key concepts

FET8601 2005-S1 Assignment 2 D1010925 Allan Carrington

Key Concepts

in Online

Teaching and Learning

“Nothing has brought pedagogical theory into greater disrepute than

the belief that is identified with handing out to teachers

recipes and models to be

followed in teaching”

Dewey 1916

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Concept Map:

Applying a Community of Inquiry Framework

IntroductionWhen considering the key concepts or strategies involved in online teaching and learning, the quote by Dewey is a warning and a wake up call. There is need to start with a theoretical founda-tion for teaching and learning as it will reflect the fundamental values and beliefs about an educa-tional experience

The author found the Community of Inquiry Framework developed by Garrison and Anderson in their book “E-Learning in the 21st Century invaluable in providing a theoretical foundation for the key concepts and processes in online learning and teaching

Before considering Critical Elements, Definitions, Principles and Activities in the Online Learning Environment Grid, the concept map introduces the Community of Inquiry Framework and shows how this framework anchors the principles introduced in the Gunawardena and Zittle (1996) article into an academic framework of inquiry which reflects a “collaborative constructivist’ view of teach-ing and learning. It helps acknowledge the inseparable relationship between personal meaning making and the social influence in shaping the educational transaction. Reflection about the Com-munity of Inquiry model helps recognize the interplay between individual meaning and socially re-deeming knowledge (Garrison and Anderson 2003:12)

Teaching PrinciplesGarrison and Anderson outline teaching principles, which reflect a transactional perspective and deep approach to learning. They are intended to create a supportive critical Community of Inquiry.

• Negotiable expectations, clearly expressed, encourage deep approaches to learning• Coherent knowledge structures (schema) facilitate purposeful and integrative learning• Control creates commitment and encourages personal responsibility to monitor and man-

age meaningful approaches to learning• Choice in content and process is a catalyst for spontaneous and creative learning experi-

ences and outcomes while recognizing and valuing intuition and insight• Critical discourse confirms understanding and diagnoses misconceptions• Critical thinking must be modeled and rewarded• Assessment must be congruent with expected learning outcomes• Learning is confirmed through assessment

Success in creating an educational Community of Inquiry requires preparation, sustained presence and considerable pedagogic and content expertise. (Garrison and Anderson 2003)

The Conceptual Framework

In a Community of Inquiry framework there is both rationality and freedom. Garrsion and Anderson 2003:27 cite Lipman stating that a Community of Inquiry is where

← students listen to one another with respect, build on one another’s ideas, challenge one an-other to supply reasons for otherwise unsupported opinions, assist each other in drawing inferences from what has been said, and seek to identify one another’s assumptions. A Community of Inquiry attempts to follow the inquiry where it leads rather than being penned in by the boundary lines of existing disciplines

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In other words, a Community of Inquiry provides the environment in which students can take re-sponsibility and control of their learning through negotiating meaning, diagnosing misconceptions and challenging accepted beliefs - essential ingredients for deep and meaningful learning out-comes (Garrison and Anderson 2003:27)

Methodology

The grid of learning and teaching strategies that follows has been built from the concept map and can be used as a benchmark in evaluating online teaching and learning environments and it is planned to use this as such for specific online courses currently being developed at the University of Adelaide. It is also planned to develop it further into a rubric to see how these courses fit the cri-teria of an Academic Community of Inquiry framework.

Online Learning and Teaching Environment Grid

Critical

Element

Definition/s Principle/s

underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Conceptual Framework : Social Presence

Defined as the ability of participants in a Community of Inquiry to project themselves socially and emotionally, as ‘real’ people (i.e. their full personality), through the medium of communication being used.

Garrison Anderson and Archer 2000:94) as cited in Garrison, D.R. & Anderson, T. (2003) E-Learning in the 21st Century. London. RoutledgeFalmer

Affective

Communication

This is communication relating to emotions which will have a di-rect effect on interac-tivity. 1

Expressions include both conventional and unconventional ex-pressions. Such things as repetitious punctuation, conspic-uous capitalization and emoticons.

