jessica d. richardson, ph.d., ccc-slp role of the speech-language pathologist in the recovery...
TRANSCRIPT
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JESSICA D. RICHARDSON, PH.D. , CCC-SLP
Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist in the Recovery Process of
Individuals with Traumatic Brain Injury
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ASHA Scope of Practice
ASHA = American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Scope of practice:
http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/SP2007-00283.pdf
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Narrative Samples
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Functional outcomes and reimbursement trends
Trend of reduced resources available for rehabilitation
Trend of increased demands for improved functional outcomes Lessening activity/participation limitations is focus
instead of traditional focus of eliminating/reducing the underlying impairment.
Treatment effectiveness is therefore demonstrated by meaningful improvements in the tasks of everyday life.
www.asha.org/policy/
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Functional outcomes and WHO-ICF
World Health Organization – International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (WHO-ICF) Classification system that describes disorders in terms
of resultant limitations placed upon the individual Limitations in body function and structure Activity limitations Participation limitations Contextual factors
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WHO-ICF: Limitations in body structure/function
Previously known as “impairment”Underlying damage to psychological,
physiological, or anatomic structures or functions e.g., inability to hold more than 6 items in memory,
increased distractibility, word-finding deficits/anomia
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WHO-ICF: Activity limitations
Previously known as “disability”Functional consequences of the
limitations of body function and structure e.g., limitation of body structure and function =
anomia/word-finding problem; resultant activity limitation = unable to add ideas or take turns in conversation
Predictive of participation limitations
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WHO-ICF: Participation limitations
Previously known as “handicap”Tied to one’s well-being and social
consequences that arise from having cognitive disorder; discussed relative to life roles e.g., Can the individual with a TBI still lead
meetings, conduct class lessons, drive a truck (long-haul), etc.? If not, then participation in pre-TBI life activities is limited.
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WHO-ICF: Contextual factors
Social, familial, educational, vocational, or other role disadvantage associated with the disability e.g., failure in school, loss of job
Includes also: Environmental factors
factors not within the person’s control (e.g., attitudes of individuals in the environment, family, work, government agencies, laws, cultural beliefs, etc.)
Personal factors e.g., attitudes of individual with TBI, race, gender,
age, educational level, coping styles, etc.
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Flow of clinical services
1 - Pre-assessment.2 - The development of a clinical question
regarding diagnosis, intervention, and/or discharge.
3 - Selection of assessment instruments.4 - Assessment.5 - Using the information to determine
intervention approach.6 - Intervention.7 - Re-assessment.…
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1 - Pre-assessment
Thorough pre-assessment improves quality of assessment process and information gained
Especially important in TBI history, substance abuse, depression, etc.
Sources of pre-assessment information can include: Written case history Interview with client and caregivers
Who is concerned about the client’s communication performance (client, other health professional, family member, etc.)? Why are they concerned?
Interview/Information from other professionals, Medical records
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2 - Development of clinical question
This is also Step 1 of evidence-based practice: “The development of a clinical question regarding diagnosis, intervention, and/or discharge.” Does the person potentially have a disorder that falls
under my scope of practice? If yes, what domains seem to be affected? What additional information do I need to obtain in
order to have sufficient information for determining if the person actually has one or more disorders?
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3 – Selecting your assessment measures
Before using a standardized assessment measure, need to determine whether or not it is the appropriate measure to administer. What is the purpose of the test? How was the test constructed/developed? What are the administration and scoring procedures? What is the normative sample group? Is this a valid test? Is this a reliable test? Which domain of WHO-ICF limitations does this test assess?
Will also need to use nonstandardized assessment measures
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4 - Assessment (1)
Traditionally, assessment has involved: Battery of tests of
neuropsychological/cognitive/linguistic function to identify strengths and weaknesses (i.e., limitations of body structure/function)
Improved approach includes contextualized measures (aka “authentic” measures) Arose because research has demonstrated that
aforementioned assessment approach does a poor job assessing functional, real-world outcomes and/or long-term maintenance of treatment gains and does not assist with vocational planning
http://tbims.org/combi/list.html
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4 - Assessment (2)
1. Standardized tests to identify deficits and to generate hypotheses about areas to target in rehabilitation
1. *comment on aphasia batteries for TBI
2. Situational observationi. To confirm and enrich OR negate test findingsii. Why?
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4 - Assessment (3)
3. Ongoing contextualized hypothesis testingi. Systematic exploration of strategies, task
modifications, supports, intervention procedures, etc. that could positively influence task performance and learning
ii. Why ongoing and contextualized? iii. Why hypothesis testing?
