainability8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development

For a complete listing of MDG targets and indicators visit www.un.org/millennium/

W O M E N S E T G U I D E L I N E S F O R I M P L E M E N T A T I O N

The UN Millennium Development Goals

December 2-3 Nijmegen, Netherlands, 2002

Lorena Aguilar IUCN, Costa Ricalorena.aguilar@iucn.org

Alice Bouman Netherlands Council of Women,Netherlands a.bouman@wxs.nl

Irene Dankelman University of Nijmegen and WEDO,Netherlands irenenov@antenna.nl

Jennifer Francis Gender and Water Alliance,Netherlands francis@irc.nl

Annelie Joki-Hubach Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Netherlandswww.minbuza.nl

Prabha Khosla WEDO consultant, Canadaprabha@idirect.com

Katarina Korytarova University of Nijmegen, Slovakiakatka_sk79@hotmail.com

Marie Kranendonk Women in Europe for a CommonFuture, Netherlands wecf@wecf.org

Rebecca Pearl WEDO, USARebecca@wedo.org

Radhika Ramasubban Centre for Social and TechnologicalChange, Indiasoctec@vsnl.com

To Tjoekler Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Netherlands www.minbuza.nl

Mihaela Vasilescu Institute of Public Health, Romaniavasilescu@xnet.ro

Hellen Wangusa African Women’s Economic PolicyNetwork (AWEPON), Ugandaawepon@africaonline.co.ug

Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO)Gender and Women WSSD Survival Kitwww.wedo.org/wssd/survival-kit.htm

Other Organizations and InstitutionsUNFPA www.unfpa.org

World Water Council/3rd World Water Forumhttp://www.worldwatercouncil.org

UNEP Freshwater Portalhttp://freshwater.unep.net

Gender and Water Alliance (GWA) http://www.genderandwateralliance.org

IRC International Water and Sanitation Centrehttp://www.irc.nl

UNIFEM—Progress of the World’s Women www.unifem.org

Public Services International Research Unithttp://www.psiru.org

International Water Management Institutehttp://www.cgiar.org/iwmi/index.htm

Millennium Development GoalsUnited Nations www.un.org/millenniumgoals

United Nations Development Programhttp://www.undp.org/mdg

World Bank www.developmentgoals.org

Indicators http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp

Country Reports http://www.undp.org/mdg/countryreports.html

World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentWEDO’s Gender Analysishttp://www.wedo.org/sus_dev/analysis2.htm

Official UN websitehttp://www/johannesburgsummit.org

UNDP Capacity 2015http://www.undp.org/wssd/capacity2015.html

U N TA P P E D C O N N E C T I O N S8

PARTICIPANTS OF WEDO’S EXPERT CONSULTATION ON GENDER / POVERTY/ WATER

Resources

International Commitments* On Gender, Poverty and Water

23RD SPECIAL SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLYNew York, June 2000>> www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/

followup/as2310rev1.pdf

Further actions and initiatives toimplement the Beijing Declarationand Platform for ActionActions to be taken by governments atthe national level72. (e) Ensure universal and equalaccess for women and menthroughout the life-cycle, to socialservices related to health care, includ-ing education, clean water and safesanitation, nutrition, food security andhealth education programmes;

29TH SESSIONGeneva, November 2002General Comment No. 15>> www.unhchr.ch/html/

menu2/6/gc15.doc

The human right to water is indispen-sable for leading a life in human digni-ty. It is a prerequisite for the realizationof other human rights…The humanright to water entitles everyone to suf-ficient, affordable, physically accessible,safe and acceptable water for personaland domestic uses.

WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

Bonn, December 2001Ministerial Declaration and BonnRecommendations for Action>> www.water-2001.de/

Ministerial DeclarationGENDERWater resources management shouldbe based on a participatory approach.Both men and women should beinvolved and have an equal voice inmanaging the sustainable use ofwater resources and sharing of bene-fits. The role of women in water relat-ed areas needs to be strengthened andtheir participation broadened.