Essential for commu-nity building. The more this form of communication is practised the more others will feel they know the communica-tor

e.g Capitalization in-terpreted as shouting. Strange spelling for emphasis like ‘pleeeeease’ and of course :-) as a smiley

These things should be modeled and pro-moted by facilitators.

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Use of humour e.g. Teasing, cajoling, irony and understate-ments 1

Used wisely and with respect it builds rela-tionships .. laugh with each other and not at each other

Facilitators need tp encourage values based humour - al-ways honouring. An excellent icebreaker and helps intimacy

Self Disclosure by presenting details of life outside the class or express vulnerabil-ity 1

Very strong trust and relationship builder.

Only needs one to start more follow

Facilitators need train-ing in how to encour-age this in introduc-tions and sharing of expectations.

Open

Communication

.

Continuing a thread of discussion using reply feature of software 1

Assists greatly in con-necting thoughts and communication pro-cesses. It is reflective of the verbal idea bouncing type of com-munication. It devel-ops ideas and builds up each communica-tor

Learners also need some guidance on us-ing threaded discus-sion - especially how the use the subject line for ease of identi-fication in a list

Referring to and Quot-ing others 1

Proper acknowledg-ment of contributors and is honouring to their contributions

Proper use of ‘>’ sym-bol of indenting. Dis-cussion does not have to be formal but it is an opportunity to model good acknowl-edgment and citing

Asking Questions of fellow learners or the facilitator. 1

People like to be help-ful and asked the right way they can build re-lationships. It sends a message to the per-son being asked that their opinion is valued

Teachers/facilitators need to be shown how to write for dis-cussion prompting. Often the use of ques-tioning can stimulate reflection and lead to learning without actu-ally answering.

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Complimenting and expressing apprecia-tion of contribution 1

Giving honour is not a strong cultural norm in Australia but everyone is built up by it. Again builds trust and sense of worth

Again facilitator mod-eling is one of the most effective ways to make expressing ap-preciation a commu-nity value

Expressing Agree-ment with others or content of others mes-sages. 1

Validation of each other and/or each oth-ers thinking and con-clusions builds trust.

The key is “express-ing” - people often agree but never think to share that with oth-ers learners need to know sharing is good.

Cohesive

Communication

Use Vocatives - i.e.addressing or re-ferring to participants by name 1

Everyone appreciates being addressed by their own name

Again it needs to be modeled as too often we drop names for nicknames and “mate” etc.

Addresses or refers to the groups using in-clusive pronouns such as ‘we’ ‘us’ and ‘our’.1

Builds sense of team bonding and “family”

Needs to be a con-scious effort and some team building exercise helps

Phatics and saluta-tions to make a purely social function; greet-ings, closures. 1

It makes social con-tact and often sets the tone of the communi-cations

Needs to modeled also as communica-tion tends to lean to-ward ‘businesslike’ and focused when learners are focused on content and demonstrating profi-ciency

Immediacy

Communication

Quick responses to communication by both teachers and fel-low learners. 2

The culture is such that slow responses give the impression of neglect or lack of con-sideration. Quick re-sponses send a mes-sage of importance

When fellow learners and especially teach-ers need to be consis-tently aware of the need for quick re-sponse - even if only acknowledgment of receipt

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Conceptual Framework : Cognitive Presence

When learning is defined by process and outcome cognitive presence speaks to intent and ac-tual learning outcomes. It is defined as the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse in a critical Community of Inquiry.

Garrison Anderson and Archer 2001:11 as cited in Garrison, D.R. & Anderson, T. (2003) E-Learning in the 21st Century. London. RoutledgeFalmer

Reflective or Critical Thinking

Creative thinking is the ability to imagine or invent something new and a divergent process focused on the early stages of critical thinking 1

Involves intuitive thinking and insight. Out of this often lat-eral thinking “outside the box” comes progress.

