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JAMAICA

NATIONAL REPORT

to the

WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002

Ministry of Land and Environment

Kingston, Jamaica June 2002

PREFACE

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED or the Rio Summit) marked an important milestone in awakening the world to the need for a development process that is sustainable. A strategy of sustainable development was proposed and universally accepted in the form of Agenda 21, a plan of action for addressing environmental, economic and social concerns for present and future generations. Agenda 21 contains over 2,500 wide ranging recommendations such as how to reduce wasteful production and consumption patterns, combat poverty, protect the atmosphere, oceans and biodiversity, and promote sustainable agriculture.

Like other developing countries, Jamaica has found it

extremely challenging to integrate environment and development considerations while addressing pressing social and economic issues, especially in view of the rapid changes in the world economy. As a small island developing state, the country has even more concerns in terms of its vulnerability to economic and environmental pressures.

The Rt. Hon. P.J. Patterson, Prime Minister of Jamaica who

participated in the Rio Summit has committed the Government to a path of sustainable development and to the eradication of poverty as a priority:

“For this government, the determination to eradicate poverty is absolute. Reducing poverty and ultimately eradicating it, will significantly add to the purchasing power of many Jamaicans. It will undoubtedly contribute to an improvement of the economic climate. It will improve the quality of life for all of us. In the final analysis, poverty eradication is a fundamental issue of social justice that must be vigorously attacked on many fronts. As such it demands the commitment and vigilance of all Jamaicans, with the government at the helm.”

P.J. Patterson Conference on Poverty Kingston, Jamaica 1998

National Report on Sustainable Development in Jamaica

Government of Jamaica Ministry of Land and Environment

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Despite social and financial constraints, Jamaica has been putting in place policies and programmes for a sustainable future, which balance economic growth and development, with environment and social justice needs, thus contributing to sustainable development in the years ahead.

Ten years after Rio, there have been significant developments

in the pace and extent of social, economic and environmental programmes, such as those dealing with poverty eradication, local government and public sector reform, land management and watershed protection. We are also now in a position to measure the changes that are being made to the natural environment.

The Government recognises that there can be no lasting

economic development unless the natural resources and services provided by the environment are protected. Integrating environment and development therefore is not a luxury but an investment, particularly for small island developing states such as Jamaica.

I am pleased to present Jamaica’s national report to the World

Summit on Sustainable Development. We have a vision of the Jamaica1 we are working towards, that

of “…a wholesome, beautiful physical environment…with fully

educated and environmentally literate citizens, meaningfully employed, concerned with future as well as present generations, cognisant of their inter-relatedness with a finite physical environment and a sense of responsibility for action as it relates to the environment; guided by a political and economic system committed to the principles of equity, participatory democracy and sustainability”.

1 National Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainable Development



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The onus now rests on us to mainstream sustainable development and achieve this sustainable prosperity early in this 21st century.

Kingston, June 2002 Horace W. Dalley, MP Minister of Land and Environment



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PREPARATION OF THE NATIONAL REPORT

An integral part of preparations for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) is a National Report highlighting achievements, challenges and obstacles to attaining sustainable development, as well as priority issues for future action.

The National Report for Jamaica was prepared from data and

information collected from:

• Official publications of the Government of Jamaica; interviews with key persons in the public and private sectors, bilateral and multilateral agencies, and the Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) community;

• Consultations with NGOs and the private sector

organised by the Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust (an NGO), to

I. review a survey that had been conducted to

determine the progress made by Jamaican NGOs in the implementation of Agenda 21; and

II. assess the state of preparedness of the NGO community for the WSSD;

• A survey of NGOs aimed at assessing their capacities as

well as their state of preparedness for the WSSD that was conducted on behalf of the Caribbean Sustainable Development Network.

• The interim Sustainable Development Council of

Jamaica



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Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE.......................................................................................................................................... i

PREPARATION OF THE NATIONAL REPORT............................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................v

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF ACRONYMS.................................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER 1 ......................................................................................................................................1

JAMAICA – OVERVIEW................................................................................................................1 Geography ........................................................................................................................i Governance .................................................................................................................... 1 Economy .......................................................................................................................... 2 Human and Social Development ................................................................................ 3 Natural Environment....................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................................8

GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF THE STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21.................8 Introduction .......................................................................................................................i Initiatives to Support Sustainable Development in Jamaica................................. 11

Institutional Arrangements .............................................................................................13 Capacity Building.............................................................................................................15 Legislation...........................................................................................................................16 Policies, Plans and Programmes ..................................................................................17

Poverty Eradication Programmes .......................................................................................... 17 National Land Policy and Land Management .................................................................. 19 Education ..................................................................................................................................... 21 National Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainable Development ........ 21 National Industrial Policy .......................................................................................................... 22 Energy Sector Policy .................................................................................................................. 22 Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan ................................................................... 23 Environmental Management Systems.................................................................................. 23 Fiscal and Monetary Policies................................................................................................... 24

Participation of Civil Society in Policy Formulation and Implementation ........... 25 Constraints to Implementation of Agenda 21 and Lessons Learnt ....................... 27

CHAPTER 3 ....................................................................................................................................33

NATIONAL PRIORITY ISSUES IN JAMAICA .............................................................................33 Emerging Challenges .................................................................................................. 36



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CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................................................38

THE WAY FORWARD....................................................................................................................38 New Strategies for a Changing Context .......................................................................i The Way Forward .......................................................................................................... 39 The Role of the International Community ................................................................. 43

APPENDIX .....................................................................................................................................45

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................46



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LIST OF TABLES Table 1 - Selected Social and Economic Indicators Page 4 Table 2 - Jamaica’s Progress towards Sustainable Development Page 45

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 – Sustainable Development Expenditure as a Percentage of

Recurrent Expenditure Page 29



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LIST OF ACRONYMS CARICOM Caribbean Community ENACT Environmental Action Programme GoJ Government of Jamaica JaNEAP Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan MLE Ministry of Land and Environment NEPA National Environment and Planning Agency NIP National Industrial Policy NLP National Land Policy NPEP National Poverty Eradication Programme PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica ROSE Reform of Secondary Education SDC-J Sustainable Development Council of Jamaica SIDS Small Island Developing States STATIN Statistical Institute of Jamaica WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development



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CHAPTER 1

JAMAICA – OVERVIEW GEOGRAPHY

Jamaica is located in the western Caribbean and is the largest of the English-speaking Caribbean islands with a land area of 10,990 square kilometres. As an archipelagic state, Jamaica has stewardship over marine space 24 times its land space, with an exclusive economic zone of approximately 235,000 square kilometres.

The country has a rich diversity of flora and fauna and is fifth

among islands of the world in terms of plant endemism. Even though Jamaica enjoys this rich biological diversity of marine and terrestrial species and ecosystems, particularly forest types, there are at least six species of terrestrial vertebrates which are thought to have become extinct over the last 150 years and many more are considered endangered, threatened or rare.

Jamaica had a resident population of approximately 2.6

million at the end of 2001, 57% under 30 years of age.2 About 55% of the population live in urban areas. At the end of 2001, the population was growing at an estimated rate of 1% per annum, and the density was 236 per square kilometre. GOVERNANCE

Jamaica gained political independence from the United Kingdom on August 6, 1962, and adopted the Westminster Model of government. Since then, the country has maintained a parliamentary democracy in which the two main political parties have at varying times formed the government.

2 PIOJ. 2001. Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica, 2001.



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ECONOMY

Growth with equity and social justice have been among the principal development goals of successive administrations. In the last decade, there have been continued efforts to liberalise the economy, manage a significant external debt and achieve macroeconomic stability as a basis for sustained economic growth. The development strategy is premised on export-led growth financed by private local and foreign investment. In this strategy, the state has the role of facilitator in partnership with the business community.

The economy has been transformed from one based mainly

on the export of primary agricultural products and mineral commodities to the UK and North America, to a service economy in which tourism is now the principal earner of foreign exchange. Over 80% of the GDP is generated by services that hire about 62% of the labour force. While bauxite and alumina are still major foreign exchange earners, the traditional agricultural exports, sugar and banana, have declined in importance, and are likely to continue to do so as their preferential access to the UK and European markets is withdrawn. Nevertheless, there is still a significant agricultural sector producing for the domestic market, which employs approximately 21% of the labour force. (See Table 1 page 4) for selected social and economic indicators).

Jamaica is a member of CARICOM, a regional grouping of 14

Caribbean countries moving towards full integration as a single market by 2005. At the same time, preparations are underway for membership in the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) that is scheduled to come into being in 2005, for the next round of negotiations in the World Trade Organization (WTO), and for negotiations with the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement.3

3 The Cotonou Agreement between the members of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) group of states and the European Union and its member states is a partnership agreement set up to promote and expedite the economic, cultural and social development of the ACP States, with a view to contributing to peace and security and to promoting a stable and democratic political environment It was signed in Cotonou, Benin on 23 June 2000. The partnership is centred on the objective of reducing and eventually eradicating poverty consistent with the objectives of sustainable development and the gradual integration of the ACP countries into the world economy.



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The year 1991 saw record inflation levels following the liberalization of the foreign exchange market and the sharp decline in the value of the Jamaican dollar. By 2001, the country was experiencing the fifth consecutive year of single digit inflation at 8.7%.

HUMAN AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Jamaica is classified as a country with medium human development according to the UNDP’s Human Development Report. Of the 162 countries included in the 2001 Report, Jamaica ranked 78th on the Human Development Index and 68th on the Gender-related Development Index.

During 2001, the work force increased by 0.2% resulting in a

decline in the average unemployment rate to 15%. The unemployment rate for both sexes taken together fluctuated between 15% and 17% for the last half of the 1990s, with the rate for women tending to be twice that of the males.

The poverty rate declined from a high of 44.6% in 1991 to a

low of 15.9% in 1998. By 2001, the incidence of poverty rose slightly to 16.9%.

Education

After debt repayment, 30-50% of the balance of public expenditure has been committed to education and health in the last five fiscal years as key elements in the strategy for human development.

Average enrolment in schools stood at 95.5% in the public

education system and 4.5% in private institutions at the end of 1999. Enrolment was near universal for early childhood education, and children of the poor made the largest gains. Between 1989 and 1999 tertiary level enrolment increased by 55.0% to 6.2% of total enrolment at the end of 1999. The literacy rate at the end of 2001 was 79.9%.



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Table 1: Selected Social and Economic Indicators towards Sustainable Development in Jamaica over a 4-year period.4 4 PIOJ. 2000. Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica, 2000.

Parameter Unit 1997 1998 1999 2000

Population 000 2553.2 2573.0 2589.0 2605.0

Literacy Rate % 75.4 75.4 75.4 79.9

Access to Safe Water % 81.2 81.2 81.2 81.2

Sanitary Facility % 99.5 99.5 99.5 99.5

Unemployment Rate % 16.5 15.5 15.7 15.5

Infant Mortality Rate / 000 live births

24.5 24.5 24.5 24.5

Enrolment in primary Institutions

000 306.2 318.2 318.6 325.3

Enrolment in Secondary Institutions

000 219.3 227.2 228.5 226.4

Enrolment in University 000 15.7 16.2 15.8 18.6

Life Expectancy Yrs 72.2 72 72.2 72.2



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Health

The Health sector experienced budgetary constraints in 2000/2001, but despite this there were new levels of achievements. These included the continued decline in vaccine preventable diseases attributed in part to the increase in national immunisation coverage; decline in sexually transmitted diseases; and expanded targeted intervention in client services at public hospitals.

The high incidence of HIV/AIDS continues to be cause for

grave concern and concerted action by the government and international agencies. The rate of reported AIDS cases in Jamaica showed a 4% increase in 2001 compared to 2000, with females accounting for 54% of the reported number.

Water and Sanitation

Between 1997 and 2000 the percentage of persons with access to safe water and sanitary facilities remained constant at 81.2 % and 99.5 % respectively (see Table 1 on page 4).

Ground water is the most significant source of irrigation and

potable water and the quality of this source is suitable for such use and with little treatment. Surface water contaminated by agricultural runoff and industrial and municipal point and non-point source pollution has remained an issue.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Since the Earth Summit, much more attention has been given to managing human interface with the natural environment in line with the national commitment to sustainable development. This is also reflected in a rising share of after-debt public expenditure on the management of the natural environment and efforts to systematically apply the Natural Resources Conservation Authority Act in efforts to manage natural resources, (biodiversity, watersheds, beaches and coastal resources), prevent pollution of air, water and soil, develop a system of terrestrial and marine protected areas and to ensure that environmental impact assessments are systematically applied to new development projects.



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Concerns about the annual deforestation rate lead to a review by the Forestry Department which has established that the rate of deforestation is only 0.1%5. Thirty-five percent of Jamaica’s forested land is designated as Forest Reserves and another 2% is proposed for protection in the near future. Significant capacity building in the forestry sector has taken place, and projects developed (Trees for Tomorrow, and the Spinal Forest Project) aimed at restoring forest cover across the island.

Most of Jamaica’s watersheds are considered to be in critical

condition. A National Integrated Watershed Management Council was established to implement rehabilitation of the watersheds based on a new Watersheds Management Policy.

In the past decade, there has been a significant increase in

the total of terrestrial and marine protected areas. Following the development of a White Paper on Protected Areas, eight such areas have been declared. Protected areas now cover 13.3 % of Jamaica’s land area. Marine protected areas amount to 181,500 hectares or 1.1% of the exclusive economic zone?

Special attention has been directed at conservation of

Jamaican coral reefs and wetlands through Jamaica’s participation as a partner in the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its accession to the Ramsar Convention.

Jamaica was among the first island states to create a coral

reef action plan (JCRAP). The percentage of live coral cover on Jamaican reefs has increased marginally over the last 4 years.6 The Black River Wetlands were designated as the national Ramsar site in 1998. Mangrove wetland acreage has remained relatively constant over the last 10 years even though instances of wetland modification still occur.

The competent authorities and stakeholders have actively

collaborated in regional initiatives to introduce a ‘Blue Flag’ type scheme for the Caribbean. Coastal water quality initiatives have been initiated and Jamaica has also developed an approach to 5 Jamaica’s Environment 2001. 6 Edmunds P.J. and R.C. Carpenter. 2001. Recovery of Diadema antillarum reduces macro algal cover and increases abundance of juvenile corals on a Caribbean Reef. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98 5067-5071.



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the management of land-based activities which affect the marine environment.

The capacity and systems required to manage solid and special wastes as well as sewage and ship-generated wastes, however, still remain a challenge. A National Solid Waste Management Authority has been created and is taking the lead in dealing with solid and special wastes. Significant investments have been made in sewerage infrastructure in coastal areas including Negril, Ocho Rios and Montego Bay. Plans are well advanced for similar infrastructure for the Kingston Metropolitan Area and Port Antonio.

Data on air quality are scarce in Jamaica as a system for

routine air quality managements has not been established. The energy sector is the single largest contributor to air pollution and greenhouse gas emission in Jamaica. The phasing-out of leaded gasoline in 2000 was the major initiative over the last decade.



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CHAPTER 2

GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF THE STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21

INTRODUCTION

In its report to the 1992 Rio Summit, Jamaica urged that efforts should be made to alleviate poverty, strengthen local implementing and regulatory agencies in order to increase their absorptive capacities; monitor and adjust cooperation programmes in order to meet specific needs; develop efficient data management systems; research and develop alternative sources of energy; relieve debt; develop equitable agreements in respect to technology, information exchange, environmental reporting, waste management and pollution control.

The Government of Jamaica is committed to sustainable

development and policies built around the following objectives: - social equity which takes the needs of all stakeholders into

consideration - conservation of the environment - sustainable use of natural resources and - sustained economic growth and employment.

Even before the Earth Summit in Rio, the “…sustainable development of Jamaica’s natural resource base” was enunciated as a basic policy objective of the GoJ in the Five Year Development Plan, 1990-1995. In the post-Rio decade, the official commitment to sustainable development was repeated in the National Industrial Policy (NIP) in 1995, the Education Policy, Policies on Health and Energy, and several other official plans.

Several other policy instruments were formulated in the post-

Rio decade and a number of projects and programmes also put in place. These were major steps in addressing deforestation, the loss of biodiversity, the destruction of watersheds, and the management and development of coastal and marine resources, the



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management of solid waste, hazardous waste, human shelter, poverty, health, education, and energy (see Table 2).

Jamaica has made reasonable progress in the post-Rio

decade in implementing the spirit, if not the letter of Agenda 21. Since the Rio Summit, Jamaica has signed or acceded to

virtually all the major environmental conventions. (See Appendix I for details). A number of local action plans and policies have been developed to support the implementation of the treaties. Among these are the plans on biodiversity, climate change, ozone protection and coral reefs. Other plans are being developed on desertification, persistent organic pollutants and on the prior informed consent procedure regarding pesticides.

In respect of a number of issues such as the inclusion of civil

society in policy formulation, poverty eradication, land tenure and resource management, much progress has been made. There is more awareness now among policy makers and the general public of the issues of sustainable development particularly as they relate to human interaction with the natural environment, and there are more legal bases and mechanisms to manage natural resources.

Jamaica is now better informed about the state of its forests,

watersheds, the main harbour, coastal and other ecological issues, solid waste disposal, and the general state of the natural environment. There is also greater awareness of the implications of global issues such as trade and environment, and climate change. One of the environmental NGOs has established a students’ environmental network, representatives of which have participated in international meetings and sought to raise awareness of national environmental issues.

In 2001, for the first time, a detailed quantitative Environment

Statistics and State of the Environment Report was produced, following earlier State of the Environment reports done in 1995 and 1997. Policies have been developed to guide industrial practices and urban management, and government has embarked upon a programme of environmental stewardship of its own operations.

Significant efforts have also been made to develop

appropriate sustainable development strategies and plans and



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institutional arrangements, embracing civil society, the private sector as well as central and local government.

Other important achievements are the reduction in the

poverty rate and the provision of shelter solutions through the National Poverty Eradication Programme and the various housing programmes. The quality of living conditions, particularly levels of poverty, health and housing, is monitored annually and reported in the Survey of Living Conditions (SLC). Based on the SLC, annual estimates of the incidence and prevalence of poverty have been computed and strategically addressed.

Sustained adequate funding was a limitation for the

implementation of sustainable development. A number of creative funding sources were, however, developed. These include the funding window for environmental Non-Governmental Organizations and for child survival and child welfare through the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica, established under a debt-for-nature swap in 1993; and the Jamaica National Park Trust Funds with the aim of providing extra-budgetary support for long-term environment conservation investment.

In 2001, a new funding mechanism, the Forest Management

and Conservation Fund was established, as a supplement to the resources provided by the Government, to provide long term funding for re-forestation and forest conservation. The Fund will be used exclusively for activities specified in the National Forest Management and Conservation Plan. Another funding mechanism, the Tropical Forest Conservation Fund was created to receive funds from a planned debt-for-nature swap. This Fund will be managed similar to the EFJ resources and will be used primarily to support forest-related projects being implemented by NGOs.

The main constraints to the implementation of Agenda 21

include limited technical institution capacity, the heavy debt burden and the development needs.



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INITIATIVES TO SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN JAMAICA

Agenda 21 introduced the concept of national sustainable development strategies as a means of integrating economic, social and environmental objectives into a strategically focused blueprint for action.

While the official sustainable development strategy is yet to be

formulated explicitly, the elements of a sustainable development strategy are certainly in place, though there is much to be done to fill the gaps. An immanent strategic approach can be seen in various initiatives such as:

• An agenda of issues driven by commitments to international

conventions, by opportunities for international funding, and by the advocacy of civil society. Whereas the balance of interests for the international agencies have been decidedly on the side of the environment, the balance of interests of Jamaican civil society had been equally decidedly in the favour of social improvements such as poverty eradication, the reduction of crime, and social justice.

• Technical work in information gathering and analysis of these

issues as the basis for informed decision-making

• Consultation both in the preparation and the publication stages of sustainable development policies and plans. To date, consultations are often more formal than substantive on account of the structure of decision-making and the weak capacity of the non-government sectors

• Partnerships with international funding institutions and NGOs

to mobilize financial resources and human resources with the requisite technical and managerial skills.

• Preference for public education over coercive measures to

encourage the general public and the business community in particular to buy-in to sustainable development policies. In this respect, the UNDP and the ENACT programme financed by the Canadian International Agency (CIDA) have played signal roles in promoting sustainable development.



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• The search for a proper balance between market incentives and government sanctions to encourage and ensure compliance to environmental standards and regulations. Here, a good example is the USAID financed Coastal Water Improvement Project that facilitated the development of a policy for promoting environmental management systems in the public and private sectors.

There is evidence also, of an emerging strategy in changes in

the protection and management of natural resources, the increase in the allocation of public expenditure to sustainable development initiatives and programmes, the programme of public sector reform which entails among other things the “greening” of government’s procurement processes, and the implementation of a programme of local government reform. With capacity-building programmes both public sector institutions and organisations of civil society will be able to push changes along at a faster rate.

Within the past few years, the Government has strengthened

the existing legal foundation to provide an adequate regulatory framework for the management of the environment and the achievement of sustainable national development. Other initiatives include the development of innovative funding mechanisms, policies and programmes, establishment of standards, public-private partnerships and institutional arrangements.

Table 2 highlights the main environmental achievements made

in Jamaica towards a path of sustainable development in each year of the decade since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

Examples of initiatives in certain areas follow.



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Institutional Arrangements a) