jewish survivors and detention camps in cyprus after the

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Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırmaları DergisiJournal Of Modern Turkish History StudiesXIII/26 (2013-Bahar/Spring), ss. 105-138.

* Prof.Dr.,AtılımÜniversitesi,([email protected]).

JEWISH SURVIVORS AND DETENTION CAMPS IN CYPRUS AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Ulvi KESER*

Abstract

TheislandofCyprushasalwaysbeenthatoftheimmigrationandtheproblemsthroughoutthehistory.Sinceitsgeographicalandstrategicposition,ithasalsobeenaspringingpointforalmostallthecivilizationsinthevicinity.DuringWorldWarII,Cyprusturnedtobeverycentreofthewaritselfevenifitseemedtobeoutofthewarandthebattles.CyprushashadactuallyverytremendousroleinJewishhistoryunparalleledbyanycountryintheworld thanIsraelherself.Takingsuchareality intoconsideration,aseitherastopping-offpointlocatedintheverymidstoftheMediterraneanroutetodispersionorasteppingstonetoJewishhomeland,CypriotsandtheJewishpeopleduetoagoodmanyreasonshaveenjoyedauniquerelationshipevenifithasn’talwayshadahappyending.DuringthelastperiodofWWII,theJewswhoallmanagedtosurviveandescapefromNazityrannyandholocausthavestartedtryingtofindoutthewaystogotoPalestine,thenbeingaBritishmandate.TakingavoyagetoPalestinewasnotsoeasybecauseoftheterrificconditions,andmostlyofBritishrestrictions.TheJewsmakingmostlyuseoftheveryinsufficientandprimitivetransportationmeanscouldhavearrivedfirstlyinTurkey.UnfortunatelytheirroutetowardsPalestinewasnotsoeasytoreachasplannedanddreamed,andtheseunfortunatepeoplewereoncemorestoppedbyBritishwarshipsintheopenseasandtakentotheconcentrationcampsinCyprussinceactivestepsandmeasurementsweretakenagainsttheJewishimmigration,fromtryingtopreventtheacquisitionofshipsforrefugeestodeployingnavalcraftthatotherwisecouldhavebeenusedinthewareffort topatrol thecoastofPalestine.Thepoorconditionsand,terrifyingmanagementofBritishauthoritytheremadethelifeunbearableforthesepeople,causinglotsofdeath.

Keywords: Cyprus, Jews, Second World War, Exodus, Detention Camp.

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ÇTTAD, XIII/26, (2013/Bahar)

İKİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI SONRASINDA KIBRIS’TA TOPLAMA KAMPLARI VE YAHUDİLER

Öz

Kıbrıs adası tarih boyunca hep huzursuzluklar, istikrarsızlıklar ve göçlerleanılmıştır.Coğrafivestratejikpozisyonunedeniyleherkes içinbiratlamatahtasıhalinidealmıştır.İkinciDünyaSavaşısürecindeisesavaşsankidışarıdaymışgibigörünsedeKıbrıstamdasavaşınortasındakalmıştır. İsraildışındaKıbrısadasıYahuditarihindesondereceönemlibirroloynamıştır.BudurumgözönünealınıncaisterAkdeniz’inortasındabiratlamatahtasıolarakisterYahudileriçinevlerinedönüşyolundabirduraklamanoktasıolsunKıbrısveYahudilerçeşitlinedenlerlesonuiyibitmesedeçokfarklıbiriletişimiçinegirmişlerdir.İkinciDünyaSavaşı’nınsonsürecindeNazimezalimindenkaçmayıvehayattakalabilmeyibaşarabilmiş Yahudiler o zamanlar İngiliz yönetiminde olan Filistin’e gitmenin yollarınıaramayabaşlarlar.OdönemdegemiyleFilistin’egitmekkötüşartlarveçoğunluklaİngilizkısıtlamalarınedeniyleçokdakolaydeğildir.YetersizvesondereceilkelşartlarıeniyişekildedeğerlendirenYahudileröncelikleTürkiye’yeulaşmayıbaşarırlar.MaalesefFilistin’eyönelikrotalarıiseplanlandığıvehayaledildiğikadarkolaydeğildirvebuşanssızinsanlarİngilizlertarafından açık denizde durdurulurlar ve Kıbrıs’taki toplama kamplarına nakledilirler.Kötühayatşartları,İngilizidaresininkatıveacımasızyaklaşımıvediğerolumsuzluklarbuinsanlarınhayatınıkatlanılmazhalegetirirkenpekçoğunundahayatınıkaybetmesinenedenolur.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kıbrıs, Yahudiler, İkinci Dünya Savaşı, Büyük Göç, Toplama Kampı.

1. Introduction

Assoonas theSecondWorldWarhasbrokenout, the Jewishpeoplearound the world and especially in some certain countries such as Poland,Greece,andCzechoslovakiastartedfindingawaytokeepthemselvesaliveandtosurvive.Unfortunatelynosoonerhadthewarbrokenoutthansome5.100.000Jewishpeople lost their lives.Within the process from 1945 summer time to1946July,30.000JewishpeopleexpatriateandfleefromRomaniaandHungary.Ontheotherhand,PalestinethatallthesepeoplewanttoimmigrateisunderBritishadministration,butBritishpolicyisnotsoclearwhethertoacceptthesepeople to Palestine or not, and according to the Mandatory Power, “in thesummerof1946theinflowofillegalimmigrantsreachedsuchdimensionsthatitwasno longerpossible to accommodate them in the camps inPalestine. Itwas,therefore,decidedinAugustthatfutureshiploadswouldbetransferredonarrivaltoBritishshipsandtakentocampsinCyprus.”1Sosoonerorlater,theislandofCypruswaspotentiallyreadytoturntobe“asteppingstonetoZion”,

1 UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReportdated19thApril1948,A/AC.21/W.29Restricted.

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or“apartofthelandofIsrael”,and“apartofGreaterPalestine”,andfinallyas“acompletelyJewishisland”.2ForexamplealetterdirectlyaddressedtoBritishPrimeMinisteron11stMarch1939hasalmostunbelievableofferssuchastheentire evacuationof thepresentpopulationofCyprus to Salonika, the entireexchangeofSalonikaJewswiththoseofCyprus,thenaturalimmigrationoftheJewsfromallthecountries,especiallyfromthosesufferingNazityranny3.Doingso,“theGreekdesireforunionwithGreecewouldbefulfilled,theJewsinCypruswouldbe loyal to theBritishempire, thePalestinequestionwouldbe solvedsincetheArabswouldnolongerbesubjecttothepressureofJewsdesiringtoenterPalestine,theJewswouldhaveacountryoftheirown,boundedbytheseaandprotectedbytheBritishNavy,theJewishissuewouldneverbesolvedbyincreasingthedensityoftheJewishelementsinanyotherpopulation.”4EveniftheBritishauthoritieshavehadalmostnointentiontodoso,thedevelopmentswouldforcethemtofacewithanunexpectedharshtyrannyclosingtheJewishsurvivorsbehindthefencesontheislandaboutsixyearslater.

In 1934-1935 period more than 104.539 Jewish people immigrate toPalestinetosurvivefromNaziinvasionthatisexpressedas“atemporaryinsaneinacivilizedcountry”5andagoodmanyJewishpeoplearetakentothecampstowork6.Togivethecertainfigures,throughoutthewaryears,the“illegalandunlawful” 7immigrationasexpressedbytheBritishofficialscontinuedtowardsPalestine, and fromApril 1939 up toMarch 1944, the number of the “legal”immigrantswas31.221inadditiontothe“illegal”19.965Jews.8

2. Assistance Activities to Immigrant Jewish People

That British government has a very strict policy not to accept Jewishimmigrants toPalestine,expressing thesituationasan illegalactiongivesnoalternativewayto thosepeople.Shortly, that isbetter tosay that“theBritishgovernmentwasstrictlydeterminedtoblockillegal immigrationtoPalestine,and itwas 1accordinglyprovided that, after the admissionof notmore than75.000additionalimmigrantsduringthefiveyearsbeginninginApril1939,nofurtherJewishimmigrationwillbepermittedunlesstheArabsofPalestineare

2 StavrosPanteli,A History of The Jews; Place of Refuge,Elliott andThomsonPublications,LondonandBath,p.115.

3 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.114.4 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.115.5 Amos Delon, Çöküşe Tırmanış; Alman Yahudilerinin Öyküsü 1743-1933, Gözlem

Publications,İstanbul,2002,p.446.6 Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece; The Experience of Occupation 1941-1944, Yale

UniversityPress,London,1993,p.128.7 It iscompletelyveryinterestingthateventheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyprefers

touse“illegal”toshowtherefugeesinCyprus.UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReportdated19thApril1948,A/AC.21/W.29Restricted.

8 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.119.

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preparedtoacquiesceinit.”9TheBritishgovernmentontheotherhandtakeslotsofmeasuresvaryingfromtherestrictionsoftheJewishtransportationshipstotherestrictionoftheshipsintheMediterraneanSea.AnotherplanconsideredbyBritishauthoritiesistosinkshiploadsofrefugeesat“theHaganah”shipsandtomakepropagandathatalltheshipswereattackedbyNaziforces,showingthattheirpolicyisright.AsaresultthenumberoftheimmigrantswhocameofftheBlackSea,andwhowantedtopassthroughTurkeyespeciallyaboardinRomaniaandBulgariaincreasedgradually10.SomeofthevesselscarryingthoseunfortunateJewishpeoplewereTransylvaniawith54Romanianimmigrantson8thMarch1939, Imtıwith600Romanianpersonson10thMarch1939,Atratowith325CzechandGermanJewishpeopleon22ndMay1939,Lasparlawith380GermanandCzechpeopleon22ndJune1939,Rimwith450GermanandCzechimmigrantson27thJune1939,Frossolawith658GermanandCzechimmigrantson1stJuly1939,Patyawith700Romanianpersonson30thJuly1939,Parkerhilwith850Romanianon9thAugust1939,Putniçerwith271Hungarianon16thAugust 1939, Harziyon with 142 British on 7th September 1939, Rudniçerwith210Bulgarianon10thSeptember1939,NeomiJuliawith1.200Romanianimmigrantson12thSeptember1939,Salvatorwith246RomanianandBulgarianimmigrantsin194111,threeJewishshipsdonatedbyTurkeywithTurkishflag,named Bülbül, Mefküre andMorina carrying totally 4.190 immigrants fromConstantatoIstanbul12.

ApartfromBritishrestrictions,thatAmericangovernmenthasadaptedverystrictregulationsaboutJewishimmigrantsandtherefugees,thatPortugalhasbanned the Jewish immigrants touse its territoryasapassage toescape,issuing a restrictive law dated 22nd October 1940 was reasoned that theimmigrants would have only oneway to escape to Palestine, that is to say,Turkey.Similarly,PalestineMandateadministrationalsodescribedthesituationas “attempts to organize the unauthorized entry of large bodies of immigrants.” 13 Similarly,theArabHigherCommitteeappealedtotheUNSecurityCouncilnottopermitthetransferofthe11.000JewishrefugeesinCyprusonthegroundsthatsuchamove“would enrich the Jews in manpower and fighting personnel”14inPalestine,andtheJewsinCyprus“mustbereturnedtotheircountryoforigin.”UnlikePortugal,TurkeyhaspreparedalmostallthefacilitiesaboutthetransitvisaforthoseJewishimmigrantswithalawdated20thFebruary194115.DuringWWII, oneof themost tragichappeningswasabout the shipnamedStrumatryingtotransport769Jewishimmigrantsaboard,twoofwhomsurvivedafter

9 UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReportdated19thApril1948,A/AC.21/W.29Restricted.10 BA.030.10.206.407.31.11 BA.030.10.99.641.1312 BA.030.10.119.814.313 UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReportdated19thApril1948,A/AC.21/W.29Restricted.14 JewishTelegraphicAgency,11stAugust1948.15 BA.030.10.99.641.7.andBA.030.110.736.5


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theshipwreckageintheBlackSeaon24thFebruary194216.ThemainreasoninfacttoanchorinİstanbulwasthatBritishgovernmenthasissuedalawdeclaringthatall theshippersonnelcarrying Jewishpeoplewouldbearrestedand theshipswouldbeconfiscatedaswellasthearrestoftheillegalimmigrants17.InadditiontoStruma,DanubeinKladovowith1.160deaths(1939),SalvadorofftheTurkishcoastwith230deaths(1940),PatriaoffHaifawithsome280(1940),andMefkureoffIstanbulwith430deaths(1944)shouldalsobeaddedtothelossof the Jewishrefugees.On18th July1948, theshipnamedExodus194718with4.554exterminationcampsurvivors19aboardwasinterceptedbyBritishnavalforcesoffPalestine,andassoonastheshiprefusedtostop,itwasrammedbyaBritishdestroyer,causingthedeathofthreeJewsthere.Inmemoryofthosepeoplewho lost their lives, the Jewishrefugeesgathered300Dollars toplanttrees,andtorecordintheJewishGoldenBook.