Subconscious induc-tive processes a prod-uct of practical delib-eration

Intuition is not “out of the blue” experience whereas insight is a classic “ah aha” phe-nomenon. Courses re-quire learning space for brainstorming and non evaluative dis-course and process-ing

Critical thinking is syn-oymous with inquiry and an inclusive process of higher-or-der reflection and dis-course. 1

Involves imagination, deliberation and ac-tion. Construct mean-ing apply and gener-ate hypothesis

Educational experi-ences need to be less contrived and recog-nise how individuals construct meaning

Problem Solving is a convergent process focused on the latter stages of critical think-ing 1

A question of empasis and purpose. Over-laps individual world of meaning & shared world of meaning

Problems need to be well designed to avoid condemning learners to assimilat-ing inert knowledge

Practical Inquiry Triggering the event initiates the phase of inquiry, It is evocative and inductive. 1

Involves puzzlement.

Preferably a dilemma or problem learners could relate to from their experience or previous studies

Somewhat contrived educational experi-ence which is well thought out and will prompt full engage-ment and buy-in from learners

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Exploration first re-quires understanding the problem then search for relevant in-formation and possi-ble explanations 1

This process is inquis-itive and divergent

Here learners will ex-perience iteration be-tween reflective and shared worlds as ideas are explored collectively

Individuals try to make sense of what may seem to be complexity and confusion

Done through group activities and brain-storming and/or more private activities such as literature searches

Practical Inquiry cont.

Integration of ideas is a decision process to bring order and focus. 1

It is a tentative and convergent process and highly reflective.

However learners are also engaged in criti-cal discourse that will shape understanding

Synthesizing of solu-tions

There is support that asynchronous text-based communication may well facilitate deep and meaningful learning outcomes

Teachers must probe for understanding and misconceptions and model the critical thinking process

Resolution is con-structing a meaningful framework or discov-ering a contextually specific solution to a problem. 1

Accomplished by di-rect or vicarious ac-tion.

Seldom fully achieved and raise further questions and issues

The resolution phase in good educational environments trigger new cycles of inquiry and thereby encour-age continuous learn-ing.

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Learning

Centredness

Learning Centred In-struction changes the foci of the curricula from content mastery towards "learning how to learn" curricula. 2

Instructional designs must address com-plex interrelationships between learning task, media attributes and the learner’s cog-nitive processes

Knowledge transfer is time limited - as the knowledge is out of date so quickly there-for knowing how to learn is the only way

The focus must be on learner initiated in-quiry and exploration.

From the sage on the stage to the guide on the side (see Direct Instruction below)

Conceptual Framework : Teaching Presence

Defined as “the design, facilitation and direction of cognitive and social processes for the pur-pose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes” (An-derson 2000). It is what a teacher does to create a Community of Inquiry that includes both cog-nitive and social presence.

Garrison, D.R. & Anderson, T. (2003) E-Learning in the 21st Century. London. RoutledgeFalmer

Instructional Design and Organisation

Instructional design is to do with the macro-level structure and process before the learning process be-gins 1

Building the curricu-lum for elearning is more complex in that it provides much more content by linking. However also it de-creases content be-cause of interactivity

If elearning is to be a collaborative, con-structivist process learners must have some influence on what is studied and how it is approached

Here the crucial task of selecting both indi-vidual and collabora-tive tasks needs to be made

The time and effort spent in the design phase will be reflected in the outcomes

Design should be sep-arated from delivery

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Organisation on the other hand is to do with the macro-level structure and process during the learning- teaching transaction. 1

No matter how much design there will al-ways be need of in process organiza-tional decisions.

Involves such things as use of groups, es-tablishing time param-eters, making macro-level comments about course content and establishing netiquette

Facilitating

Discourse

Facilitating discourse for the purpose of building understand-ing is the heart of the elearning experience. 1

The teacher plays an essential role and the reflective and rigorous nature of text-based communication de-mands serious com-mitment

Postings must be closely monitored and the nature and timing of responses must be considered. Teachers identify areas of agreement and dis-agreement, encourag-ing and reinforcing contributions and drawing in learners

Direct Instruction (DI)

Direct Instruction goes beyond that of the fa-cilitation role and the teacher’s scholarly leadership manifests itself here. 1

Recently DI has been ignored and/or down-graded

Teachers should sys-tematically build learn-ing experiences. A more accurate defini-tion of the change in the teacher is “From the sage on the stage to the sage on the side”

Teachers should present content and questions, focus and summarize the dis-cussion. They should confirm understanding through assessment and feedback, diag-nose misconceptions and inject knowledge.