Bonn Recommendations for Action—Action in the Field of Governance3. PROMOTE GENDER EQUITY• Water management policies shoulddistinguish between water users bygender and should allow men andwomen equitable access to waterresources, including safe drinkingwater and sanitation.

• Water resources managementshould be based on a participatoryapproach. Men and women should beequally involved in managing the sus-tainable use of water resources andsharing of benefits. To achieve equity,in many parts of the world the role ofwomen in water management needsto be strengthened and their participa-tion broadened.• Water experts and policy makersshould be trained to work in a gender-inclusive manner. In many places, spe-cific support is also needed to empow-er women to take up leadership andmanagerial roles in water resourcespolicies and management.• Water policies and water manage-ment systems should be gender-sensitive. They should reflect the divi-sion of roles and labour—paid andunpaid—between men and womenin all settings related to water. Datarelating to water should be disaggre-gated by gender.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FRESHWATER

BEIJING+5

Johannesburg,September 2002Political Declaration And Plan of Implementation>> www.johannesburgsummit.org

Political DeclarationPrinciple 18: We are committed toensure that women’s empowermentand emancipation and gender equalityare integrated in all the activitiesencompassed within Agenda 21, theMillennium Development Goals andthe Plan of Implementation of theSummit

Plan of ImplementationII. POVERTY ERADICATION6. (d) Promote women’s equal accessto and full participation, on the basis ofequality with men, in decision-makingat all levels, mainstreaming genderperspectives in all policies and strate-gies, eliminating all forms of violenceand discrimination against women,and improving the status, health andeconomic welfare of women and girlsthrough full and equal access to eco-nomic opportunity, land, credit, educa-tion and health care services.10. By 2020 achieve a significantimprovement in the lives of at least100 million slum dwellers…(a) Improve access to land and proper-ty, to adequate shelter and to basicservices for the urban and rural poor,with special attention to female headsof households.IV. PROTECTING AND MANAGING THENATURAL RESOURCE BASE OF ECONOMICAND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT24. …achieve the millennium develop-ment goal of safe drinking water andbasic sanitation

(a) Mobilize international and domestic financial resources at all levels, transfer technology, promotebest practice and support capacity-building for water and sanitationinfrastructure and services develop-ment, ensuring that such infrastruc-ture and services meet the needs ofthe poor and are gender-sensitive.(b) Facilitate access to public informa-tion and participation, including bywomen, at all levels in support of poli-cy and decision-making related towater resources management andproject implementation.VI. HEALTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT47. Strengthen the capacity of health-care systems to deliver basic healthservices to all…and to reduce environ-mental health threats, in conformitywith human rights and fundamentalfreedoms and consistent with nationallaws and cultural and religious values…(l) Transfer and disseminate…technolo-gies for safe water, sanitation andwaste management…taking intoaccount country-specific conditionsand gender equality including specifictechnology needs of women;VIII. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA61. Achieve significantly improved sus-tainable agricultural productivity…(b) Promote and support efforts andinitiatives to secure equitable access toland tenure and clarify resourcerights and responsibilities, throughland and tenure reform processeswhich respect the rule of law… andenable women producers to becomedecision makers and owners in the sec-tor, including the right to inherit land.”

* This matrix is specific to commitments on gender, poverty eradication and water. Government commitments to women’s rights and empowerment across thesocial, economic and political spheres are embodied in the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development Programme for Action atwww.un.org/popin/icpd2.htm and the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women Beijing Platform for Action at www.un.org/womenwatch/confer/beijing/reports.

jawl

The Hague, March 2000Ministerial Declaration of the Hagueon Water Security in the 21st Century>> www.worldwaterforum.net/

3. The Main ChallengesMeeting Basic Needs: to recognise thataccess to safe and sufficient waterand sanitation are basic human needsand are essential to health and well-being, and to empower people, espe-cially women, through a participatoryprocess of water management

5. The ActionsThe actions advocated here are basedon integrated water resources man-agement…special attention should bepaid to the poor, to the roles, skills andneeds of women…SECURING THE FOOD SUPPLY• The important role of women in foodproduction, the storage and prepara-tion of food and improvements to thenutritional value of food• The key role of governments inempowering communities and foster-ing the involvement of different stake-holders, especially women, in policy-development, and implementation inrural areas, thereby enhancing thetransparency and accountability ofinstitutions that are involved in thedevelopment and implementation ofthose policies.• The need to secure equal access forall farmers, especially women, to pro-ductive resources, such as water, land,propagating material, technology andthe results of applied research.