3. Jewish Camps In Cyprus and The First Comers

BritishgovernmenthasfirstlystartedstoppingandinterveninginthoseJewishimmigrantswhotriedtoescapefromNazicrueltyandtogotoPalestinein1946,hopingthatthisdeterrentwouldputanendtoJewishimmigration,andhasdecided tokeep those Jewish immigrants temporarily inCyprus, costingin1946and1947asumthatmayamountto3millionspounds.20Therumorsabout thearrivalsof thewould-be immigrantswerequicklyheard inCyprusaswell,andthenewspapersputtheheadlinesabouttheimmigrants.21Britishgovernment evaluating to stop a rush of immigrants towards Palestine alsothoughtofgivinganindirectmessagetotheArabicworld.Ontheotherhand,thesituationtheJewishpeoplehadalreadyexperiencedwasverydisappointinganddemoralizing.BritishForeignMinistrydeclaredastatementtoshowhowmuchtheywerehelpfulfortheJewishpeople,andtriedtodecreasethetensionofthereactions;22

16 BA.030.10.124.881.6.17 BA.030.10.171.185.21.18 Yearslaterin1960itturnedtobeaHollywoodmoviewithPaulNewmanandEvaMarie

Saint,basedontheLeonUrisnovelof1958thatchronicledthefateoftheshipcarryingtherefugees.

19 4.554refugeesaboardExodus1947embrace1.600men,1.282women,1.017youngpeople,and655children.

20 Itwas announced that at least 30.000.000dollarswouldbe required to extend receptionassistancetotherefugeesinCypruswhowouldbegintoenterPalestineaftertheexpirationof theMandate, covering the costs of food, clothing,medical care equipment and smallloansforthenewimmigrants.TalkingabouttheexpenditurefortheBritishparty,thisistheamountgivenanddefiedbytheBritishauthoritiesintheUnitedNations,butitseemstobealittlebitillogicalregardingtheconditionsinthecamps.UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReport dated 19th April 1948, A/AC.21/W.29 Restricted. See also Jewish TelegraphicAgency,16thMay1948.

21 Söz,1March1946.22 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.5.13August1946.

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“a) No country in the world has been a better or more consistent friend of the Jewish people than Britain. Wherever Jews were persecuted, the voice of Britain was lifted in protest and wherever possible action was taken to mitigate their lot.

b) When they were persecuted by Hitler, the British people not only protested most vigorously, but a large body of refugees from Nazi barbarism was received in our country. Even during the war when our people were hard pressed for shelter and supplies, more were allowed in. Altogether 2000.000 refugees-a large proportion of them Jews- landed in Britain.

c) In December 1945, the quota of 75.000 Jewish immigrants permitted to enter Palestine under the provisions of the white paper was exhausted.”

MovedbysympathyforthesufferingoftheJewishpeople inEurope,H.M.Governmenthavehithertoallowedillegalimmigrantstolandinspiteofgraveembarrassmentofthequotaandbythenecessityfordetainingincampsthosewhoseentrywasnotimmediatelypossibleunderquota.

Actually such an activity of immigration especially after thewarhadgotrealizedbysomepersonalgroupsaswellinvarioustimes.ForexampleinSeptember1940,aJewishgroupof3000personsfromDanzig,Prag,andViennagot aboard the cargo ships named Atlantic, Milos and Pacific in Tulcea ofRomania.TheworstoftheshipswasPacificwith1.875Jewishimmigrants23.Theshipgotthefuelandfoodinİstanbulon16thOctober1940,butwasstoppedbyBritishwarshipsandcompelledtosailinthedirectionofCyprusforceon12thNovember1940.Britishauthorities,ontheotherhand,declaredthatthesuitablemannertofollowforBritishinterestintheMiddleEastwastotransferalltheseimmigrantstoMauritius24.Actuallytheislanditselffromnowonturnedtobeaclearingarea,atemporaryreceptionareaandadumpinggroundinadditiontobeingadetentioncampforyears.Whiletheimmigrantsaboardweretransferredto another cargo ship namedPatria toMauritius, an explosion occurred and267Jewishpeoplelosttheirlives.Lateron,itwasknownthatthesabotagewascarriedoutbyHaganahwhichtriedtostoptheshiptogotothatabove-mentionedisland25.ThatBritishgovernmentdeclaredthattheseJewishpeoplewouldstayinPalestineworriedsomeBritishofficialsasifthedeclarationwouldencouragetheotherimmigrantsandthoseofficialsdemandedthatthisexceptionalmercynotbevalidfortherestoftheimmigrants26.EveniftheColonialOfficedeclaredand stressed that “interception on the high seas and diversion to Cyprus is not

23 J.C.Hurewitz,Struggle for Palestine,GreenwoodPress,NewYork,1968,p.140.24 According to theMandatory Power in Palestine, “During the war it was more than ever

imperative that the Administration should resist this threat to its authority, since the shiploads of refugees came from inside Axis-controlled Europe and offered an opportunity for the infiltration of enemy agents. In November 1940 it was decided that illegal immigrants would be deported to an alternative place of refuge in the Colonial Empire.”UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyReportdated19thApril1948,A/AC.21/W.29Restricted.

25 www.jafiorg.mil/education/100/act/38zion.html.26 ThetelegramofColonialOfficedated11thJune1941,numberedNC/9Nicosia30.10.1816.


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acceptable.”andtheCabinethashadtheoppositethoughtsandtheplansandon30thJuly1946theplanstotransfertheJewishimmigrantsinPalestinewatersandremovethemtoCypruswasalmostcomplete27.SotheBritishofficialsrunningvery close to the ships carrying Jewish refugees told thembymegaphone asfollows;28

“We suspect you are going to Palestine. It is illegal. If you enter Palestine, we will have to board you and arrest you. Please do not put up any resistance. We have over-whelming forces here and in Palestine to accomplish our mission. If necessary, we will use force to board you, but you will have medical attention.”

3.1. The General Position of the Ships

ThecargoshipsthatwereusedtotransfertheimmigrantstoPalestinewithinroughly14dayshadnegativeandtremendouscharacteristicpropertiessuch as insufficient infrastructure, the number of the passengers above thecapacity,primitiveconditionsinregardofnutritionandhygiene,thedisgustingmanners of the ship crews, awful food, lack of water, unhealthy conditionsofthelavatories,sinksandthetoiletsandepidemicdiseases.Eachimmigranthadtocoveraspotenoughonlyforonehimself.Theflatwoodenbunkshadnopossibility even to sit at.Theywere allmonitoredfiveor six times adaybeforetheycouldleaveforPalestine,andatsixo’clockintheevening,withouthavingeatenordrunkallday,theywereputonboardaprisonship,behindthe“squirrel-like”29prisoncagewithnobed,noblanket,andnochair.Throughout14day-travel,onlytolayonthebedsandtoseenothingbutthewoodenbunksovermade the people very nervous and exhausted as a young boy from anearlierHaganahvesseltold;30

“…For us, Cyprus was a new hell altogether. For the refugees, Cyprus was just hell with a new flag. For a month we didn’t sleep in a bed. For a month we lived on Spam and a little gray bread and some colored water called tea. For a month we lived without water. We never knew in America what it meant to live without water. We didn’t know how a man loses his dignity and his self-respect when he has no water. We stole water from each other. We rushed from one compound and one tin hut to another to search for water all day.”

Sincemostoftheshipswereveryold,unreliable,andstuffedwithextrapassengers,agoodmanyshipssankandlotsofJewishpeoplelosttheirlives.Additionallytherewasnoenoughfoodandenoughwatertodrink,sothenerve,the epidemic diseases and psychological problems were unavoidable in the

27 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.120.28 RuthGruber,Destination Palestine;The Story of the Haganah Ship Exodus 1947,CurrentBooks,

NewYork,1948,p.4129 RuthGruber,ibid,p.53.30 RuthGruber,ibid,p.52.

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midstofthesea.AsaBritishofficersaid“If the illegal Jewish immigrants realize that they are going to wind up there, they may not be so anxious to crowd aboard their stinking “hell ships” and try to get to Palestine.”31

4. The Establishment Of The Immigrant Camps In Cyprus

As soon as the British Government came to conclusion to establishcamps inCyprus, an ordinancepublishedon 13rdAugust 1946directly gavethePalestinegovernmentauthoritytosendtheillegalimmigrantsarrivinginthecountryinexcessofthequotaof1.500amonthtoCyprus32.SuchadecisionwasinfactthebeginningoftheendforthoseunfortunatepeoplewhoweresubjectedtolotsoftyrannybothinEuropeandCyprusforyears.ItisofveryinteresttoknowthatthemajorityofCanadiansarealsoopposedtotheadmissionintothecountry of the Jewish refugeeswhowere barred fromPalestine and are nowinternedinCyprus.Thequestionputtoanumberofadults,representingdiversesectionsofthepopulationwasasfollows;“As you know, Britain is interning Jewish refugees who have attempted to enter Palestine without permission. Do you think Canada should allow some of these refugees to settle here or not? 61 percent answered no; 23 percent answered yes; 6 percent gave qualified answers and 10 percent were undecided.”33

The first camp established for the Jewish immigrants by the BritishmilitarycommandwasinCaraoloswhereduringtheFirstWorldWarTurkishprisonersofwarcapturedinGallipolikeptinfrom1916upto192334,andopenedon 14th August 1946. The main reason why the British government chose“twentieth-century purgatory”,and“ a hot hell of desert sand of hell circumscribed by two walls of barbed wire”35CyprusforthecampwasduetostrategicpositionoftheMediterraneanSea,itsclosenesstoLebanon,Syria,andPalestine,aswellasTurkishneutralpositionoutofthewar.Thuscode-named“Operation Igloo” wasputintoeffectontheisland.FirstlythetentswereestablishedinCaraolosinFamagusta,andtwowallsofbarbedwiresweresetaroundthecampon14th August194636.Thesecondcampwas,some18milesapart,locatedveryclosetoXylotymbouintheLarnacadistrict.Inadditiontothecampsabove-mentioned,aso-called“YouthVillage”wasalsosituatedinXylotymbou.

Themost terrifyingpoint forBritishadministrationwas that theoneswho could in future back the Jewish terrorists could seize the camps37. Thesurrounding of the campswere all barbed-wireswith the projectors and thearmedmilitarypersonnelwithTommyGunsreadytofireondutyifnecessary

31 RuthGruber,ibid,p.6432 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.121.33 JewishTelegraphicAgency,9thOctober1946.34 ATASE,K.2680,D.210,F.1-37,1-63,1-64,1-65,F.1-59,1-60,1-61,1-62.35 RuthGruber,ibid,p.61–62.36 LarchmontGazette,24thNovember200337 Söz,9thAugust1946.


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alldaylong.EvenifBritishadministrationexpressedthattheJewishimmigrantswerenotkeptincustodyandinprison,Jewishimmigrantswhoweresupposedtobeillegalwerekeptunderclosecontrol.EachcampwasadministeredbyamilitarycommanderbeingaMajorunderthecommandofaColonelrulingallthecampsontheislandwith2.500militarypersonnel.TheresponsibilityofthecampsbelongeddirectlytotheBritishadministrationinPalestine,andthecostofthecampsburdenedbythem.Meanwhile,thefateoftheillegalrefugeesasacceptedsobytheBritishauthoritiesinCypruswoulddependtoalargeextentontheUnitedNationsdecisiononPalestine’sfuture.

InCyprus,Britishauthoritieshaveestablishedtotally12detentioncampsfortheJewishsurvivors,fourwhichwerehuttedandtheremaindertented.InCaraolos,fivecampsnamedCamp55,60,61,62and63wereestablishedfortheJewish immigrantsand thesecampswere said tobe the summercamps.Thelife in these camps in comparison to the campsknownaswinter campswassupposedtoberelativelyeasier.Assoonasthepopulationstartedincreasing,the new camps in Dekhelia district of Larnaca, and in Xylotymbou. SevencampsinDekheliawereallcomposedofAmerican-typehutsunlikethetentsinCaraoloscamps.Theinfrastructurewasalmostnone;therewasalmostnowaterinCyprusespeciallyinsummertime;38

“…All day long, some twenty thousand adults and two thousand orphaned children stood at the barbed wire and looked at the Mediterranean which creamed their shore, with no water in the camp, causing lots of serious fatal diseases.”