Conceptual Framework : Educational Experience

Garrison and Anderson’s model shows how when Teaching Presence is applied to an environ-ment where Social Presence and Cognitive Presence are interacting together a Community of Inquiry is formed and it creates an educational experience


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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Interaction and

Interactivity

Interaction functions as an attribute of ef-fective instruction. 2

Interaction focuses on people’s behaviors

Teachers must ac-knowledge each form of interaction, their im-portance and create “space” for all the types of interaction

Four types of interac-tion

(1) Learner-content: can be encouraged by hyperlinking and good web savvy layout and-formatting

(2) Learner-instructor: Teachers need to be monitoring the Com-munity of Inquiry daily and responding when and where needed in a timely manner.

(3) Learner-learner: again teachers can encourage this and lead learners into this form of interaction.

Interaction and

Interactivity cont.

Interactivity on the other hand functions as an attribute of con-temporary instruc-tional delivery sys-tems. 2

Interactivity focuses on characteristics of the technology sys-tems.

The distinction be-tween the two defini-tions is not clear. e.g. The fourth interaction described in Gu-nawardena and Zittle 2 seems better placed here

(4) Learner-interface: Designers and Teach-ers must always be conscious of usability and interface design.

Learners often need technical support and forums for technology orientation. Even technology credit courses may be needed

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Critical

Element


underlying its

importance

Operational

Activities

Cognitive

Apprenticeship

Peer Collaboration is the support of fellow learners and can oc-cur in various forms: one-to-one or group collaboration struc-tured or unstructured. 3

Learners using peer collaboration tend to be more open and vulnerable to each other and learning be-comes very meaning-ful

Can be used to sup-port curriculum design and implementation

Trust is vital and learners can bond strongly and help each other be more successful learners

Cognitive

Apprenticeship cont.

Mentorship is the sup-port of a knowledge-able person or profes-sional sharing knowl-edge. 3

Epistemological posi-tion is important when defining knowledge transfer. Appentice-ship can mean learner doesn’t “know” until he/she is a “cognitive clone” of the mentor (Hebrew concept of knowing) which is far superior to the other view that knowledge can be shared like passing a book (the Greek view).

Conceptual and fac-tual knowledge as well as procedures for problem solving in the target area is called domain knowledge this is gained by pro-cesses of modeling, observation & succes-sive approximations

This is achieved through such things as scaffolding which is intellectual support which fades as the learners progresses.

Also sequencing in-struction is important. The learner moves from less to more complex learning tasks and he/she in-creasingly assumes the responsibilities and tasks of a practic-ing researcher.

Online Learning and Teaching Environment Grid Key

The indexed definitions were constructed from various parts of the texts in the following

references.

(1) Garrison, D.R. & Anderson, T. (2003) E-Learning in the 21st Century. London. Routledge-Falmer

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(2) Gunawardena, C. & Zittle, R. 1996, 'An examination of teaching and learning processes in dis-tance education and implications for designing instruction', in Distance Education Symposium 3: Instruction, ACSDE Research Monograph, ed. M. Beaudoin, no. 12, pp. 51-63.

(3) Teles, L. 1993, 'Cognitive apprenticeship on global networks', in Global Networks, ed L. Ha-rasim, MIT Press, Massachusetts.

Learners and Teachers are Morphing

The University of Adelaide is traditionally considered a “sandstone” university culture. There are very few distance programs yet the emergence of technologies that make it easier for two-way communication such as teleconferencing and web-based computer-mediated communication is im-pacting the face-to-face delivery of courses as well. Doing a SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weak-nesses, Opportunities and Threats) of blended learning using ICT in a face-to-face learning and teaching environment is beyond the scope of this paper. However this “revolution” is fueling the changing roles of teachers and learners.

