Job DesignJob Design

MANA 3320 MANA 3320

Dr. Jeanne MichalskiDr. Jeanne Michalski

Design of Work SystemsDesign of Work Systems

Job Specialization Job Specialization Based on Frederick Taylor’s Scientific ManagementBased on Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management Creates jobs with very narrow task (activity) assignments.Creates jobs with very narrow task (activity) assignments. Resulted in high efficiency, quickly achieved job Resulted in high efficiency, quickly achieved job

competency, low training costs, but also created competency, low training costs, but also created monotonous jobs.monotonous jobs.

OROR Job EnhancementJob Enhancement

Started with Hawthorne ExperimentsStarted with Hawthorne Experiments Increasing the amount of responsibility for quality and Increasing the amount of responsibility for quality and

productivity that employees have for their own work.productivity that employees have for their own work.

Job DesignJob Design

Job Enrichment (Herzberg)Job Enrichment (Herzberg) ““Vertical Enrichment” of jobsVertical Enrichment” of jobs Increasing duties and responsibilitiesIncreasing duties and responsibilities

Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham)Oldham)

Five characteristics of motivating jobsFive characteristics of motivating jobs

Employee Empowerment / InvolvementEmployee Empowerment / Involvement

Job Enrichment FactorsJob Enrichment Factors Increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility Increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility

of the jobof the job Allowing employees to retain more authority and Allowing employees to retain more authority and

control over work outcomescontrol over work outcomes Providing unit or individual job performance Providing unit or individual job performance

reports directly to employeesreports directly to employees Adding new tasks to the job that require training Adding new tasks to the job that require training

and growthand growth Assigning individuals specific tasks, enabling Assigning individuals specific tasks, enabling

them to use their particular competencies or skillsthem to use their particular competencies or skills

Job CharacteristicsJob Characteristics

Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model(Hackman and Oldham)(Hackman and Oldham)

Job design theory that purports that three Job design theory that purports that three psychological states (experiencing psychological states (experiencing meaningfulness of the work performed, meaningfulness of the work performed, responsibility for work outcomes, and responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of the results of the work knowledge of the results of the work performed) of a jobholder result in improved performed) of a jobholder result in improved work performance, internal motivation, and work performance, internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and turnover.lower absenteeism and turnover.

Five Core Job CharacteristicsFive Core Job Characteristics

Skill varietySkill variety

Task identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significance

AutonomyAutonomy

FeedbackFeedback

Five Core Job CharacteristicsFive Core Job Characteristics Skill varietySkill variety

The extent to which the work The extent to which the work allows an employee to use a allows an employee to use a variety of acquired skills.variety of acquired skills.

Task identityTask identity The extent to which work allows The extent to which work allows an employee to complete a whole an employee to complete a whole or identifiable piece of work.or identifiable piece of work.

Task significanceTask significance The extent to which the The extent to which the employee perceives that his/her employee perceives that his/her work is important and meaningful work is important and meaningful to those in the organization or to to those in the organization or to those outside the organization.those outside the organization.

AutonomyAutonomy The extent to which the The extent to which the employee is able to work and employee is able to work and determine work procedure at determine work procedure at her/his own discretion.her/his own discretion.

FeedbackFeedback The extent to which the work The extent to which the work allows the employee to gain allows the employee to gain a sense of how well job a sense of how well job responsibilities are being responsibilities are being met.met.

Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model Job Job

CharacteristicCharacteristicss

Skill varietySkill variety Task Task

identityidentity Task Task

significancesignificance AutonomyAutonomy FeedbackFeedback

PsychologicalPsychologicalStatesStates

MeaningfulneMeaningfulness of the work ss of the work performedperformed

Responsibility Responsibility for work for work outcomesoutcomes

Knowledge of Knowledge of the results of the results of the work the work performed.performed.

• JobJobOutcomesOutcomes Improved Improved

work work performanceperformance

Increased Increased Internal Internal motivationmotivation

Lower Lower absenteeism absenteeism and turnoverand turnover

Job Characteristics and Job Characteristics and Reengineering at GTEReengineering at GTE

Job Enrichment Components

Pre Post

Feedback 5.13 5.39*

Autonomy 5.04 6.00*

Task Identity 5.24 5.47*

Skill Variety 5.44 5.89*

Task Significance

5.67 6.10*

Overall Job Enrichment

5.46 5.90*

* Indicates a statistically significant difference between ratings of job before and after Process Re-engineering

Job Characteristics Survey Job Characteristics Survey ItemsItems

I have autonomy in my job. That is my job permits I have autonomy in my job. That is my job permits me to decide me to decide on my own on my own how to go about doing the how to go about doing the work.work.

My job involves doing a My job involves doing a whole and identifiable piece whole and identifiable piece of work.of work. That is, the job is a complete piece of work That is, the job is a complete piece of work that has an obvious beginning and end.that has an obvious beginning and end.

There is There is varietyvariety in my job. That is, the job requires in my job. That is, the job requires me to do many things at work, using a variety of my me to do many things at work, using a variety of my skills and talents.skills and talents.

In general, my job is In general, my job is significant or importantsignificant or important. That is, . That is, the results of my work are likely to significantly affect the results of my work are likely to significantly affect the lives and wellbeing of other people.the lives and wellbeing of other people.

Managers or co-workers Managers or co-workers let me know well I am doing let me know well I am doing my job.my job.

Next Logical Analysis?Next Logical Analysis?

Employee EmpowermentEmployee Empowerment ParticipationParticipation

Authority to change job processes?Authority to change job processes? Self-managed teamsSelf-managed teams

InformationInformation Is business information shared?Is business information shared? Does the job involve performance feedback?Does the job involve performance feedback?

Innovation Innovation Is the organization receptive to new ideas?Is the organization receptive to new ideas?