Furthermore since there was no private life in the camp, the islanditselfwasexpressedasahellinwhichprivacywasunknown39withnodignity.Therefore the romantic Cyprus of the travel books, Love Island as expressedbytheGreeks,whereAphroditewasbelievedtobebornoffoamoffitsshoresturnedtobeanopenairprisonwithnowaterandnoelectricityfortheJewishimmigrants who survived and tried to go to Palestine40. In such restrictedcircumstancesandundercampconditionsnaturallythelifebecameirksomeandmonotonouseven if thecamppersonneland theBritishauthoritieswould trytotakeso-calledreasonablemeasurementsforthehealthoftheimmigrantsandwell-being. Waterwas in thosedaysas in todaywerevery scarce inCyprusandthecampcommandhadtolimitthewatertoabout4.5litersadayforeachperson.TurkishCypriotsalsohelpedtheJewishimmigrantstogetcleanwatertodrinkandtomakesomemealsthere.GreekCypriotmedia,ontheotherhand,realizingtheinsufficiencyoftheislandstatedthatthecampswouldembracenomorethan10.000immigrants,butsurprisinglythenumberwouldbemorethan100.000,andnamedtheopeningofthecampsinCyprusasnothingbutcomedy41.

38 RuthGruber,ibid,p.62.39 RuthGruber,ibid,p.62.40 RuthGruber,ibid,p.65.41 www.hri.org/news/cyprus/eng/1998andwww.washington-report.org/backissues

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EspeciallythereactionsofGreekCypriotjournalsfocusedthatthewar-torn island would economically get an extra burden due to the immigrantswhostartedcomingtotheisland42.Esperini,forexample,publishedanarticleheaded“The Jews”statingthatalthoughtheofficialannouncementwhichhadbeenissuedregardingthesettlementofJewsinCyprusgavetheassurancethatnoJewswouldbeallowedtobecomearesidentofCyprus,itwasnotpossiblefor thisassurance tobe fullyaccepted.BecauseCyprushadbeenselected foranindefiniteperiodofstayoftheillegalimmigrantJewstoPalestine,amongstother things the island had the means of feeding thousands of Jews. Thenewspaperalsostatedthattheislandwashardlysufficientfortheupkeepofitspopulationandwhilethewarendedlongagoitspeoplewerestillfacingseriousprivations inprimaryessentialcommodities43. In fact the island itself seemedtobeoutof thewar for along time,neverthelessBritishgovernment inneedofmilitary personnel for various fronts and the battlefields started enlistingboth Turkish and Greek Cypriots. The people suffering from poverty, blackmarket,unemployment,costoflivingandpsychologicalsituationwouldstartgetting torn indilemmawhether to enlist ornot. British authorities ignoringCyprusandCypriotsuptothatperiodscorningandcallingthemblack-tannedCypriotswouldstartenlistingthemtobemuleteers44.Especiallysubsequentto1929worldeconomiccrisis,thepeoplelivingontheislandhavefinanciallygonebankrupt,andlostalmosteverythingtheyhavehad,anddealtwithagricultureandfarmingwhilesomeworkedinthecopperminingfacilitiesnamedCyprusMiningCooperationinMathiadis,LefkaandPoli.Soastomostlymakeuseofthehumansourcesontheisland,Englandhasforeseeneverything,andclosingdown themining companies forced theworkless, pessimistic andmoneylessCypriots tobe enlisted45.Takingall these realities forgranted,Cyprusas themeansoffeedingthousandsofJewishimmigrantsontheislandfrightenedthepeoplelivingontheisland.

ThemayorofNicosia,Clerides,ontheotherhand,opposinglystatedthathepersonallywouldnotraiseobjectioneitherthedurationoftheimmigrants’stayinCyprusorabouttheirnumber,saying“Weshouldsympathizewiththeseunfortunatepeoplewhoseonlyhopeisnowovershadowedbythethoughtofa furtherstretchofwaitingbehindthebarbedfence46.ThenewspapernamedKypriakos Typos additionally asked some questionswonderingwhatwouldhappeninfuture,suchas“How long will these illegal immigrants stay in Cyprus? What will be the total number of Jews who will be settled when, for example, the Jews

42 Eleftheria,15August1946.43 Esperini,14thAugust1946.44 JanAssmussen,“The Cyprus Regiment: Greek and Turkish Cypriots in a Joint Military

Force, from CO.67/297/9 Notice W. Calder, 3.2.1939”, Journal of Cyprus Studies, EasternMediterraneanUniversity,SpecialIssue26/27,Volume10,Year2004,p.141.

45 UlviKeser,Ulvi,İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda İngiliz Ordusunda Katırcılar,IQPublications,İstanbul,2007,p.18-69.

46 CyprusMail,14thAugust1946.


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will come to a definite agreement with the Arabs and England with America? From what source or sources will the Jews, settled in Cyprus camps, get their supplies such as food stuffs, clothing, and other essentials? In case most of these supplies are to be provided by Cyprus what measures have been taken to meet the requirements of the people of Cyprus and keep the cost of living at least at the present level?”47Elefteriaalsostatedthatalthoughsympathizingwith“these unfortunate creatures”expressedgraveanxiety,inviewofrumors,thattheJewishimmigrantswouldstaypermanentlyinCypruswhere a large number of Jewswouldworsen the supply positionoftheisland.48ApartfromtheJewishimmigrants,theislandhadalsoanotherandlastingissuecausedbyGreekCypriots,thatistosayEnosis.Ajournalistfrom Eleftheria visited the Locum Tenens and Etnarch Leontios due to thenationalandotherinterestsoftheisland,andgotthestatementsmadebytheEtnarchas“By right Cyprus belongs to Greece and expects, until the end of the Peace Conference, that the governments of Greece and Britain will, at special conferences in Paris, countersign the union of Cyprus with Greece, and if they do not do so, the people of Cyprus will protest to the Allied Organizations and the free people of our mother Greece will demand the union in such a way that no Greek government will be able to remain in office if union is not realized.”49Afewdayslater,theEtnarchstatedaswellthat“As is the Jewish people wish, Britain must take them as soon as possible to Palestine, their fatherland, and that in no circumstances must Jews be settled in Cyprus in Cyprus for over a month, a period which was sufficient practically for their transportation to Palestine.”50

Theimmigrantswhoweregivenapairofshoes,somecloth,andsewingmaterialsassoonastheycametothecampsstartedcuttingtheclothesofthesummercampstomaketrousersandshirtsforthemselvessincealmostalltheimmigrantshadnothingonexceptsomeworn-outcloths.Thetentsandthehutsinthecampshadonlyabed,apillowandkerosenelamb,anddespitethefactthatitwasforbiddenalltheimmigrantsinthecampshadaportableradiosuppliedbyaJewishpersonnamedRivkaKehana51.ConsideringthesituationthattheJewishrefugeesexperienceontheisland,itispossibletosaythattheislanditselfisnomoreAphrodite’sromanticloveislandasaBritishofficerexplainsthere;52

“If the illegal Jewish immigrants realize that they are going to wind up here, they may not be so anxious to crowd aboard their stinking hell ships and try to get to Palestine.”

47 KypriakosTypos,14thAugust1946.48 Eleftheria,15thAugust1946.49 Eleftheria,17thAugust1946.50 Eleftheria,10thAugust194651 Similarly, British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin declared in London on 17th June 1948

thattherewasanArabradiostationmovedtoCyprus“fortechnicalreasons”,operatinginCyprus,andtheresponsibilityofthestationisnotburdenedbytheForeignOfficeortheCyprusgovernment.JewishTelegraphicAgency,17thJune1948.

52 RuthGruber,ibid,p.64.

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The summer tentswere composed of three rooms for generally threemarriedfamilieswithnostovesexcepttheholesdugprimitivelyontheearthtobeused so.Moreover, the Jewishwomen in the campshavehad tomakeshirtsandthedressestocovertheirnakedness.AmericanjournalistI.F.Stonedescribed the camps as the ugliest architecture created by the humanity forhisnewspaper,PM.AswellastheseJewishcamps,anothercampforGermanPOWswasestablishedinDekhelia,and1.603GermanPOWsweretransferredtothecampin1-4thSeptember194653.

4.1. The First Arrivals of the Jewish Immigrants to Cyprus

Thefirst Jewishshipwhich facedwith thedisasterwasRafiahon thewaytoCyprus.TheshipheadedforPalestineranintothecliffsoffGreece,andcrashedintopieces. 8Jewishimmigrantsweredrownedand785immigrantswere savedby aBritishwarship towardsCyprus54. Therefore thefirst illegalguestsofthecampsinCypruswerethoseJewishimmigrantswhoseshipswererestrictedandsandwichedbyBritishwarshipsintheMediterraneanSea55.On1stJanuary1946,the4.500tonbananacarryingshipsthePanYorkandthePanCrescententeredFamagustaharborwith15.169passengersandcrewonboard.SincetheBritishauthoritieshavehadagreatsuspiciononthepeopleaboard,acontingentofexaminerswassenttoCyprustoconductamassivesearchforcommunistagentsamongthepassengers,ittookjustoverfourdaystodischargethehumancargo,andtheinvestigationswhichbeganatoncewerefruitless.Ontheotherhand,someturmoilsituationalsoappearedinHaifaaswell,andTheEmpireLifeguard,Britishdeportationvesselwasblownandsunkon23rdJuly1946inHaifaharbor,andBritishauthoritiesaccusedTheHanahofcommittingsuchathingthere56.Theferryhad justdischargedallofagroupofsome300JewishimmigrantsturningfromCyprustoPalestinetoawaittheirreleaseundertheregularmonthlymigrationquotafromBritishgovernment.Itwasbelievedthat the explosive charge was placed under the guards’ engine room whilethe passengers were being embarked in Famagusta. Meanwhile one BritishtransportvesselsailedfromHaifaearlyon18thAugust1946bearingthesecondgroupofJewishrefugeestobedeportedtoCyprus57whileanotherreturnedto

53 As explained by the local journals and the official announcement, “a transport of 500GermanPOWswouldarrive inCypruson2ndSeptember1946tosupplement local laborthereinbuildingcampsfortheJewishrefugees.JewishTelegraphicAgency,1stSeptember1946.SeealsoHürsöz,1stSeptember1946.

54 MorrisLaub,ibid,p.6.55 LarchmontGazette;24November2003.56 ThisisthefourthbombtohavebeenplantedonadeportationshipbyTheHanah,thefirst

ofwhichwasagainsttheEmpireRivalinHaifaharboron21stAugust1946,thesecondwastheOceanVigourinFamagustaon3rdApril1947,andthelastonewasaboardtheRivalthefollowingnightasitwasproceedingfromHaifatoPortSaid.JewishTelegraphicAgency,23rdJuly1946.

57 JewishTelegraphicAgency,19thAugust1946.


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itspierafteranexplosioninitshold,andasthetensioninHaifastillremainedhigh58.British troops’ reinforcementshavebeendeployed to thedockareaasaprecautionagainstfurtheroutbreakswhenthenewdeportationsbegan.TheEmpireRival59leftHaifaafteraseveral-hourbattleduringwhichteargasandfire hoses were used to subdue 800 persons including 40 pregnant womenaboardtheKatrielYaffe,whorefusedtobetransferredtothetransports.Aftertwoattemptstomovetherefugeesfailed,Indiantroopreinforcementsweresenttotheshipandcrushedtheresistance.60Itwasanironicalsituationthatalthoughunofficialreportsdeclaredthatonerefugeehadbeenkilledandagoodmanywereinjuredinthebattle,anofficialcommuniquebytheBritishauthoritythereissuedthesamedaystatedthat“nocasualtiesweresuffered.”