Once the role of the teacher involved the transmission of information, being the subject-matter ex-pert and leading learners’ actions. Learners on the other hand acted as passive receptacles for hand-me-down knowledge (Berge 2000). These were the roles of the teaching-centred model and expecting to teach learners all they need to know in their field today is naïve thinking at best. The focus has turned from facts transfer to learning how to learn and the learners themselves.

To change to a learner-controlled instructional system and to maximize interaction the “sage on the stage” needs to move beyond the “guide on the side” and mature to the “sage on the side”. (See the implications of Direct Instruction in the Cognitive Presence framework of the Online Learning and Teaching Environment Grid). Also interaction means more than human contact, it fosters the development of human content. People not only communicate but they help each other. This cre-ates a deep layer of learning content that no instructional designer could ever hope to create.

This move provokes a radical shift in the power and interaction structures in the classroom and learners must accept the responsibility to construct their own knowledge and the teacher must re-linquish a certain amount of control over the process. Not only do some teachers find this hard but often learners do as well.

Barajas (2003) classifies both the teacher and learner roles. The following category headings are from the paper “Is the Role of the Teacher as the ‘Knowledge Authority’ in Danger in the ICT-Learning Setting?” (Barajas 2003)

• Teacher as learner in the classroom: This is often in the speciality of ICT competences. How-ever good teachers are comfortable with the inductive approach to teaching where they position themselves as co-travellers with other learners as they journey into discovery. Not as a ruse but a genuine “hey there has always got to be a better way – let’s discover it together?“ Of course this opens the way for the teacher to genuinely ask questions – teachers have to become expert questioners.

• Teacher as tutor: They have to go beyond content providers. For instance, in online discussions the tutor facilitates communication and it is possible to distinguish these tutor roles

o The tutor as modeler: They stimulate the learners by creating materials and situations for active learning. They present multiple perspectives on topics, emphasising notable points.

o The tutor as coach, consultant, referee, assessor and ’helpline’: They focus on student learning styles. Teachers provide only the initial structure to student work, encouraging self-direction. Negotiable expectations, clearly expressed, encourage deep approaches to

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learning. Assessment must be congruent with expected learning outcomes Learning is con-firmed through assessment (Teaching principles Garrison and Anderson)

o The tutor as scaffold: Which is more of a guide and monitor, bringing parties together as manager, provider and broker. As discussed in the Grid as part of Cognitive Apprentice-ship, this fades as learners progress.

• Teacher as collaborator with students: Many times in ICT based activities project-based learn-ing is the pedagogical strategy. In such activities teachers tend to participate as peers together with the learners. The teacher’s willingness to serve both the learners and the learning will influ-ence their effectiveness as collaborators. However control creates commitment and encourages personal responsibility to monitor and manage meaningful approaches to learning (Teaching principles Garrison and Anderson)

• Teacher as developer: Teachers become designers of learning experiences rather than just providers of content. They develop materials mainly in electronic format or provide input to pro-fessional developers. Choice in content and process is a catalyst for spontaneous and creative learning experiences and outcomes while recognizing and valuing intuition and insight (Teaching principles Garrison and Anderson)

• Teacher as researcher: A view that promotes the teacher as a researcher of his/her own educa-tional experiences as a way to reflect and internalise the innovations promoted in the classroom. They are able to use research outcomes to help planning and improving learners’ learning expe-riences with ICT and make them appropriate to their needs within the curriculum framework.

• Teacher as lifelong ICT trainee: Teachers need to adjust to the reality that they will be working on ICT literacy for the rest of their professional lives. They will be constantly involved in retrain-ing in both technical and pedagogical innovations.

• Teacher as a member of a team of teachers: This is due to the complexity involved in collabo-rative courses such as international ones or other types of distributed learning arrangements. This reduces the isolation sometimes experienced by teachers. These teaching methods are labour-intensive for both teachers and support staff and even more demanding for the learners. This is seldom recognised by traditional faculty reward systems.