PROTECTING ECOSYSTEMS• The best approach is integrated landand water use planning, at the basinlevel, within a broader ecosystem con-text, in which all sectors assume theirresponsibility, and all stakeholders,especially women, who bear the bruntof poor water management, areinvolved…MANAGING RISKS• Consultation with the public shouldtake place at all stages. Raising publicawareness is essential in taking man-agement decisions, as is the involve-ment of local communities, with menand women on an equal footing.• Women and children are usually the most vulnerable to water-relateddisasters.GOVERNING WATER WISELY• The participation of all stakeholdersat all levels of International WaterResources Managment, with specialattention to gender and youth.• More involvement of women inwater management as importantstakeholders, especially in developingcountries.• The formation of an inter-ministerialcommittee on gender. The realloca-tion of budgets in water projects andrepresentation of women was dis-cussed.

Meeting the Challenge:The Ways ForwardIt is recommended that:• The important role of women inwater management is recognised andan international committee mustdevelop practical proposals foraddressing gender concerns at the 3rd World Water Forum in 2003.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY 55TH SESSIONNew York, September 2000 Millennium Declaration>> www.un.org/millennium/

Millennium Development Goal 1:Eradicate extreme poverty andhungerTarget 1: Halve, between 1990 and2015, the proportion of people whoseincome is less than US $1/day.Target 2: Halve, between 1990 and2015, the proportion of people who suf-fer hunger

Millennium Development Goal 3:Promote gender equality andempower womenTarget 4: Eliminate gender disparity in

primary and secondary educationpreferably by 2005, and at all levels ofeducation by 2015.

Millennium Development Goal 5:Improve Maternal HealthTarget 6: Reduce by three quarters,between 1990 and 2015, the maternalmortality ratio.

Millennium Development Goal 7:Ensure environmental sustainabilityTarget 10: Halve the proportion of peo-ple without sustainable access to safedrinking water

21ST SPECIAL SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLYNew York, July 1999>> www.un.org/popin/unpopcom/

32ndsess/gass/215a1e.pdf

II. Population and development concernsA. POPULATION, ECONOMIC DEVELOP-MENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT18. (a) Continue to support declines ininfant and child mortality rates bystrengthening infant and child health

programmes that emphasize…cleanwater sources…and improvements inhousehold sanitation…C. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION29. In planning and implementingrefugee assistance activities, specialattention should be given to the spe-cific needs of refugee women, children,and elderly refugees. Adequate andsufficient international support shouldbe extended to meet the basic needsof refugee populations, including theprovision of access to…clean water,sanitation...

6TH SESSIONNew York, April 1998Strategic Approaches to Freshwater Management>> www.un.org/esa/sustdev/

csd.htm

Decision 6/1: Strategic Approachesto Freshwater Management.10. (a) The CSD urges: Governments to…(x) mobilization of financial resourcesand mainstreaming of gender issues

into all aspects of water resourcesmanagement.11. …Because women have a particularrole in utilizing and conserving waterresources on a daily basis, their knowl-edge and experience should be consid-ered as a component of any sustain-able water management programme.13. …It is particularly important tobroaden women’s participation andintegrate gender analysis in waterplanning.

Istanbul, June 1996 Habitat Agenda>> www.unchs.org/unchs/

english/hagenda/

Chapter III. CommitmentsD. GENDER EQUALITY46. We commit ourselves to the goal ofgender equality in human settle-ments development.(c) Collecting, analysing and dissemi-nating gender-disaggregated data andinformation on human settlementsissues, including statistical means thatrecognize and make visible the unre-

munerated work of women, for use in policy and programme planning andimplementation;(d) Integrating a gender perspective inthe design and implementation ofenvironmentally sound and sustain-able resource management mecha-nisms, production techniques andinfrastructure development in ruraland urban areas;(e) Formulating and strengtheningpolicies and practices to promote thefull and equal participation of womenin human settlements planning anddecision-making.