WhiletherefugeesweretryingtolandsafelyonPalestineterritory,over400people,wearingblackarmbands,carryingplacardsassailingBritishpolicyinPalestine,andchanting“OpenthegatesofPalestine”,demonstratedinfrontof theBritishEmbassy inWashingtonDC61.Theywereheadedby12 leadingrabbisofWashingtonDC.Theblackarmbandswereworninmemoryofthe3JewsrecentlykilledinHaifainattemptstopreventdeportationoftheJewishrefugeesfromPalestinetoCyprus,andthetwoJewishchildrenwhodiedinashipenroutetoCyprus.ThedemonstratorschantedthetraditionalJewishprayerforthedeadandtherabbisofferedprayers.Placardscarriedtheslogans“from Dachau to Cyprus”, “Neither Nazi nor British concentration camps”, “Fight British tyranny in Palestine.”62TheshipnamedShabtaiLozinskycarryinghundredsofJewish immigrants headed forHaifa insteadof directing towardsCyprus on13thMarch1947,andranintothecliffsasthepreviousonedid,andtheyweretransferredtoCyprusbyBritishwarships.Ontheotherhand,PalestinianJewishpeoplewhotriedtohelpthesurvivors,swimmingofftheshoreswerealsotakentoCyprusunfortunately.Britishauthoritieswhocouldn’ttellaparttheJewishpeople of Palestine and the Jewish immigrants assigned a police detectivenamedCaptainMarnerinthecamp.TheBritishdeportationshipnamedEmpireHeywoodalsotransferred620JewishrefugeeswhoarrivedinHaifaonthetwo-mastedschoonerLaNegevon9thFebruary194763.AnothervesselhavingsomechaoswasOceanVigorwhichwasblownupanddamaged,notdestroyedwhileit was docked in Famagusta, and British soldiers were rushed to the vesselon14thMarch1947,wheresomeJewishrefugeesrefusedtodisembark,anda58 JewishTelegraphicAgency,16thAugust1946.59 Insomesources,thenameofthisvesselisincorrectlyEmpireRiver.Sincemorethan1.500

refugeesaboardthreevesselsinHaifaarerestrainedtodisembark,andtheirdeportationtoCyprusisdelayedforafewdays,Britishsoldiersinfull-battledresspouredintoHaifa,andcordonedofftheportdistrictorderingalltheciviliansout.Machine-gunnestssurroundedbybarbedwireentanglementshavebeensetupandrumblingalongthedockareauptothedeportationoftheJewsbyEmpireRival.

60 JewishTelegraphicAgency,19thAugust194661 JewishTelegraphicAgency,16thAugust1946.62 JewishTelegraphicAgency,16thAugust1946.63 JewishTelegraphicAgency,12thFebruary1947.

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largenumberofthepassengersinsistthattheywerePalestinianJewswhowereroundedupwiththeimmigrantswhoarrivedontheblockaderunnerSanarana.64 Ontheotherhand,JewishimmigrantsandthosepeoplefromPalestinewouldstudy together andwould get the answers of the questions together such as“Which newspaper are you reading? How can we go to Ben Yehuda Avenue in Tel Aviv? What is the last movie you have already seen? Where do you enjoy shopping How much is a bottle of milk?”Consequentlyinsteadof140JewishpeopleofPalestinewhowerebyforcetransferredtoCyprus,totally325JewishimmigrantswouldgotoHaifa65.Followingthesearrivals,1.416illegalJewishimmigrantsarrivedinCyprusonthe18thMayof1947.BritishColonialSecretaryArthurCreech-JonesannouncedattheHouseofCommonsthatatotalof14.434JewishrefugeeswerenowinternedincampsinCyprus,andthattherewere1.840visalessimmigrantsbeingheldinPalestiniancampsandthat1.375wereawaitingtheirreleaseundertheregularmonthlyquotas.346ofthemwerewomenandchildrenwhowereshipwreckedontheDodecaneseislandofSirinaintheAegeanSea66,whiletheremaining119werehospitalized67.

As he explained, the Cyprus camps were originally constructed toshelteramaximumof10.000persons,andtheBritishadministrationinCyprusplannedtoexpandthefacilities tohousetheadditionalexpectedimmigrants,and the Palestine Government would bear the cost of the construction andmaintenanceoftheinstallations68.Unfortunatelynoneofthepromisesandtheplanswas carriedout, and theunfortunate Jewish survivors experienced theseconddetentionundersuchharshconditions.Unlikelymorethan800visalessJewish refugees detained aboard the deportation vesselOceanVigor69 sailedfor Cyprus shortly after the PalestineHigh Court rejected a plea to preventtheirdeportation.TherefugeeshadbeencapturedaboardtheblockaderunnerChaimArlosorofwhichwas intercepted inPalestinewatersrecently70.RulingagainsttheJerusalemJewishCommunitywhichinitiatedtheaction,thecourtsaidthatnoillegalitywasinvolvedindetainingthevisalessJewsonthehighseas,althoughitadmittedthatconditionsaboardthedeportationvesselsmightbe harsh. The court also found that itwas not illegal for the government to

64 ThreeJewishrefugees,capturedaweekagoafteranunsuccessfulattempttoescapefromXylotymboucampontheisland,werethesamedaysentencedtoonemonth’simmigrant.Theabove-mentionedthreeJewsweresaidtobeplanningtosailtoPalestine.TworefugeesatthecampandtwoattheCaraoloscampnearFamagustacaughtfleeingthedaybeforewerealsoarrestedbyBritishmilitarypersonnel. JewishTelegraphicAgency,16thMarch1947.

65 MorrisLaub,ibid,p.10.66 TheyhavearrivedinHaifabytheEmpireRivalon20thFebruary1947.67 JewishTelegraphicAgency,1stMay1947.68 JewishTelegraphicAgency,1stMay1947.69 Therewasonlyonedoctoraboard,andtheBritishsoldierswereveryrudeandtoughat

thebeginning,butsoftenedupafterseveraldays,expressingsympathywiththerefugees.JewishTelegraphicAgency,25thDecember1946.

70 JewihTelegraphicAgency,6thMarch1947.


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deporttherefugees.ItupheldtheHighCommissioner’srighttodecidethatthepresenceofthepassengersinPalestinewasadangertothepeace,evenifhedidnotchecktheirindividualrecords.Ontheotherhand,theBritishadministrationinJerusalemweresoterrifiedandshockedthatthemilitaryHQissuedorderstoall themilitarypersonnelandtheenlistedmennottoappearinthestreetsin groups of less than four and go armed at all times71 since the authoritiesapparentlyfearedkidnappingsinreprisalforthedeathsentences.

Disembarkationoftheimmigrationwentonsmoothly,andtherewereeight stretcher cases.Half the totalnumberwere taken toXylotymbou campandtheotherhalftoDekheliacamp.1125immigrants,ontheotherhand,werestarted to be embarked for Palestine on 19thMay 1947.72 In addition, itwasstatedatanemergencyconferenceinNewYorkthatacityofJewishchildren,about2.000innumberareimprisonedbehindbarbedwire,andunlesstheywereremovedatonce,theywouldconstitutea“lost generation of Jewish youth as David de Sola Pool, a Haganah leader expressed. Though the British permit Cyprus inmates to run their own services, prepare their food, and arrange for work and recreation, the bitter fact remains that nearly 20.000 Jews who are incarcerated there are literally in prison, surrounded by soldiers with machine guns, and living behind barbed wire enclosures, just as they did in concentration camps. The reception camp in Cyprus is a disgrace to civilization. Overcrowding, squalor, lack of sanitation and even the simplest amenities are filling the new-comers with despair.”73

Withinthesamedays,thegovernmentofPalestine,on21stApril1947,issuedastatementthat falsereportshadbeencirculatedtotheeffect that thegovernment of Palestine had not honored its promises in admitting illegalimmigrants from Cyprus, and expressed that the number of immigrantsreceived fromCyprus intoPalestine sinceNovember 1946 had actually beenlarger thanwas provided for in program.As expressed by the government,regularmonthly quotas of 300 forNovember-December 1946, and of 750 forsucceedingmonthly periods, had arrived in Palestine. In addition, a pool of1.000immigrantshadbeenestablishedatAthlist,anddeparturesfromCypruswereinfactonemonthaheadofschedule.ThegovernmentofPalestinehadalsostatedthatthemonthlyquotafromCypruswasliabletoreductioninproportiontoanysuccessfulJewishillegalimmigrationintoPalestinefromothersources74. DuetothescheduledquotasoftheBritishadministration,200Jewishinterneesinadditiontothefirstgroupof213adults,59children,and28infants75sailed

71 JewishTelegraphicAgency,19thAugust194672 Thefirst Jewishrefugee tobegivenavisa forCypruswasZwiBrik, formerdirectorof

thePalestineOfficeinLithuania,whosailedfromNaplestobecometheJewishAgency’simmigrationandwelfarerepresentative.HewasaccompaniedbyhiswifeandthechildreninRome.JewishTelegraphicAgency,23rdMay1947.

73 JewishTelegraphicAgency,23rdMay1947.74 P.I.O.Communiqué,No.1,21stApril1947.75 JewishTelegraphicAgency,4thDecember1946.

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fromtheislandofCypruson9thDecember1946forHaifawheretheywouldbeadmittedon theDecember immigrationquota76.The formervisaless refugeeswere also aboard Panamanian vessel chartered by the Jewish Agency77. Thedisembarkationoftherefugeeswasalwaysnotsoeasytocarryout,andsomeunavoidableriotscametothesurfacebothinCyprusandPalestineaswell.Forexample550Jewishrefugeesstagedasit-downstrikeinFamagustaon24thJuly1947 after theywere herded off twovesselswhichwere to have taken thembacktoPalestinetoawaittheirreleaseunderthemonthlyimmigrationquota.ThoserefugeeshadembarkedaboardtheEmpireRestandtheEmpireComfort,whentheauthoritiesdecidedtotakethemoffandsearchthevesselsapparentlyfearing thatbombshadbeenplacedon them.On theotherhand, theofficialauthoritieslatermadenoannouncementofthefindingofexplosivesaboardtheships.Inthelastmonthof1947,851“illegal”refugeestoointerceptedaboardtheblockaderunner“YouCan’tFrightenUs”broughtintoHaifaandtransshippedtoCyprus,andsevenwomen,onemanandonechildwerehospitalizedthere,and18oftheirrelativesremainedwiththem78.

ThegeneralsecurityofthecampswasonaBritishMajor,andthegeneralresponsibilityofthecampswasonthegovernmentinCyprus,ColonialOffice,andBritishmandategovernment.BritishmilitaryauthoritiesgaveassignmenttosomeliaisonworkersbeingexpertonvarioustopicssuchasTonyAldridgeandSirGodfreyCollinssoastosolvethereactions,theprotests,theneeds,andthedemandsoftheimmigrants.ThecommunicationbetweentheJewishpeopleandtheofficialauthoritywascarriedoutbyasix-manJewishdelegationandC.R.C.Donald,AssistantSecretaryatheSavoyHotelinFamagusta.79

4.2. Assistance to the Jewish Immigrants

Thefoundationsmostlyfocusingontheimmigrantissueontheislandwas Jewishassociationsand the foundations in theUnitedKingdomand theUnitedStatesofAmericasuchasAmericanJointDistributionCommittee,andJewishAgency.80CharlesPassmanoftheAmericanJointDistributionCommitteediscussed the questions of relief and welfare facilities in some detail, andexplainedwhatreliefhisorganizationwasabletoaffordtoatypicalcampofthesizeofCaraolos.Hestatedthatrelieftooktwomainforms.Onetobeagrantwhichincludedtheprovisionofclothingandsuggestedthatasupplementaryclothing issuemight be made available. As explained by him, the Tel AvivMunicipalityhadpurchased2.000poundoftheclothingforthethreebatchesofimmigrantsinCyprus.

76 JewishTelegraphicAgency,9thDecember1946.77 JewishTelegraphicAgency,9thDecember1946.78 JewishTelegraphicAgency,24thDecember1947.79 FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidentialPressComment.No.5.16August1946.80 FO.PIONewsItem.29August1946.