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4 - Assessment (4)
4. Measure the knowledge and support skills of the people in the everyday life of the person with TBI
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4 - Assessment (5)
5. Collaboration with other professionals6. Collaboration with the patient
i. Collaborating with the patient in the following is important for both assessment and treatment:
i. Goal-settingii. Testing intervention hypothesesiii. Exploring strategic compensationsiv. Monitoring outcomes
ii. Evidence that direct patient involvement in neurorehabilitation goal setting => maintained goals at follow-up
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PatientPatient
Big Picture
Rehabilitation Coordinator/Case Manager
Primary Physician
Neuropsychologist
Psychologist
Medical Consultants
Social Worker
Recreation Therapist
Vocational Specialist
Nurse
Physical Therapist
Nutritionist
Speech Pathologist
Occupational Therapist
Source: Christine C. O’Hara and Minnie Harrell, Rehabilitation with Brain Injury Survivors: An Empowerment Approach, Aspen Publishers, Inc., 1991.
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4 - Assessment (6)
Why are all of these team members involved? Primary Consequences
Penetrating Head Injury (Low-velocity, High-velocity) Nonpenetrating (or closed) Head Injury (Nonacceleration,
Acceleration [linear, angular])• Diffuse Axonal Injury
Some Secondary Consequences (brain’s responses to primary trauma, often more devastating than primary consequences) Traumatic hemorrhage, cerebral edema, traumatic
hydrocephalus, increased intracranial pressure, ischemic brain damage, cerebral vasospasm
Resultant Systemic complications Skin, eye, ear, nose, mouth and throat, larynx, trachea,
lungs, GI tract, heart, PVS, genitourinary system, female reproductive system, metabolic-endocrine system, blood, musculoskeletal system, PNS, CNS
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4 - Assessment (7)
Assessment and Intervention Environments Acute setting Post-acute/sub-acute facilities Day treatment/outpatient services Group home/residential living Vocational rehabilitation Transitional living Protected work trial School Private clinic Behavior management Pediatric programs Brain injury + other conditions Respite
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4 – Assessment (8)
Assessment and Intervention will depend upon stage of recovery, e.g., STAGE 1 – “Comatose and Semi-Comatose” STAGE 2 – “Responsive and Agitated” STAGE 3 – “Restless and Distractible” STAGE 4 – “Oriented, Purposeful” STAGE 5 – “Dependent” STAGE 6 – “Semi-Independent”
Also, Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning (p. 425) http://www.rancho.org/research/cognitive_levels.pdf
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5 - Determine Intervention Approach
Differential DiagnosisComorbid DiagnosesLimitations and Contextual FactorsHierarchy of Clinical Importance/Personal
Importance The “whole picture” Prioritize immediate and less-immediate needs
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6 – Intervention
To discuss
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7 - Re-assessment
Remember, assessment should be ongoingAlso, the final stage of evidence-based
practice is to evaluate whether or not the chosen approach is working and to make modifications as necessary.
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6 – Intervention
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EVIDENCE-BASED RECOMMENDATIONS
Cognitive Rehabilitation Task Force of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Brain Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group (Cicerone et al., 2011, Arch Phys Med Rehabil) ATTENTION VISION and VISUOSPATIAL FUNCTIONING LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS MEMORY EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING COMPREHENSIVE-INTEGRATED
NEUROPSYCHOLOGIC REHABILITATION
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EVIDENCE-BASED RECOMMENDATIONS
Practice Standards At least 1 well-designed Class I study with adequate N Additional support from Class II or Class III evidence Directly addresses treatment effectiveness Substantive evidence of effectiveness
Practice Guidelines 1 or more Class I studies with methodologic limitations OR
well-designed Class II studies with adequate N Directly addresses treatment effectiveness Evidence of probably effectiveness
Practice Options Class II or Class III studies Directly addresses treatment effectiveness Evidence of possible effectiveness
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TBI and COMMUNICATION
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TBI and Communication (1)
Speech Impairment – a problem with voice, fluency, and/or how a person says speech sounds.
Language Impairment – a problem with understanding and/or using spoken, written, and/or other symbol systems. Form – the rules about how sounds are combined, how
words are constructed, and how we combine words to form sentences.
Content – the meanings of words. Function – using language (form and content) to
communicate in functional and socially appropriate ways.