Teachers’ and learners’ roles are interdependent. If the roles of the teacher are moderator, tutor, etc., learners need to become self-reliant, active searchers for relevant information. The role of a self-reliant learner is the corollary to a less directed role of the teacher. This raises the level of learners’ responsibility in learning. (Barajas et al. 2003)

The roles of students appear to depend on: a) the pedagogical approach used in classroom, b) the roles played by the teacher, and c) the classroom peers. Some of the roles identified include:

• Student as teacher: ICT use often encourages social and active learning. Learners become constructors of their own knowledge and they become complex problem solvers. Also new peda-gogical concepts enable learners to understand the role of the teacher as more actively inte-grated into the teaching/learning process. The Community of Inquiry framework with active social presence creates a learning community that provides a safe place for leadership experimentation and often the learners become teachers to each other.

• Student as collaborator: An important concept to break down the isolation of online learners working individually.

• Student as cooperator: They cooperate in teamwork where they may undertake various team roles (for example leader, expert, moderator, affective supporter, record keeper etc.)

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Conclusions

In general, students tend to adopt a more active, motivated, deep and self-regulated learning role. Collaborative rather than individual learning tends to occur. Teachers tend to move from a tradi-tional role toward one of a “learning facilitator”. Nevertheless, these changes tend to be restricted to learning situations which employ ICT-based “open” applications, as interactive educational pro-grams, use of Internet as information resource, etc. (Barajas 2003)

Technology-enhanced learning has served as a catalyst for speeding up the move toward learner-centred approaches, especially in online education. The type of cultural change technology often makes necessary, demands new roles and functions on the part of the learners, teachers, the cur-riculum and in many ways, to the educational institutions themselves. (Berge et al 2000)

References

Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D.R., Archer, W., Assessing Teaching Presence in a Com-puter Conferencing Context. JALN Volume 5, Issue 2 - September 2001 [Accessed 18 Apr 2005] http://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v5n2/pdf/v5n2_anderson.pdf.

Barajas, M., Scheuermann, F. Kikis, K. (2003) Is the Role of the Teacher as the ‘Knowledge Au-thority’ in Danger in the ICT-Learning Setting?, published in elearningeuropa.info. [Accessed 28 Apr 2005] http://www.elearningeuropa.info/index.php?page=doc&doc_id=580&doclng=6&menuzone=1

Berge Z., (2000) New Roles for Learners and Teachers in Online Higher Education published in GlobalEducator [Accessed 28 April 2005]http://www.globaled.com/articles/BergeZane2000.pdf

Collins, M. & Berge, Z. 1996, 'Facilitating interaction in computer mediated online courses', Paper presented at FSU/AECT Distance Education Conference, Talahasee [Accessed 13 April 2005] http://www.emoderators.com/moderators/flcc.html


Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (in press). Critical Thinking and Computer Conferenc-ing:A Model and Tool to Assess Cognitive Presence. American Journal of Distance Education. [Accessed 25 April 2005] http://communitiesofinquiry.com/documents/CogPres_Final.pdf

Gunawardena, C. & Zittle, R. 1996, 'An examination of teaching and learning processes in distance education and implications for designing instruction', in Distance Education Symposium 3: Instruc-tion, ACSDE Research Monograph, ed. M. Beaudoin, no. 12, pp. 51-63. http://studydesk.usq.edu.au/webct/RelativeResourceManager/Template/FET8601%20folder/unit_resources/objects/Copyright%20Resource/8/default.htm

Research into Online Communites of Inquiry Website published by the University of Calgary [Ac-cessed 25 April 2005] http://communitiesofinquiry.com/

Roblyer M.D. and Ekhaml, L. (2000) How Interactive are YOUR Distance Courses? A Rubric for Assessing Interaction in Distance Learning [Accessed 18 Apr 2005]http://www.westga.edu/~distance/roblyer32.html

Rourke, L., Anderson, T. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (1999). Assessing social presence in asyn-chronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(3), 51-70. [Ac-cessed 25 April 2005] http://communitiesofinquiry.com/documents/SocialPresence_Final.pdf

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