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Inadditiontotheeducationofthechildrenandtheotherimmigrantsinthecampsprimarily,publishinganewspaperofthenativelanguagealsogotthepriority.AdditionallyAmericanJointDistributionCommitteewouldtakecareoftherequirementsforscrollsoflawprayershawlsandotherreligiousarticlesandbooksaswellasemployingtwosocialwelfareworkers,onewhowouldbeextremelyexperiencedinoccupationaltherapyandtheotherwithperhapslessexperiencetodealwithentertainmentforthechildren81.Then,someeffortswerecarriedouttoestablishsomeinfrastructureandfacilityspotssuchasthekitchen,toilet,messhall,andthedormitory82. Justafter then,Mr.CharlesPassmanofthe American Joint Distribution Committee arrived again in Cyprus on 9thSeptember1946.Thesupplieswhichwerepreviouslynegotiatedweredue toarrivebyaTurkishshipnamedFoudaieh.Thefirstconsignmentofthesupplieswouldtaketheformchieflyofmedicalsuppliesandequipment,schoolbooksandkindergartenaccessories,religiousaccoutrements.83Therewouldalsobealargeamountofclothingwhichinthisfirstconsignmentwouldtaketheformofunderclothing,shirtsandshortsforbothmenandwomen84.Totally17politicalparties from Palestine such as Mapai which was known to be Labor Party,somereligiouspartiessuchasHashomerHatzair,AgudasIsrael,Mizrachi,andHapoelHamizrachi,andNoarZioniorBetarhadatleastonerepresentativeorasecretariat.These17partiesweresoorganized,andintheverycenteroftheinfluentialactivitiesthattheJewishimmigrantswhowerenotthemembersofthesepartiesweresubjectedtohungerbecauseallthemealsweredistributedbytheseparties,andthepartiesnormallytookcareofthemembersonlyandfirstly.85SimilarlyJewishinterneesinCypruswouldtakepartintheelectionsfordelegatestothefollowingWorldZionistCongressinadditiontothedeporteesinEritrea, and the electionswouldbeheld onOctober 28, 194686.Out of theeducationandthenutritioninthecamp,twoofficialrabbiswereassigned87 for thereligiouscelebrationandtheceremonies,andtheyweregivenassistancebytherelativelyqualifiedrefugeesinthecamps.Itwasacceptedthatsome%25oftheJewishrefugeesinthecampsweregenuineorthodoxJews,resultinginsomeproblemsespeciallyintheorganizationsandthecommittees.

British administration on the other hand restrained from givinginformationaboutthecampsupto18thAugust1946.88Thefirstreportertovisitthecampswas fromCyprusMail.Thereporterandthephotographerof thatjournalweregivenpermissiontocomeintothecampbutwouldgetnopermission

81 P.I.O.NewsItem,18thSeptember1946.82 FO.PIONewsItem.29August1946.83 Hürsöz,14thMay1947.84 FO.PIO.CommuniqueNo.7.9thSeptember1946.85 www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/libkany/lip001.html 86 JewishTelegraphicAgency,21stOctober1946.87 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.124.88 FO.PIOCommuniqué.No.3.16August1946.

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totalktotheimmigrants89.Ontheabove-mentioneddayinthemorningtherewas a disturbance in the immigrants’ camp at Caraolos South. When Pressrepresentatives,whowere carrying out a conductive tour, entered the camptheywere immediately rushed and surrounded by amob of the immigrantssinging“Palestine,Palestine”.Partofthemobrushedthemaingateandalmostsucceededinbreakingout.Themilitaryguardatthegatewereforcedtoresorttofirearmsandshotovertheheadsoftheimmigrants.Thecivilpolicewerecalledin toassist.By twentypast tenpeacehadbeen restored.Unfortunately thereweretwocasualtiesamongthemilitaryguardbutnoneamongtheimmigrants90. BBCandReuterreportersinadditionthosefromCyprusnewspaperssuchasHürsöz,Vakit,HaberandSonDakikawouldenterthecampforthefirsttimeon9thSeptember1946tovisit2.139immigrantsavailableinthecamp91.

Thatthemarriedcoupleshadnoprivacyandnoprivatetentorhunt,thatfourfamilyweregivenonlyonetentinthesuccessivedays,thatthepregnantwomen92weregivennoextrafoodandtheinsufficiencyofthefoodandwaterallreasonedthecomplaintsandtheprotests,93thereforehumandignityhadalreadystarted decaying. ClaireNeikind, anAmerican journalist of AmericanNewsAgencywhoclaimed,ontheotherhand,thatshetraveledtheentiredistancewiththeillegalimmigrantswasarrestedupto11thSeptember1946,andwasreleasedfromCaraolosthen94.ThemayorofNicosiaontheotherhanddeclaredthathehadnopersonalobjectionsagainst theperiodand thenumberof theimmigrants95.While3.845JewishimmigrantsaboardKnessetYisraelsteppedontheharborinFamagustaandtheyweretakentoCaraoloscamp,theydistributedsomebookletswithsomesloganssuchas“Cypriot brothers! Don’t let Cyprus turn to be a detention and death camp for us who had experienced Auschwitz, Bucheuwad, and Maidauek detention camps. Cypriot brothers! You can also make some demonstrations so that we can be transferred to Palestine, our homeland.”96Ontheotherhand,500JewishrefugeesfromCyprusarrivedinHaifaon11stDecember1946,bringingto1.250thenumberofdeporteeswhohavebeenreturnedfromthatislandinthelast24hours.Another500weredueinHaifa.ThelastarrivalsoftherefugeesweretransferredtoaJewishAgencycampatKiryatSchumel,nearChedera,toawaitreleaseundertheDecember-Januaryimmigrationschedule97.

89 Hürsöz,20August1946.90 FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidentialPressComment.No.1.18August1946.91 Vakit,10thSeptember194692 Whytheseunfortunatewomengivebirthtoababyinsuchdifficultandharshconditionis

anotherironyexperiencedhere,andsincethepregnantJewishwomenaresupposedtobethepropagatorsoftheirrace,andarefirstlyburntinNazidetentioncamps,theythinkthathavingababyisnothingbutjustananswertoHitler.

93 Hürsöz,11stSeptember194694 Hürsöz;8September1946.95 FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidentialPressComment.No.5.14August1946.96 Hürsöz;5thDecember1946.97 JewishTelegraphicAgency,12ndDecember1946.


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4.3. The Reactions of the Journals, and the Impressions

AllthecampsaswellasCaraoloswerevisitedon5thDecember1946bythejournalistsworkinginCyprus98escortedbyBritishMajorG.J.Wilsonwhowassupposedtobetheplannerandthearchitectofthesecamps99.Firstlytheclinichavingtwopartsforwomenandmenwiththecapacityof96patientswerevisited.Thepatienthavingmoreseriousandfatalproblemswas,ontheotherhand,hospitalizedinNicosiawithnosheetsandnoblankets.Thecamphada125person-messhall,400person-meetingrooms,andthe15-persondormitories100. Thehutsinwhichtheimmigrantslivedhadastoveandafewbrokenchairs.OneofthesongssungbyJewishimmigrantsalldaylongwas“Cyprus is also a Palestine.” in addition to “Erev Eretz Yisrael/The doorstep of the Promised Land”101

Thelittle-roomedhutsweregiventothemarriedcouples,butsincethenumberofthemarriedcouplesnaturallyincreasedintime,theBritishauthorityinthecampbroughtthistoanend,andnoroomwasgiveneventothemarriedones,soeverybodyhadtosharethesamehutswithnoprivacy.Inadditiontotheinsufficientmesshallandthehuts,thecampalsohadtwohutsusedfortakingshowers.Inspiteofthefactthatadepotwasestablishedtosolvethematterofwater,scarcityofwaterwasbelievedtobethefirstandthemostvitalproblemtilltheclosureofthecamps.OutoftheJewishimmigrants,some3.500Cypriotsworkedinthecampsaswellas800Germanprisonersofwar.Xylotymboucampwas ruled byMajorC. J.Wilson, and the camphad a trainwaybetween thecampandDekheliaevenifitwasuselessforthekeptpeople.Becausetheabove-mentionedcampwasdividedintotwopartswithahighway,campcommandbuiltahighcoveredwoodenbridgefortheJewishimmigrantsovertwobarbed-wire barricades so that they could pass fromone section of the camp to theother.They called thisoverpassForty-SecondStreet.The streetsbetween thetentsandthehutshadnoname,andthissituationcausedtheJewishimmigrantswho survivedNazi invasions anddeath camps to show reactions,protestingthattheyweregivennoIDcardinthecampsinCyprusbuttheyweregivenIDcardseveninHitler’sdetentioncamps,andtheycalledthemselvesno-nameimmigrantsinano-nameisland.Eveniftheimmigrantswerenotpermittedtogooutofthecampandtoswimbutvolleyballfieldwasestablished102.Overall,in1947,several tradeunionsandassociationsinCyprusina jointpleatotheUNSecretaryGeneraldemanded that the Jewish refugeeskept inCyprusbe“immediatelyliberatedandsenthometoPalestine.”103

98 Ateş,10thDecember194699 Hürsöz,6thDecember1946.100 Hürsöz;6December1946.101 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.126.102 Hürsöz;6December1946.103 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.132.

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5. Nutrition, Dressing And Sheltering In The Camps

Theexternalorderandthecommandinadditiontotheadministrationof the camps was the responsibility of a specially-designated militarystaff commanded by a British Major. The number of the British soldiersgiven assignments for the camp areas was some 2.200, and thus the Britishadministrationwassupposedtobeverysubtleandcarefulforthelifeandthefutureofthepeoplethere,buttherealitywouldbeverysarcasticandtherefugeeswouldcallthecamps“openairprisons.”Unliketheexternaladministration,theinternal administrationof the campswas largelygiven to the Jewishpeople,and the military personnel detained themselves with minimum amount ofsupervision in the camps.A civil administrationwith a senior officer at firstwas replacedbyaPalestinegovernmentofficial, andby the commissioneratlastfortheJewishdetentioncamps.Britishauthoritiesnevergivepermissiontothelocalshop-keeperswhodemandtosellsomethingtotheJewishimmigrantsinthecamps,andthosewhowanttorunthecanteenthere,sayingthenumberof localpurchases for the illegal immigrants confined inCaraolosCampwaslikelytobeverysmall,andthelettersfromthetradingcommunitycontainingquotations for commoditieswouldnotbeanswered. In such instanceswherelocal supplieswere required theywould be obtained from the Controller ofSupplies, Transport andMarketing104. Even on the subject of local purchasesmade for illegal immigrants detained atCaraolosCamp asweremade, suchpurchaseswouldnotbeheavy,andwouldbethroughtheControllerofSupplies.LettersfromcommercialintereststotheCivilAdministrativeOfficercontainingquotationswould not be answered105. Actually the immigrantswho broughtnothingtothecampshadnomoneytopurchasesomething.Thetotalnumberofthebirthsanddeathsinthecampsis1.920totalbirths,and120totaldeaths106, andthenumbersseemtobethesymbolofrelativelygoodconditionsbuttheoppositewasthereality; 107

“…Lack of medical facilities is more a disgrace to the Jewish Institutions in Palestine and to the welfare organization which assumed this responsibility than to the British authorities. There is a tragic dearth of doctors, especially dentists and eye-doctors.”

Ontheotherhand,theestablishmentofacoordinatingexecutivebodyby themajor Jewish institutions inPalestine to supplyaunifiedprogram formeeting the needs of the Cyprus internees when they arrive in Palestine isrecommended in a report issued by Jewish refugee organization psychiatric

104 FO.PIONewsItem.30August1946.105 FO.PIO.NewsItem.17September1946.106 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.123.107 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.123.


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groupwhichstudiesthevisalessJewsontheislandformorethantwomonths108. Meanwhile The Palestine Government plans to admit some 1.000 JewishdeporteesfromCyprusundertheNovember-December,andDecember-Januaryquotasof1.500each.Itwasannouncedon12ndNovember1946that14quotawouldallothalfofthe1.500certificatestothedeporteesfromCyprusandtheresttovariousothercategories109.

DespitethefactthatGreekCypriotshadsympathyforthesepeople,thearticleinEleftheriaheaded“Settlement of Jews and the cost of living”statedthatthestartoftheimmigrationofJewstoCyprusheldpublicopinioninanxietyincasethecostoflivingwouldbeaffected.ThenthiswouldbeunavoidableiffoodstuffsandothercommoditiesweresuppliedtotheJewsfromtheexistingstocksof the island110. Bed-steads, mattresses, covers and othermaterials, intendedfor the Jewish camp, were surprisingly provided by themilitary authoritiesandnotfromthestocksinpossessionofthegovernment.Furthermore,itwasnotknownwhetherJewswouldbepermittedtomovefreelyatintervals,andtomoveallover the island.C.R.C.DonaldalsomadeaspeechtotheJewishimmigrantsonbehalfoftheCyprusgovernmenton16thAugust1946,statingthat“No one who has considered the difficulties of displaced people in central Europe, and the sufferings of your race, can fail to sympathize with you, and the government of Cyprus and the military authorities are alike anxious that you should be as comfortable as possible during your temporary stay in Cyprus, for you will understand that you will remain here only until arrangements can be made for your ultimate future.”111Inthecampsthatexactlykept52.384Jewishimmigrants,2.000babieswerebornwithintwoyears112,andthecircumcisionceremoniesoftheJewishbabieswerecarried out in the camps in accordance with Jewish traditions. Despite thefact that the campswere all established in the seaside, not only the childrenbutnoneoftheimmigrantswasgivenpermissiontoswim.Subsequenttotheinsistenttrials,onlythechildrenkeptinthecampnamedCamp64weregivenallowance to swim under the control of armed soldiers On the other hand,ColonelDentwhocouldn’tbearsuchridiculousmannerresignedfromhispostand leftCyprus,goingaboard113.MeanwhilePesachLitvak, representativeoftheJointDistributionCommittee left forCypruson21st January1947soastoaidintheliquidationoftheJewishrefugeecampsontheisland114.HarryViteles,JewishMiddleEastDirector,voicedthehopethatBritain’sdecisiontoreleasetheCyprusJewswouldbefollowedbythereleaseofthethousandsofJewsinAden.VitelesannouncedinTelAvivthattheyhavebought273tonsofIsrael-

108 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13rdNovember1946.109 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13rdNovember1946.110 Eleftheria,16thAugust1946.111 P.I.O.CommuniquéNo.5,16thAugust1946.112 www.hri.org/news/cyprus/eng/1998. 113 MorrisLaub,LastBarriertoFreedom,JudahL.MagnesMuseumPublications,California,

1985,p.100114 JewishTelegraphicAgency,20thNovember1947.