Rewards / AccountabilityRewards / Accountability Are rewards contingent on individual performance?Are rewards contingent on individual performance?

Designing Work for Designing Work for Group/Team ContributionsGroup/Team Contributions

Employee Involvement Groups (EIs)Employee Involvement Groups (EIs) Groups of employees who meet to resolve problems Groups of employees who meet to resolve problems

or offer suggestions for organizational improvementor offer suggestions for organizational improvement Also known as quality circles (QCs)Also known as quality circles (QCs) Success with EIs requires:Success with EIs requires:

Comprehensive training for group membersComprehensive training for group members

Recognition of the group’s contributionsRecognition of the group’s contributions

Continuing input and encouragement by managementContinuing input and encouragement by management

Use of a participative/democratic leadership styleUse of a participative/democratic leadership style

Benefits of Employee TeamsBenefits of Employee Teams Increased integration of individual skillsIncreased integration of individual skills Better performance (quality and quantity) Better performance (quality and quantity)

solutions to unique and complex problemssolutions to unique and complex problems Reduced delivery timeReduced delivery time Reduced turnover and absenteeismReduced turnover and absenteeism Accomplishments among team membersAccomplishments among team members

Forms of Employee TeamsForms of Employee Teams

Cross-Functional Teams Cross-Functional Teams Permanent teams of mixed specialists with common goal.Permanent teams of mixed specialists with common goal.

Project TeamsProject TeamsTemporary teams typically organized to develop a new Temporary teams typically organized to develop a new

product or service.product or service. Self-Directed TeamsSelf-Directed Teams

Permanent Highly trained individuals autonomously Permanent Highly trained individuals autonomously performing a set of interdependent job tasks within a natural work performing a set of interdependent job tasks within a natural work unit.unit.

Task Force TeamsTask Force TeamsTemporary teams typically organized to solve a major problem.Temporary teams typically organized to solve a major problem.

Process-Improvement / Quality TeamsProcess-Improvement / Quality TeamsTeams organized to monitor quality and improve processesTeams organized to monitor quality and improve processes

Virtual TeamsVirtual TeamsA group with widely dispersed members linked together A group with widely dispersed members linked together

through computer and telecommunications technology.through computer and telecommunications technology.

Characteristics of Successful Characteristics of Successful TeamsTeams

Commitment to shared goals and objectivesCommitment to shared goals and objectives Motivated and energetic team membersMotivated and energetic team members Open and honest communicationOpen and honest communication Shared leadershipShared leadership Clear role assignmentsClear role assignments Climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust, Climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust,

and accountabilityand accountability Recognition of conflict and its positive Recognition of conflict and its positive

resolutionresolution

Flexible Work SchedulesFlexible Work Schedules

Compressed WorkweekCompressed Workweek Shortening the number of days in the Shortening the number of days in the

workweek by lengthening the number of hours workweek by lengthening the number of hours worked per day.worked per day.

The four-day, forty-hour week, generally The four-day, forty-hour week, generally referred to as 4/10 or 4/40. referred to as 4/10 or 4/40.

Reducing weekly hours to 38 or 36 hours or Reducing weekly hours to 38 or 36 hours or scheduling 80 hours over nine days (9/80), scheduling 80 hours over nine days (9/80), taking one day off every other week.taking one day off every other week.

Flexible Work SchedulesFlexible Work Schedules BenefitsBenefits

Recruitment and retention Recruitment and retention of employeesof employees

Coordinating employee Coordinating employee work schedules with work schedules with production schedulesproduction schedules

Accommodating the leisure-Accommodating the leisure-time activities of employees time activities of employees while facilitating employee while facilitating employee personal appointmentspersonal appointments

Improvements in employee Improvements in employee job satisfaction and moralejob satisfaction and morale

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Overtime payments Overtime payments

required by the Fair required by the Fair Labor Standards Act for Labor Standards Act for employees working employees working over 40 hours in one over 40 hours in one week. week.

The additional stress on The additional stress on managers and managers and employees, and long employees, and long workdays can be workdays can be exhausting.exhausting.

Flexible Work SchedulesFlexible Work Schedules

FlextimeFlextime Working hours that permit employees the option Working hours that permit employees the option

of choosing daily starting and quitting times, of choosing daily starting and quitting times, provided that they work a set number of hours provided that they work a set number of hours per day or week.per day or week.

All employees are required to be present during a All employees are required to be present during a designated “core period.”designated “core period.”

Flexible hours reduce absenteeism and tardiness.Flexible hours reduce absenteeism and tardiness. Employees can schedule their working hours for Employees can schedule their working hours for

the time of day when they are most productive.the time of day when they are most productive.

Flexible Work SchedulesFlexible Work Schedules

Job SharingJob Sharing The arrangement whereby two part-time employees The arrangement whereby two part-time employees

perform a job that otherwise would be held by one perform a job that otherwise would be held by one full-time employee.full-time employee.

Job sharers may work three days a week, creating an Job sharers may work three days a week, creating an overlap day for extended face-to-face conferencing.overlap day for extended face-to-face conferencing.

TelecommutingTelecommuting The use of personal computers, networks, and other The use of personal computers, networks, and other

communications technology such as fax machines to communications technology such as fax machines to do work in the home that is traditionally done in the do work in the home that is traditionally done in the workplace.workplace.

Advantages of TelecommutingAdvantages of Telecommuting

Increased flexibility for employeesIncreased flexibility for employees Ability to attract workers who might not Ability to attract workers who might not

otherwise be availableotherwise be available Lessened burden on working parentsLessened burden on working parents Less time and money wasted on physical Less time and money wasted on physical

commutingcommuting Increased productivityIncreased productivity Reduced absenteeismReduced absenteeism