2ND WORLD WATER FORUM

MILLENNIUM SUMMIT ICPD+5

COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

HABITAT II

H2O

Copenhagen, March 1995>> www.un.org/esa/socdev/

docs/summit.pdf

C. Commitment 2We commit ourselves to the goal oferadicating poverty in the world…(b) …efforts should include … safedrinking water andsanitation…Special priority will begiven to the needs and rights ofwomen and children, who often bearthe greatest burden of poverty, and tothe needs of vulnerable and disadvan-taged groups and persons;CHAPTER II – ERADICATION OF POVERTYBasis for action and objectives19. … Women bear a disproportionateburden of poverty…Absolute poverty is

a condition characterized by severedeprivation of basic human needs,including…safe drinking water, sanita-tion facilities…21. Urban poverty is rapidly increas-ing…It is a growing phenomenon in all countries and regions, and oftenposes special problems, such as…con-taminated water and bad sanita-tion…An increasing number of low-income urban households are female-maintained.32. Rural poverty should be addressed by:(b) Promoting fair wages and improv-ing the conditions of agriculturallabour, and increasing the access ofsmall farmers to water…, including forwomen,…on the basis of equality;

Cairo, September 1994>> www.un.org/popin/icpd/

conference/offeng/poa.html

Principle 2Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable develop-ment…They have the right to an ade-quate standard of living for themselvesand their families, including…waterand sanitation.3.13. Widespread poverty remains the major challenge to developmentefforts. Poverty is often accompaniedby …low status of women…All thesefactors contribute to high levels of fertility, morbidity and mortality…Poverty is also closely relatedto…unsustainable use and inequitabledistribution of such natural resourcesas land and water…4.11. …Greater investments should bemade in appropriate measures tolessen the daily burden of domestic

responsibilities, the greatest share ofwhich falls on women. Greater atten-tion should be paid to the ways inwhich environmental degradationand changes in land use adverselyaffect the allocation of women’s time.Women’s domestic working environ-ments should not adversely affect theirhealth.8.2. …large segments of many popula-tions continue to lack access to cleanwater and sanitation facilities…Largenumbers of people remain at contin-ued risk of infectious, parasitic andwater-borne diseases, such as tuber-culosis, malaria and schistosomiasis...8.10. All countries should give priorityto measures that improve the qualityof life and health by ensuring a safeand sanitary living environment for allpopulation groups through measuresaimed at…ensuring access to cleanwater and sanitation…

Paris, June 1994>> http://www.unccd.int/main.php

PrologueStressing the important role played bywomen in regions affected by deserti-fication and/or drought, particularly inrural areas of developing countries, andthe importance of ensuring the fullparticipation of both men and womenat all levels in programmes to combatdesertification and mitigate the effectsof drought…

Part II: General Provisions ARTICLE 5(d) promote awareness and facilitatethe participation of local populations,particularly women and youth, withthe support of nongovernmentalorganizations, in efforts to combat andmitigate the effects of drought;

Part III, Section 1ACTION PROGRAMMES – ARTICLE 10(f)…provide for effective participationat the local, national and regional lev-els of non-governmental organizationsand local populations, both womenand men, particularly resource users,including farmers and pastoralists andtheir representative organizations, inpolicy planning, decision-making, andimplementation and review of nationalaction programmes…

Part III, Section 3:SUPPORTING MEASURES – ARTICLE 191. The Parties recognize the significanceof capacity building—that is to say,institution building, training and development of relevant local andnational capacities—in efforts to com-bat desertification and mitigate theeffects of drought. They shall promote,as appropriate, capacity-building:(a) through the full participation at alllevels of local people, particularly at thelocal level, especially women andyouth, with the cooperation of non-governmental and local organizations;3. …to promote understanding of thecauses and effects of desertificationand drought and of the importance ofmeeting the objective of thisConvention. To that end, they shall:(e) assess educational needs in affected areas, elaborate appropriateschool curricula and expand, as needed, educational and adult literacyprogrammes and opportunities for all, in particular for girls and women,on the identification, conservation and sustainable use and managementof the natural resources of affectedareas…