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madecitrusjams,80tonsofchocolateand80.000bottlesofwineforshipmenttotheJewishdisplacedpersonslocatedinthecampsinGermanyandAustria115. MeanwhileitwasannouncedinJerusalembyPalestineGovernmentthatalltherefugeeswhoarrived inPalestine aboard theLatrun inNovember 1946, andwhoweresubsequentlydeportedtoCypruswouldbereturnedinnearfuture116. JewishAgencyrepresentativenamedMorrisLaubdeclaredthat thePalestineGovernmenthasagreedtoadmitthe375personswhowerebarredfromenteringlastmonthundertheApril-Mayquota,becausealikenumberhadescapedfromthevesselSusanna,andatotalof1.125detaineeswouldbereturned,including750undertheMay-Junequota117.

Intheveryfirstyearofthecamp,about500babieswereborn,and800couplesgotmarried.ThejournalistnamedRuthGruberwhometmorethan250babiesagedbelow12monthsgotsurprised118.Themarriageshadmostlyrealizedbetween the Jewish immigrantswith some exceptions such as themarriagesbetweentheworkersandtheimmigrants,andthecampauthorities.MoreovernosoonerhadtheshipnamedChaimArlosoroffwhichescapedfromSwedencometothecampwithmorethan800womenon28thFebruary1947thanthenumberof themarriagessurprisingly increased119.OnthefirstanniversaryoftheestablishmentofinternmentcampsinCyprusforvisalessJewsapprehendedwhiletryingtoenterPalestine,campcommitteesrepresentingsome16.000JewsstillbehindwirefencesontheislandsentanappealtotheUnitedNationstofindaspeedysolutiontothePalestineissue.120TheappealpointedoutthatthefailuretosettletheissuewaskeepingtheJewsimprisonedmorethantwoyearsaftertheliberationofEurope.

About400 immigrants,mostofwhomwere theold lost their lives inthecampsduetoagoodmanyreasons.ThefirstBritishsoldierondutyontheperimeterwholosthislifeinthecampmethisdeathduringanightrainstormbytouchinga lampstandard,whichhadbeenaffectedbythewetdueto theelectrocutionattheCaraoloscamponthe9thSeptemberof1946121.ThosewholosttheirlivesinthecampswereallburiedinagraveyardnamedMargo,andexpressed as“the forgotten Jewish people of the forgotten island.”122 Jewish relieforganizationtrytoregistertogetsomedoctorsandthenursesforthecamps,

115 JewishTelegraphicAgency,20thNovember1947.116 JewishTelegraphicAgency,11stDecember1947.117 JewishTelegraphicAgency,11stDecember1947.118 HeraldTribune,15August1948.119 MorrisLaub,ibid,p.91.120 JewishTelegraphicAgency,18thAugust1947.121 Then4British soldiersondutyat theCaraolos camp interned Jewish immigrantshave

alsodiedinanoutbreakoftyphoid,and12oftheJewshavebeenstrickenbythedisease,isolatingthecamp.Itwasalsosupposedthatanacutewatershortagecontributedtotheepidemic. FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidential PressComments.No.5.11 September 1946.SeealsoJewishTelegraphicAgency,11thJuly1947.

122 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.6.19April1947.


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and two qualifiedwelfare workers, named Lugton and Adler start workinginthecamp.Asinstructedtohimself,Mr.Adler’sprimaryattentionwouldbegiventotheimprovementofthebabyclinicandtothechildren’swelfare.MissRuth Pershitz, amember of the local Jewish community,would teach in thecamp school forwhich three large tents hadbeenprovided123. In addition toalltheseefforts,astartwasalsomadeon29thAugust1946withthequalifiedopticiantoprovidespectaclestoillegalimmigrantswhohadlosttheirown.Inthosecaseswhereillegalimmigrantswerewithoutfundstheglasseswouldbesupplied freeof charge124.Considering the situation, so faronlyurgent caseshadgotallocation.125Ontheotherhand,astudyofthementalhealthofJewishmen,women,andchildreninCyprus,alongwiththeorganizationofamentalhygiene clinic there and demonstration and instruction in psychiatric socialservicetechniqueswerealsoused,andtheprogramwascarriedoutbyaspecialteamconsistingofapsychiatric, twopsychologistsandonepsychiatricsocialworker,leavingNewYorkfora60-daymissionbothinCyprusandPalestine.126 Anoutbreakofscabiesinoneofthecampsinfected500of1.800refugees,andwashardlytakenundercontrol.127Thespreadofthediseasewasmostlyattributedtoinsufficientbathingfacilitiesandtodelayedarrivalofthemedicalsupplies.

TheJewishpeoplewhosurvivedWWIIandNaziholocaustinEuropewere sodesperate inCyprus thatThePalestineGovernment accededon 19th November1947 toa JewishAgencyrequest for thespeedyadmission128 fromCyprusoforphansunder18,andchildrenundertwotogetherwiththeirparents; 129

“The immigrants themselves are mostly healthy young adults. The majority has spent a considerable time in enemy concentration camps and is experienced in resistance both passive and active; are very alurgic (sic) to any form of order or authority and utterly lacking in the most elementary principles of camp sanitation or hygiene. They are, in the main, most unco-operative. A great lack of effort has been shown in keeping the camp clean and tidy. Meals are, for the most part, eaten in the tents, and personal ablutions performed there from tins, buckets, etc. Food debris, sanitary towels and dirty water are thrown into the surrounding bushes. Refuse containers are frequently tipped onto the ground.”

InMay 1947, 240 Jewish orphans also arrived inHaifa from Cypruscamps.TheirdisembarkationwasdelayedseveralhoursuntilaconvoycouldbeorganizedtoescortthemtoaJewishAgencyreceptioncenternearHadera.130

123 FO.PIONewsItem.29August1946.124 Hürsöz,1stSeptember1946.125 FO.PIONewsItem.30thAugust1946.126 JewishTelegraphicAgency,16thJune1947.127 JewishTelegraphicAgency,12ndJanuary1947.128 JewishTelegraphicAgency,28thJuly1947.129 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.123.130 JewishTelegraphicAgency,11stDecember1947.

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Inaccordancewiththisresolution,500Jewishorphansmore,betweentheageofsixandfifteen,embarkedontwoBritishvesselsinFamagustafortheirreturntoPalestineon19thAugust1947131.Thechildrenwerepartofagroupof985whowerebeingpermittedtoenterPalestineoutsidetheregularmonthlyimmigrationquota.Inall,some3.500personswouldbepermittedtoenterthecountryoutofturn.BetweenthosewhohelpedtheJewishimmigrantsinFamagustawastheTurkishCypriotssuchasJeffErtughrul;132

“I would present the oranges given to me by my mother to the Jewish people through the fences in my childhood. A British soldier, one day, caught me red-handed and hit me. Then my mother going to the camp grasped the soldier on duty and got his rifle. Then getting the rifle of the soldier, he rushed into the room of the commander and furied him a lot. The camp commander apologized from my mother, and ordered the soldier to do so. The following day, the commander gave me a box of chocolate. My mother never answered the questions such as ‘Hanife, how did you that? The soldiers could fire you.”

6. Attempts to Escape From the Camps

The Jewish immigrants kept in these camps proposing there is nodifference between the prison, the prison of war camp and these camps tryto escape from the camps getting assistance from Mossad, Jewish ReliefOrganizationandtheworkersinthecamps.Experiencingalltheseinthecamps,currentrumorsthatperimeterguardshadreceivedinstructionstoopenfireonanyvesselapproachingthecampfromtheseawereentirelywithoutfoundation,asannouncedbytheBritishauthoritiesinthecamp133.Ontheotherhand,thesoldiers firing up during the turmoil and the protest demonstrations are allpublished inAmerican newspapers134. Current rumors in the camps that theimmigrantshadallescapedbycuttingtheirwaythroughthewirewereofficiallydenied.Thewiresurroundingthecamphadatnotimebeencutandwasintact.Thereforeitwashardlypossiblefortheimmigrantstoescapefromthecampsbycuttingthewires,andforexamplethelastthreeJewishimmigrantswhoevadedtheir guards surrendered to the authorities later during the daytime.135 Therefugeestryingtoescapefromthecampssometimesusedeventhesweepingsearchlightsandthefloodlightsfromthewatchtowers,andassoonastheygotthechancetorushbetweenthelightsonthemselves,theyusedtogooutofthebarbedwires.AcararrangedbyHaganahbeforestoodthereandlefttheareaatoncewiththenewpassengertowardsanunknownpointneartheseaside.ThenavesseltooktheescapeetoPalestine.Actuallyupto15thMay1948,noneofthe

131 JewishTelegraphicAgency,20thAugust1947.132 TheinterviewmadewiththelateJeffErtughrulon24thApril2006inLondon.133 FO.PIONewsItem.30thAugust1946134 Hürsöz,24thSeptember1946.135 FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidentialPressComment.No.2.28August1946


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trialsandtheattemptstoescapefromthecampsinCaraolosandXylotymbouhasbeenregardedtobeadominantproblemalthoughsomeescapeswererealizedand some arrests were made. Moreover, on 10th May 1948, British ForeignOfficedeclared thatafterMay1948 thedetainees inCypruswouldbe free toleave the island since grounds for their detentionwould no longer be valid.Similarly JewishAgency in London estimated that they could absorb 10.000immigrantsmonthly inPalestine,but itwasdoubtful that sufficientshippingwouldbeavailabletotransfertherefugeesthatspeedily136.Duringtheattemptstoescapetherefugees,theHaganahthatmeans“Defense”,Mossad,AliyaBet,andPalmach137wereveryactiveorganizationsinregardofself-defense,escapes,disciplines,andimmigration.Becauseoneof theescapeattemptwasresultedwithfailureduetothepacksofthedogsbarkingaround,andtheescapeewascaught red-handed, the next day the Jewish authority in the campsdeclaredandordersoastokillallthedogsaround.Aspecialteamwaschosentocarryout the unfortunate mission, and the dogs disappeared for a while aroundthe camps.On the other hand,when the camps all closeddown completely,hundredsofdogsstillremainedbehindknowingnothingwhatwashappeningthere.Inadditiontothosewhotriedtoescapefromthecampsdiggingtunnels,someJewishimmigrantswhowerehospitalizedinNicosiaalsotriedtoescapeofftheisland.Itwas,forinstance,statedthattwoillegalimmigrantshadbeentakenincustodybythecivilpoliceatLimassol.ThesemenhadescapedfromthemilitaryhospitalatNicosiawherehospitalcasesweresentunderescortfromCaraoloscamp138.ThosetwoJewishimmigrantswhohaveescapedfromNicosiamilitaryhospitalweretakenintocustodybythepolice inLimassol.Thiswasthefirst intimation that the twohadescaped, and itwas thought that othersmaybeatlargesincethecampauthoritieshavebeenunabletotakearollcallsincetheimmigrantsweredivertedtoCyprusfromPalestine.139TheconditioninthecampswereactuallyweresounsatisfactoryandhardtolivethatanIsraelicamp leaderclaimedon9thFebruary1949 that in last30months1809 JewishinterneeshadescapedfromtheCaraolosandXylotymboucampsinCyprusandreachedPalestine140. Similarly, Britishmilitary and civil authorities said thatalthoughnoofficialfigureswereavailable,thereappearedtobeaconsiderablediscrepancybetweenthenumbersof incomingandoutgoingJewsinCyprus,andithadbeen,forthem,hardlypossibletoholdaproperroll-callinthecampssince theywere opened in 1946141. Subsequent to the final evacuation of thecamps,adetailedexaminationon11stFebruary1949showedlotsoftunnelsinvariousstagesofconstruction,oneofwhichisnowinthemilitaryareanamedGülsereninFamagusta.Aswellasthetunnels,theexaminationrevealedthat

136 JewishTelegraphicAgency,11stMay1948.137 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.125.138 FO.PIOCommuniquéConfidentialPressComment.NewsItem.11thSeptember1946139 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13rdSeptember1946.140 JewishTelegraphicAgency,10thFebruary1949.141 JewishTelegraphicAgency,10thFebruary1949.

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thecookhouses turned tobe the lecture rooms,andbattle-traininggymnasia,awell-appointedmaproomshowingthevicinityandthecountrysidesoastomaketheattemptsoftheescapeseasier142.ActuallyCaraoloscampwastheonlysuitableonetoescapesinceitwasbythesea,evenifDekheliacampwasalsoveryclosetothesea,andtherefugees,consideringsuchafacilityforthem,mademostlyuseofthecampsthere.SomefriendlypersonslivinginthevicinityofCaraoloscampsuchasLeibnerandLevinskywereanotherfactortoconcentrateontheattemptsofescapefromCaraolosbythehelpofthosehelpfulpersons143.

7. Education and Cultural Activities in the Camps

The only motto known by all the Jewish immigrants kept in thecamps is “Early come to the camp early go from the camp.” and out of thisrulethepeoplewhoareallowedtoleavetheislandearlierthantheothersarethedoctorsdealing in thebranchesmostlyasbrainsurgery,general surgery,andmicrobiology,whoaremostlyneeded inPalestine,and theyarewithnolotteryandnoqueuetakentoPalestineurgently.DespitethefactthattheBritishauthoritiesexpressedtogive750certificatestotheJews“on the prison island”144 theserestrictionsweregenerallyignoredbytheBritishthemselves.145ThefirstgroupofJewishimmigrantswhowereallowedtoleavethecampsandtogotoPalestinegetaboardYagarwouldbeselectedfrom754JewishimmigrantswhocamefromPolandon14thAugust1946.TheBritishauthoritiesalsopermittedthe Jewish immigrants aboard Henrietta Szold which arrived in Cyprus on14thAugust1946with536immigrantstojoininthelotterytochoosethosetogotoPalestine,atlast300personsweregivengrantedtogotoPalestine.Theindividual selection of the first 300 Jewish immigrants to receive certificateson theNovember/December quota had been , as said by British authorities,satisfactorily concluded by the Jewish Agency Team and other authoritiesconcerned.Theinfantswhowerewiththeirparentsandotherchildren,ifany,hadfirstpriority,followedbychildrenagedonetofourwithparentsandelderchildren,ifany,andlastly,expectantmothersintheeighthorninthmonthofpregnancy.146Approximately270certificateswereinvolvedinthisselection;theremaining30peoplegotoPalestine,gettingselectedbyballotfromthe“Yagur”.

Agreements had also been reached for the 750 proceedings on theDecember/Januaryquota,whichwouldbedrawnbyballot fromthebalanceofthe“Yagur”and“HenreittaSzold”inproportiontothenumbersarrivingoneachship.Thereaftertheselectionwouldbeaccordingtodateofarrivaloftheillegalimmigrantships,givingpriorityineachshiptothevariouscategoriesas

142 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.126.143 MorrisLaub,ibid,p.30.144 RuthGruber,ibid,p.45.145 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.3.21April1947.146 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.2.29November1946.


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expressedbefore.Due to375 Jewish immigrants transported to thedetentioncamps in Palestine by Susannah, the number and quota of the immigrantsto be taken fromCyprus to Palestine is reduced from 750 to 375.Moreover,British authorities thinking that saturatingmore than 150 Jewish immigrantstoPalestineterritoryincertainlyinfavorofthequotaoftheimmigrantsas150.Adaptingsuchareducedquota,theshipheadedforHaifafromCyprus,aboardtheP.P.Efthaliawhichwasflying thePanamaflag, carrying100passengersbelowthedeckand50ondeck,andnomilitaryescortaccompaniedtheparty.

Another problem and chaos appeared on 18th April 1947, and 375immigrantsrefusedtoembarkforPalestine,defyingthattheusualquotaof750shouldgo.Turmoilenlargedandembracedthecampsandthemilitarypersonnelin the camps started firing so as to prevent an attempted break-out, killing arefugeenamedMosheLerer,seriouslyinjuringfour,andlightlywoundingtwo147. TheillegalimmigrantsatCaraoloswentonaserioushungerstrikeforthefirsttimeon18thApril1947inprotestagainstthenon-satisfactionoftheirdemandsforanincreaseinthenumberoftransferstoPalestine.Therewasnomajordisturbanceinfactduringthenight,ontheotherhand,sporadicincidentstookplaceandattemptsweremadetoburndownthreemaingates148andtheadministrationbuildings149. Inthemeantime,anextramilitaryteamwasalsodeployedtothecamp,ledbyaMajor,andthebodyoftheJewnamedShlomohChaimsonwhowasshotoneday before atCaraoloswas buried in the Jewish cemetery atMargo. Seventy-five inmates fromCaraolos camp attended the funeral. All the Jewish illegalimmigrants,exceptthosewhohadarrivedatthecamprecently,pregnantwomenandthewomenwiththebabies,wereonfive-dayhungerstrike.150Lateron,itwasunderstoodthatgoingonstrikewasnothingbuteye-polishingandthefoodforthestrikerswerebroughttothecampclandestinely.151OftheJewishpeoplewhohadattendedthefuneralceremonyoftheJewishpersonnamedShlomohChaimsonwas alsoMajorWewmanwho held the funeral on his shoulder152 The JewishillegalimmigrantsinCaraolosandXylotymboucampsceasedhungerstrikethesamedayafternoonfollowingthedecisionoftheCentralCommitteetofinishtheirhungerstrikewhichstartedatnoononFriday.ThedecisionwastakenaftertheCommitteehadmettheDirectoroftheAmericanJointDistributionCommitteeinCyprusandamemberoftheJewishAgencyExecutive.Specialarrangementswerealsobeingmadetobringinfoodtothecampsasallpreviousoffersofrationshavebeenrefusedbytheinterneesuntilthatday’sdecision.Thismadethesupplyoffoodforchildreninthecampsduringthehungerstrikeadifficultproblem,andmanyofthechildrenalsojoinedinthehungerstrike153. 147 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.125.148 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.6.19April1947149 StavrosPanteli,ibid,p.125.150 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.3.21April1947.151 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.6.19April1947.152 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.3.21April1947153 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.7.22April1947

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TheBritishauthorities in the camp terrifiedby the Jewish strike triedto find out someways for the immigrants to spend time, and Jewish ReliefOrganization opened a nursery, kindergarten, and a primary school for thechildrennumberedmorethan1.000in1947.MostofthechildrenusedtobekeptinasummercampnamedCamp65,andgetthecoursesfrom06.00to12.00atnoon.154ThecoursesarrangedfortheadultismostlycomposedofJewishhistory,traditions, protocol and fine arts and socialmanners, social life in Palestine,Jewishartists,poets, religious leaders, literaryandculturalpersonalities.Thefoundations and organizations mostly arrange all these courses, seminars,cultural programs, workshops, art classes, and the other activities for theimmigrants in Cyprus camps are Rutenberg Foundation led fromHaifa andthe Youth Aliya Foundations established by Henrietta Szold for mostly theorphanedJewishchildren.Theconcertanddancegroupswerealsoset inthecamp,andaconcertwasalsogivenon the5thSeptember1946 to the JewishillegalimmigrantsatCaraoloscampbyFranzRosner,violinist,ofthePalestineBroadcastingCorporationaccompaniedbyGerhardJareckionthepiano.Bothmusicianswereonholiday inCyprusandvolunteered togiveup theirsparetime to entertain the illegal immigrants. The concert and the following oneswereallmuchappreciatedandwellattendedbythepeoplethere.

In addition to all these entertaining activities in the camp, the JewishNewyearhadbeencelebratedinCaraoloscampduringthelastthreedaysofSeptember.AtCamp55RabbiDayam,Dr.Grunfeld,a seniormemberof theChiefRabbi’sReligiousEmergencyCouncilwho arrived at the island beforefromLondonstayedinthecampwiththeimmigrantsduringhisstayandhadconductedservices.CaptainB.EbsteinoftheRoyalArmyChaplains’Department,Palestine,whowasalsolivinginthecampheldservicesatCamp60and61aswell155.Thefootballteamswerealsoestablishedinthecampsaswell,andthesefootballteamshadgotfootballmatchesagainsttheBritishmilitarypersonnel,andGermanPrisonersofwarkeptintheislandinthefollowingdays.

8. Closing the Camps in Cyprus

Uptothelastdayofthecamp,some52.649Jewishrefugees,including1.065infantsborninCyprus,hadbeendetainedinthetwocampareasinCaraolosand Xylotymbou; of these 29.071 had left for Palestine before the PalestineMandatewaslaiddowninMay1948.Similarly,Under-SecretaryforColonialAffairsDavidRees-Williamsdeclaredon12ndMay1948inParliamentthatallJewishdetaineesinCyprusmustberemovedfromtheislandbyAugust1,1948.Healsoaddedthatdetailedplansforthevisalessimmigrants’removal,whichwillbeginaftertheexpirationoftheMandate,werenewunderdiscussion.British

154 P.I.O.NewsItem.30August1946155 FO.PIOCommuniquéNo.3.28September1946.


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ForeignSecretaryErnestBevinalsodeclared that Jewishrefugees interned inCyprusbecausetheywereofmilitaryagewouldcurrentlybepermittedtogotoIsraelwhenevertheJewsprovidetransport for them.156BevinalsoretortedthathehadbeenendeavoringtodealwiththeCyprussituationforsometime.He also stated thathewasnot interested inpreservinghis reputationbut intakingallpossibleactions inbehalfofpeace.Williamssimilarlyasserted thatalthoughhedidnotbelievetheremovaloperationwouldinvolveanycost toBritishtaxpayers.157HealsosaidthathecouldnotgiveanyassurancethattheBritishvesselswouldnotbeused for the task, stating thathewasnotawareofanyJewsontheislandwhodidnowishtoleave158.It isworthmentioningherethatBritishCommanderofCyprusissuedanorderon12ndDecember1948requiringthecommanderoftheXylotymboucamptoappearbeforetheCyprusSupremeCourttoshowthereasonswhy5.164Jewsheldshouldnotbereleased.Theorderfollowedahearingatwhichthedetainees’lawyer,ColonelWeston,maintained that thesedetainedpersonswereheld solelyasbeingofmilitaryage,addingthattheCypruslawsdonotjustifythedetentionoftheJewsonsuchgrounds.159ThesituationappearedinCyprusabouttherefugeesisactuallyjustadilemmaexperiencedbytheBritishauthorities,andduetothesophisticatedsituation,internationalpressure,theburdenoftheincreasingexpenditureforcethemtobetornbetweenthedilemmas.

Theruletobeusedinthecampsforthepeoplewasthefirstin-thefirstout.Thus,thefinalevacuationinthecampstookplaceon11stFebruary1949.InFebruary1949,thecampsinCypruswerecloseddownandthelastimmigrantstherenumberingsome10.000werealltransportedtoIsraelbytheshipsfromthat country. Some 360 Jewish refugees also arrived in Haifa from Cypruson 13rdMay 1948, and this first groupwould be followed by an estimated10.000 aboard the recently released Pan Crescent160, and some more Jewishimmigrantswere also expected to land fromEurope in near future161. Itwasreportedon3rdFebruary1949thatsome5.000JewsstillremainedontheislandofCyprus,followingthearrivalofanothercontingentof1.500immigrantsfromtheGreekisland.162Toclosethecampsandtotransfertherefugeesthevesselssuccessivelyheadforthedestinedports,andforexamplethe3.900-tonsteamerGalilaembarked1.469JewsinFamagusta,anotherinstallmentofthe11.000tobemoved fromCyprusdetention camps to Israel163. She arrived fromHaifa,

156 JewishTelegraphicAgency,19thJanuary1949.157 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13thMay1948.158 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13thMay1948.159 JewishTelegraphicAgency,13rdDecember1948.160 PanCrescentcontinuestotransfertherefugeesespeciallyduringthetransitionperiodof

theclosureofthecamps,andforexampletransfersagroupof820immigrantstoHaifaonJuly,22,1948.JewishTelegraphicAgency,23rdJuly1948.