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TBI and Communication (2)
Low incidence of aphasia secondary to TBICommunication problems secondary to TBI are quite
different from aphasia, BUT aphasia assessment batteries are commonly administered Problem with aphasia test batteries "Performance on aphasia batteries may give the impression that
their communicative skills are intact. However, interactions with many of the same individuals leave the listener with the sense that they are off target, tangential, and disorganized or, in some cases, have very little to say. The overestimated communicative performance of these individuals is a function of the limited scope and ceiling effect of aphasia batteries, which were never intended to assess the subtle types of deficits many individuals with TBI demonstrate.” Coelho et al., 2005, Seminars in Speech and Language
Impaired discourse is the hallmark of post-TBI cognitive-communication disorder
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TBI and Communication (3)
Discourse abilities reside at crossroads of language and cognition
Anatomy: Lateral and medial prefrontal cortices (LPFC,
MPFC) Dorsolateral LPFC
Temporoparietal and anterior temporal regions Posterior cingulate Connections between these areas, and from
these areas to other lobes
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TBI and Communication (4)
Discourse Impairment Macro-linguistic deficits
Reduced cohesion and coherence; impaired organization; problems with story components and grammar
Difficulty with inference Impaired social cognition
Reduced information and efficiency Tangential language, difficulty identifying communication
breakdowns and repairing Shorter and less complex utterances
Reduced initiation and maintenance Dependent on others to maintain flow of conversation
Micro-linguistic deficits Meaning within words, phrases, sentences
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TBI and Communication (4)
Discourse Impairment Macro-linguistic deficits
Reduced cohesion and coherence; impaired organization; problems with story components and grammar
Difficulty with inference Impaired social cognition
Reduced information and efficiency Tangential language, difficulty identifying communication
breakdowns and repairing Shorter and less complex utterances
Reduced initiation and maintenance Dependent on others to maintain flow of conversation
Micro-linguistic deficits Meaning within words, phrases, sentences
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TBI and Communication (4)
Discourse Impairment Macro-linguistic deficits
Reduced cohesion and coherence; impaired organization; problems with story components and grammar
Difficulty with inference Impaired social cognition
Reduced information and efficiency Tangential language, difficulty identifying communication
breakdowns and repairing More turns of shorter and less complex utterances
Reduced initiation and maintenance Dependent on others to maintain flow of conversation
Micro-linguistic deficits Meaning within words, phrases, sentences
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TBI and Communication (4)
Discourse Impairment Macro-linguistic deficits
Reduced cohesion and coherence; impaired organization; problems with story components and grammar
Difficulty with inference Impaired social cognition
Reduced information and efficiency Tangential language, difficulty identifying communication
breakdowns and repairing Shorter and less complex utterances
Reduced initiation and maintenance Dependent on others to maintain flow of conversation
Micro-linguistic deficits Meaning within words, phrases, sentences
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TBI and Communication (4)
Discourse Impairment Macro-linguistic deficits
Reduced cohesion and coherence; impaired organization; problems with story components and grammar
Difficulty with inference Impaired social cognition
Reduced information and efficiency Tangential language, difficulty identifying communication
breakdowns and repairing Shorter and less complex utterances
Reduced initiation and maintenance Dependent on others to maintain flow of conversation
Micro-linguistic deficits Meaning within words, phrases, sentences
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TBI and Communication (5)
EBRsPractice Standards
Cognitive-linguistic therapy Acute, postacute
Intervention to improve social communication skillsPractice Guidelines
Intervention for specific areas of deficit (e.g., reading, word-finding, narrative production)
Treatment intensity is a key factorPractice Options
Group-based intervention for language and social-communication deficits
Computer-based interventions as an adjunct to clinician-guided treatment of cognitive-linguistic deficits
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TBI and Communication (6)
Types of tasks Social skills training
Pragmatic communication behaviors Listening, starting a conversation
Social perception of emotions and social inferences Psychotherapy for emotional adjustment Self-instructional training strategies for emotion
perception deficits (metacognitive strategies) Narrative, conversation
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TBI and EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
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What are executive functions?