Beijing, September 1995Beijing Platform of Action>> www.un.org/womenwatch/

daw/beijing/platform/

Strategic objective K.2.Integrate gender concerns and per-spectives in policies and programmesfor sustainable development.ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN256. By Governments:(f) Promote knowledge of and sponsorresearch on the role of women, partic-ularly rural and indigenous women,in…irrigation, watershed manage-ment, sanitation……focusing particu-larly on indigenous women’s knowl-edge and experience;(k) Support the development ofwomen’s equal access to…safewater…through participatory needsassessments…and policy formulationat the local and national levels;(l) Ensure that clean water is availableand accessible to all by the year 2000and that environmental protection and conservation plans are designedand implemented to restore pollutedwater systems and rebuild damagedwatersheds.

Strategic objective K.3.Strengthen or establish mechanisms at the national, regional and interna-tional levels to assess the impact ofdevelopment and environmental policies on women.

ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN258. By Governments, regional and international organizations andnon-governmental organizations, asappropriate:(a) Provide technical assistance towomen, particularly in developingcountries, in the sectorsof…fisheries…to ensure…the develop-ment of environmentally sound tech-nologies and of women’s entrepre-neurship;(b) Develop gender-sensitive databas-es, information and monitoring sys-tems and participatory action-orientedresearch, methodologies and policyanalyses, with the collaboration of aca-demic institutions and local womenresearchers, on the following:(i) Knowledge and experience on thepart of women concerning the man-agement and conservation of naturalresources for incorporation in thedatabases and information systems forsustainable development;(ii) The impact on women of environ-mental and natural resource degrada-tion, deriving from, inter alia…drought,poor quality water…desertification…(iii) Analysis of the structural links between gender relations,environment and development, withspecial emphasis on particular sectors,such as…fisheries…water resourcesand sanitation;

2ND SESSIONNew York, April 1994 >> www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd.htmChapter ID: Health, HumanSettlements, Freshwater.

The Commission recommends thatcountries give priority attention to theintegrated management, mobilizationand use of water resources in a holis-tic manner, while stressing the impor-tance of the involvement of local com-munities, in particular women.

UN CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION

WORLD SUMMIT FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Rio de Janeiro, June 1992>> www.un.org/esa/sustdev/

agenda21text.htm

Political Declaration—Principle 20Women have a vital role in environ-mental management and develop-ment. Their full participation is there-fore essential to achieve sustainabledevelopment.

Agenda 21CHAPTER 3 – COMBATING POVERTYProgramme Area: enabling the poor toachieve sustainable livelihoods38 (p) Provide the poor with access tofresh water and sanitationCHAPTER 18 – PROTECTION OF THE QUAL-ITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATERRESOURCES: APPLICATION OF INTEGRAT-ED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT,MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATERRESOURCES Programme Area A:Integrated water resources develop-ment and management18.9. …To design, implement and evalu-ate projects and programmes that areboth economically efficient and sociallyappropriate within clearly definedstrategies, based on an approach of fullpublic participation, including that ofwomen....in water management poli-cy-making and decision-making;18.12. …Development of public partici-patory techniques and their implemen-tation in decision-making, particularlythe enhancement of the role ofwomen in water resources planningand management;18.19. The delegation of waterresources management to the lowestappropriate level necessitates educat-ing and training water managementstaff at all levels and ensuring thatwomen participate equally in the edu-cation and training programmes.Particular emphasis has to be placed

on the introduction of public participa-tory techniques, including enhance-ment of the role of women…(d) Capacity-building 18.22. …International agencies anddonors have an important role to playin providing support to developingcountries in creating the requiredenabling environment for integratedwater resources management. Thisshould include, as appropriate, donorsupport to local levels in developingcountries, including community-basedinstitutions, non-governmental organi-zations and women’s groups.Programme Area B.Water resources assessmentMeans of Implementation(c ) Human resource development18.33 …Establishing and strengtheningeducation and training programmes onwater-related topics, within an envi-ronmental and developmental context,for all categories of staff involved inwater resources assessment activities,using advanced educational technolo-gy, where appropriate, and involvingboth men and women;(d) Capacity-building 18.34. …Strengthening of the manageri-al capabilities of water-user groups,including women…to improve water-use efficiency at the local level.Programme Area C:Protection of water resources, waterquality and aquatic ecosystems(c) Human resource development18.45. … establishment of …education/training courses on waterresources protection and conservationfor laboratory and field technicians,women and other water-user groups.Programme Area D:Drinking Water supply and sanitation18.48. The New Delhi Statement…Institutional reforms promoting

an integrated approach and includingchanges in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full participa-tion of women at all levels in sectorinstitutions;Activities 18.50. b. People and institutions:• Human resource development at alllevels, including special programmesfor women;• National and community management:ii. Encouragement of the local popula-tion, especially women, youth, indige-nous people and local communities, inwater management;(c) Human resource development18.53. … countries provide adequatetraining for women in the sustainablemaintenance of equipment, waterresources management and environ-mental sanitation.(d) Capacity-building 18.54. The implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes isa national responsibility…a high degreeof community participation, involvingwomen, in the conception, planning,decision-making, implementation andevaluation connected with projects fordomestic water-supply and sanitation.Programme Area E: Water andSustainable Urban DevelopmentActivities 18.59. f. Provision of enhanced access tosanitary services:iv. Mobilization and facilitation of theactive involvement of women in watermanagement teams;Means of Implementation(c) Human resource development18.62. …Special provision should bemade for mobilizing and facilitatingthe active participation of women…inwater management teams and for

supporting the development of waterassociations and water committees….Special education and training pro-grammes for women should belaunched with regard to the protectionof water resources and water-qualitywithin urban areas.Programme Area F: Water forSustainable Food Production and RuralDevelopmentObjectives 18.68. The key strategic principles forholistic and integrated environmentallysound management of waterresources in the rural context may beset forth as follows:b. Local communities must participatein all phases of water management,ensuring the full involvement ofwomen in view of their crucial role inthe practical day-to-day supply, man-agement and use of water;d. It is necessary to recognize andactively support the role of rural populations, with particular emphasison women.Means of Implementation(c) Human resource development18.80. d. Train staff at all levels, includ-ing farmers, fishermen and membersof local communities, with particularreference to women.CHAPTER 24 – GLOBAL ACTION FORWOMEN TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE ANDEQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT24.3. Governments should take activesteps to implement the following:d. Programmes to promote the reduc-tion of the heavy workload of womenand girl children at home and out-side…and to promote the provision ofenvironmentally sound technologieswhich have been designed, developedand improved in consultation withwomen, accessible and clean water, anefficient fuel supply and adequate san-itation facilities

(CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATIONAGAINST WOMEN)December 1979>> www.un.org/womenwatch/

daw/cedaw/Article 14 (2). …eliminate discriminationagainst women in rural areas in orderto ensure, on a basis of equality of men

and women, that they participate inand benefit from rural developmentand, in particular, shall ensure to suchwomen the right:(h) To enjoy adequate living conditions,particularly in relation to housing, san-itation, electricity and water supply,transport and communications.

Dublin, January 1992 Dublin Statement and Principles onWater and Sustainable Development>> www.wmo.ch/web/

homs/documents/english/icwedece.html

Principle 3 Women play a central part in the provision, management and safe-guarding of water.

This pivotal role of women asproviders and users of water andguardians of the living environmenthas seldom been reflected in institu-tional arrangements for the develop-ment and management of waterresources.Acceptance and implementation ofthis principle requires positive policiesto address women’s specific needs andto equip and empower women to par-ticipate at all levels in water resourcesprogrammes, including decision-making and implementation, in waysdefined by them.

UN CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

CEDAWINTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER AND ENVIRONMENT