161 JewishTelegraphicAgency,14thMay1948.162 JewishTelegraphicAgency,4thFebruary1949.163 TheIsraeliwarship,Haganah,wentouttomeetGalilawhileshewasstillonthehighseas,

andwhenGalilaenteredIsraeliterritorialwaters,Haganahfiredthreesalvosinhonorofthe

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where she had taken a previous contingent, and sailed the same night. TheSSAtzmauth(Independence)alsosailedforHaifaon3rdFebruary1949withnearly2.200refugeesaboard,thelargestsinglecontingentofCyprusdetaineesyet evacuated from the island to Israel since the releaseof thedetaineeswasfirstannouncedbytheBritish164.DuetothefoundationofIsrael, therefugeeswere planned to be transferred from Cyprus to newly-established country,and Israeli ImmigrationMinisterMoshe Shapira would leave for Cyprus inJanuary1949tomakeandtosupervisearrangementsfor theearlytransferofapproximately12.000internedJewishrefugeesfromtheislandtoIsrael,anda4.500tonvesselwouldarrivefromHaifatotakeonthefirst2.000refugees.165 Inthisway,thefirstgroupwouldbetransportedtoHaifaandclearthecampscompletelywithin10daysor twoweeks.TheJewishAgencyannouncedthatithasallocateditsmostluxuriousshipstobring1.200CyprusJewstoIsraeloneachtrip.ThefirstsuchvoyagewouldprobablybemadeintheendofJanuary1949166.AfterBritishForeign SecretaryErnestBevin’s announcement that thedetainedJewsinCypruswouldbepermittedtogotoIsraelassoonastheJewsprovidedforthem,Some11.000refugeescheered,anddanced,notwithstandingtheheavyseasonalrainfall, inthemudthroughoutthenight167. Ontheotherhand, the scheduled programwas not always in order, and the non-arrivalof the vessels arranged to transfer the refugees toHaifa and the unexpecteddelayscausedthedetaineestoreachastageoftenseness,andtheJewishcampleaders demanded that increased shipping facilities be made available rightaway.168Tocompletethedeportationoftherefugees,threephysiciansincludingagynecologist,threenursesandallthenecessarymedicalequipmentwouldbetakentoCyprusonthefirstavailablevesseltoaccompanythedetaineesbacktoIsrael.Thenumberoftherefugeeswerealsoannouncesas11.000including800infantsand275pregnantwomen169.ThejournalistMorrisLaubexplainedinNewYorkon8thApril1949that“thefeatofsettlingtheCyprusrefugeescanbeappreciatedallthemore,whenoneknowsthatinthelastthreeweeksalonethenumberofpersonslivinginIsraeltransitcampsjumpedby12.000becauseofthegreatlackofdwellingspace.DespitethehorriblephysicalfacilitiesoftheCyprusdetentioncamps,theybecamethemosteffectivepossiblestagingareaforJewishagenciesgoingtoIsrael.TheemigrantswholeftMr.Bevin’scampsafterlongmonthsofinternmentwerefullypreparedtoliveinIsraelbyvirtueoftheextensivehealthy,educationalandvocationaltrainingprogramwhichtheJointDistributionCommitteesponsoredforthemonCyprus.”170

newarrivals.JewishTelegraphicAgency,2ndFebruary1949,and26thJanuary1949.164 JewishTelegraphicAgency,6thFebruary1949.165 JewishTelegraphicAgency,21sthJanuary1949.166 JewishTelegraphicAgency,21sthJanuary1949.167 JewishTelegraphicAgency,20thJanuary1949.168 JewishTelegraphicAgency,30thJanuary1949.169 JewishTelegraphicAgency,21sthJanuary1949.170 JewishTelegraphicAgency,10thApril1949.


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Thenumberof the immigrants, theships,wheretheycamefrom,andwhentheyleftEuropeduringtheperiodof29thJuly1946-14thApril1948wereall kept track.171 52.384 Jewish people are transported to the island in totally39actions,butsomemoreshipsarealsoavailable.ForexampleEmpireRivalwith544menand153womenon15thMarch1946,EmpireRestwith390peopleon5thOctober1947,EmpireComfortwith398immigrants,SnowSmithwith829Jewishimmigrants,andEmpireShelterwith402immigrantson4thOctober1947areoutoftheofficialrecord.AssoonastheJewishrefugeesstartedgettingtransferredtoIsrael,itwasannouncedthatanIsraeliconsulatewouldbeopenedsoon in Nicosia, and Yerachmiel Yaron, a high-ranking police official, wasappointedIsraelConsulforCyprus172.Duringthistransitionperiod,morethan100.000JewishrefugeesaretransferredtoPalestinebytotally120vesselsfromEurope,startingfrom1934Julyupto11stJuly1948in158voyages.ThevesselscarryingthoserefugeesareVelos,Union,Kosta,Artemisia,Poseidon,AfAlPi,Panormitis,Draga,Atrato,Elli,Chepo,Delpa,Katina,Sandu,AghiosNicolaos,Astir,Asimsi,PanagiaConasterio,AghiaZoni,Liesel,Dimitrios,KralitsaMaria,Colorado,Marsis,LasPerlas,Niko,Rim,Dora,Rudnichar,Osiris,Parita,Krotova,Tripoli, Tiger Hill, Noemijulia, Rudnichar, Uranus, Hilda (Orion) Sakarya,Libertad, Pencho, unidentified and unknown four vessels, Pacific, Milos,Atlantic,Salvador,Darien,Hainarul,CraiNou,Struma,Mihai,Mircea,DordeVal,Euxenia,Vitorul,Dora,Europa,Lily,Milka,Maritza,BelaCitta,Kazbek,Bülbül,Mefküre,Selahaddin,Tauris,Dalin,NatanI(Nettuno),Gabriela,PeterI,NatanII,PeterII,BerlKatznelson,HannahSenesh,EnzoSereni,Wingate,TelHai,MaxNordau,DovHos,EliahuGolomb,HavivaReik,JosiahWedgwood,Briah,Haganah,HachayalHaivri,Assipa, SSYagur,Henrietta Szold,KatrielJaffe,Twenty-Three,AmiramShochat,ArbaCheruyot,Palmach,BrachaFuld,Latrun, Abba Berditchev, Knesset Israel, Rafa, Lanegev, Hamapil Haalmoni,ChaimArlosoroff, BenHecht, Shabtai Luzinsky,Moledeth173, TheodorHerzl,ShearYishuv,Hatikva,MeredHagetaot,YehudaHalevi,Exodus1947,ShivatZion,HeroesofAziv,AfAlPiKen,MedinatYehudim,Geulah,Aliyah,Kadima,Haportzim, Lo Tafchidunu, 29-Nov, Kibbutz Galuyot, Atzmaut, UnitedNations,35HeroesofEtzion,YerushalayimHanezuro,Lekommemiyut,Bonimv’Lochamim, Yehiam, Tirat Zvi, Mishmar Haemek, Nakhshon, Lanitzachon,MedinatYisroel,KravEmekAyalon,Altalen,andMala174.

171 Hürsöz,7thOctober1947.172 JewishTelegraphicAgency,24thAugust1950.173 A very harsh and sharp clash between British soldiers and some 750 refugees aboard

Moledethhasoccurredfollowingtherefugees’refusaltobetransferredtotheOceanVigorandtheEmpireRival.Thenthemilitarysecurityforcesstartedusingtheteargas,smokebombsandtheclubstoforcetherefugeesoutoftheship’sholdandovertheside.Manysoldiersandrefugeeswereinjured.Ontheotherhandtherewasnoclashaboardthetwodestroyerstowhichover700otherMoledethpassengershadbeentransferredwhenitwasfeared that theblockade runnerwouldcapsizeandsink in themid-oceanon31stMarch1947.

174 Seedetailedinformationontheabove-mentionedships;UlviKeser,1945–1948Sürecinde

Ulvi KESER

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CONCLUSION

ThewarperiodespeciallyinEuropepassedawaywithinNazihorror,starvation,torture,andthousandsofJewishcivilianpeopletakentothedeathcampslosttheirlivesinthegaschambers.Thesurvivorstriedtoescapefromthose countries towards Palestine; unfortunately almost no country exceptTurkey helped and backed them. British government unlike the reluctantcountriestohelptheimmigrantsstartedusingsomerestrictionsagainsttheseimmigrantsleadingthemfirstlytoMauritius,thentoCyprus.TheunfortunateJewishrefugeesheadedforCyprusandwerekeptbehindthefencetherenotasthesurvivors,orthealivepeopletowardsPalestinebutliketheprisonersunderveryharshconditions.ActuallyaftertheWWII,theconditionsinCyprusitselfwerenotsufficientevenforthelocalpeople,andtheunresthadnointentiontodecrease.Themilitaryprecautionsandtheburdenoftheexpenditure,recession,blackmarket,inflation,lackofemployment,shortageofcurrency,andgloomyfuture behind the horizons all gathered and blackened Cyprus thoroughly.The localpeople, especially theGreekCypriotshad fears that the temporaryshelteringoftherefugeesmightturntobepermanentresultingtheproportionofGreekpopulationinadditiontothecostoflife.Detaineesweresupposedtobetheburdenontheisland,andtheBritishauthoritieswereveryreluctanttokeepthemnotonlyinCyprusbutalsoinPalestineaswell.WhileAphrodite’srealm,theislandnamedCyprusturnedtobeaprison,cityofJewishchildrenbehindbarbedwire,ano-nameisland,ahellwithnoprivacy,andtheugliestarchitecture,theJewishimmigrantswerenamedtobemass,illegal,unlawful,refugeesbyBritish authorities.Therefore, the forgotten Jewsof the forgottenislandhadtolivewithnoinfrastructure,nowater,nobed,noprivacy,andnosocialactivityunderthemilitaryauthority.Anewstateallofasuddencametothesurface,andhedetaineesweretransferredtoIsraelthen.Forgottenpeopleof the forgotten island left nomarkbehind except the fears, hunger, torture,psychologicalpressure,anddeath.

Türkiye-Kıbrıs-FilistinEksenindeYahudiler,AtılımUniversityPublications,Ankara,2012,p.245.


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RESOURCESI. Archive

Prime Ministry Republic Archive

BritishForeignOfficeArchive

JewishTelegraphicAgencyArchive

GeneralStaffATASEArchive

II. Periodicals

Ateş

Cyprus Mail

Eleftheria

Esperini

Hürsöz

Kypriakos Typos

Herald Tribune

İkdam

Söz

The Cypriot

The Cyprus Gazette

The Larchmont Gazette

Vakit

III. Published Books

DELON,Amos,Çöküşe Tırmanış; Alman Yahudilerinin Öyküsü 1743-1933,GözlemPublications,İstanbul,2002.

FRANTZ,Douglas,The Untold Story of The Struma And World War II’s Holocaust At Sea, Death On The Sea,HarpersCollinsPressPublications,NewYork,2003.

GRUBER,Ruth,Destination Palestine,CurrentBooksPress,NewYork,1948.

Ulvi KESER

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HUREWITZ,J.C.,Struggle for Palestine,GreenwoodPress,NewYork,1968.

KESER,Ulvi,İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda Türkiye’nin Yunanistan’a Yardım Faaliyetleri; Yardım Et Komşu, Turkish Cypriot Culture Association Publications,Ankara,2005.

KESER,Ulvi,İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda İngiliz Ordusunda Katırcılar,IQPublications,İstanbul,2007.

LAUB,Morris,Last Barrier to Freedom; Jewish Holocaust Survivors on Cyprus 1946-1949,California,1985.

IV. Electronical Sources

www.jafiorg.mil/education/100/act/38zion.html.

www.eretzyisroel.org.

www.hri.org/news/cyprus/eng/1998

www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/libkany/lip001.html.

www.washington-report.org/backissues

V. Oral Interviews

InterviewwiththelateJeffErtughrulon24thApril2006inLondon

VI. Articles

ASSMUSSEN,Jan,“TheCyprusRegiment:GreekandTurkishCypriotsinaJointMilitaryForce,fromCO.67/297/9NoticeW.Calder,3.2.1939”,Journal of Cyprus Studies,EasternMediterraneanUniversity,SpecialIssue26/27,Volume10,Year2004,p.141.

jewish survivors and detention camps in cyprus after the

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