Executive functions = “superordinate, managerial capacity for directing more modular abilities, including language, memory, motor skills and perception in the service of managing and attaining goals” (p 487) Maintenance of a problem-solving set for future
goals (working memory) Set shifting Planning and problem solving Decision making based on reward and penalty Self-regulation
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FRONTAL LOBE FUNCTIONS (1)
4 Functional Domains1. Executive2. Behavioral/Emotional Self-regulatory3. Energization regulating4. Metacognitive
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FRONTAL LOBE FUNCTIONS (2)
EFs mediated by frontally guided, distributed networks involving prefrontal subregions, posterior cortex, and subcorticalstructures (e.g., basal ganglia, ventral striatum)
1 – Executive Cognitive Functions Anatomy – lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) Function Overview – control and direction of lower
level/automatic functions Planning, monitoring, activating, switching, inhibiting
2 – Behavioral/emotional self-regulatory functions Anatomy – ventral (medial) prefrontal cortex (VPFC) Function Overview – emotional responsiveness, reward
processing, behavioral self-regulation
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FRONTAL LOBE FUNCTIONS (3)
3 – Energization regulating functions Anatomy – superior medial frontal lobes, anterior
cingulate; frontal cortical-subcortical circuits Function Overview – capacity to generate and
maintain actions important for adequate performance of other functions Extreme case – abulia, or severe apathy Most common presentation – slowed reaction time,
slowed processing speed
4 – Metacognitive functions Anatomy – frontal pole (BA 10) (right hemisphere
bias?); connections to other regions Function Overview – integrative aspects of personality,
social cognition, consciousness, theory of mind, humor
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TBI and Executive Function
TBI “arguably the most important single cause of frontal lobe dysfunction” (p 469)
The cognitive and behavioral consequences of TBI are the most enduring and have most impact (more than physical). “The chronic disability of TBI is accentuated by its
tendency to take place during early adulthood, affecting behavior for decades.” (p 469)
Can occur with both penetrating and non-penetrating TBI
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Treatment of Frontal Lobe Dysfunction (1)
1 - Executive/cognitive Problem solving and planning
Problem-solving training (PST) Working memory training
2 - Behavioral/Emotional Self-regulatory Treatment targeting “goal neglect” (to bridge
gap between intention and action) Goal management training (GMT) External aids/cues
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Treatment of Frontal Lobe Dysfunction (2)
3 - Energization regulating Pharmacologic intervention
Dopamine agonists, serotonin agonists External aids/cues
4 - Metacognitive Deficit awareness
Awareness Intervention Program (AIP) Error awareness and self-monitoring
Self-monitoring training (SMT)
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EBRs: EXECUTIVE FUNCTION (1)
Practice Standard Metacognitive strategy training (self-monitoring, self-
regulation) for executive functioning and emotional self-regulation As a component of attention, neglect, and/or memory
treatment
Practice Guideline Problem-solving training (everyday situations, functional
activities) Postacute
Practice Options Group-based intervention for executive function and
problem-solving
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EBRs: EXECUTIVE FUNCTION (2)
Previous standards, guidelines, options were for adults only
There are no established cognitive interventions for children with TBI Generally, approaches used for LD and ADHD are employed
Assessment and treatment of EFs in children is especially complicated, because of the diversity of EFs as well as the differences in developmental trajectories for the different EF processes
Gray and white matter volume, lateralization, and distribution of cognitive control changes with age; “notable shortage” of neuroimaging studies for ped TBI
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TBI and ATTENTION
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Attention (1)
Multidimensional Sensory selective attentional system
Parieto-temporo-occipital area Orienting, engaging, and disengaging attention and object
recognition Arousal, sustained attention and vigilance system
Midbrain reticular activating system and limbic structures Arousal, sustained attention, vigilance, mood, motivation,
salience of stimuli, readiness to respond Anterior system for selection and control of responses
Frontal lobes, anterior cingulate gyrus, basal ganglia, thalamus
Intentional control and use of strategies for manipulating information, active switching and inhibition
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Attention (2)LEVELS AND TYPES
FUNCTION ASSESSMENT
AROUSAL State of consciousness; primitive wakefulness
Gross motor response to sensory stimulation
AWARENESS Assumes arousal; from stupor to clear perception of surroundings
Answer questions
SELECTIVE ATTN Focus; resistance to distraction; managing limited resources by selection
Two stimuli or tasks; response to one
SUSTAINED ATTN Vigilance or concentration; maintaining focus on one stimulus for a period of time
A series of stimuli and response to one
DIVIDED ATTN Allocating limited resources to multiple processes or tasks
Two stimuli or tasks; response to both (dual task paradigms)
Common terms and categorization in testing and treatment
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Attention (3)
TBI => diffuse and bilateral injury to many regions including frontal, temporal, meso-limbic, and midbrain reticular formation areas These areas are involved in attention One of most common cognitive complaints post-TBI Commonly assessed via:
Digit span (e.g., subtest of Wechsler Memory Scale; WMS) WAIS - Digit symbol coding and symbol digit modalities tests SART – Sustained Attention and Response Task TMT – Trail Making Test BTA – Brief Test of Attention TEA – Test of Everyday Attention Attention Questionnaire
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Attention (4)
Sensory selective attentional system Rarely damaged relative to other systems If damaged, => object recognition difficulty, unilateral spatial
neglectArousal, sustained attention and vigilance system
Commonly damaged If damaged, => decreased perceptual sensitivity/decreased
vigilanceAnterior system for selection and control of responses
Commonly damaged If damaged, => slower to perform selective and divided
attention tasks, impaired speed of information processing (increased RT), distractible,
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Attention (5)
EBRsPractice Standards
Remediation of attention during postacute rehabilitation
Should include direct attention training Contextualized
Should include metacognitive training to promote development of compensatory strategies and foster generalization to real-world tasks.
Practice Option Computer-based interventions as an adjunct to
clinician-guided treatment of attention deficits
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Metacognitive techniques:Goal definition => Performance predictions => planned strategy use => self-evaluation => self-reflection
Role reversal, audio-visual feedback
Tasks such as food preparation, laundry, driving, work duties
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TBI and MEMORY
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MEMORY (1)
Working (and short-term) memory - involved in the acquisition of new information and the activation of old or stored information whenever it is needed for a task; make contact with the knowledge in LTM
Long-term memory (LTM) Retrospective memory – memory for past events and
experiences and for information acquired in the past Declarative memory
Episodic memory Semantic memory
Procedural memory Prospective memory – ability to remember to do things
at specific points in time
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MEMORY (2)
TBI => diffuse and bilateral injury to many regions including temporal and basal-frontal regions These areas are involved in memory Difficult to separate from attention Commonly assessed via:
WMS - Wechsler Memory Scale Digit/letter/word span for immediate retention
AMI – Autobiographical Memory Interview GOAT – Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test RBMT – Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test CAMPROMPT – Cambridge Prospective Memory Test Corsi Block-tapping Test Memory for Designs Test (of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale)
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MEMORY (3)
EBRsPractice Standard
Memory strategy training (internalized strategies [e.g., visual imagery], external memory compensations [e.g., notebooks]) Mild memory impairment
Practice Guideline Memory strategy training (with external compensations) with
direct application to functional activities Severe memory impairment
Practice Options Errorless learning for specific skills or knowledge
Severe memory impairment Evidence of limited transfer/generalization
Group-based intervention
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TREATING THE WHOLE PATIENT
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EBRs: COMPREHENSIVE-HOLISTIC NEUROPSYCHOLOGIC REHABILITATION
Practice Standard C-HNR to reduce cognitive and functional disability
Postacute Moderate to severe TBI
Practice Options Integrated cognitive + interpersonal + comprehensive
neuropsychological rehabilitation Group-based interventions
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COMPREHENSIVE-HOLISTIC NEUROPSYCHOLOGIC REHABILITATION (1)
Cicerone et al., 2004, 2008 Outpatient, postacute Comprehensive-Holistic = 16 weeks (15-20 hours/week)
Core treatment Individual and/or group psychotherapy, family support and involvement, therapeutic
work trials, ADLs, assessment of progress, observing videotapes of communication/interaction, feedback to self and others, etc.
Cognitive group treatment Functional activities with emphasis on executive functioning, metacognitive
functioning, interpersonal group processes Individual cognitive remediation (patient involved in goal setting and content of
activities) Group communication treatment – communication, interpersonal communication
style, perspective taking, social behavior, pragmatic language skills Standard = 16 weeks (12-24 hours/week)
Primarily individual, separate sessions of physical, occupational, speech, and neuropsychologic therapy
Also recreational, vocational, and/or educational therapy/intervention, psychologic counseling
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COMPREHENSIVE-HOLISTIC NEUROPSYCHOLOGIC REHABILITATION (2)
Comprehensive-Holistic => greater improvements when compared to standard neurorehabiltation program of similar intensity/duration Twice the magnitude of treatment effects observed in
community integration Also => greater improvements in neuropsychologic
functioning Improvement on complex attention and executive
functioning tasks directly related to community integration
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Pediatric TBI and Academic Re-entry
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Community Integration and Vocational Rehabilitation
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TBI and disorders of mood, affect, and motivation
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TBI and psychosocial factors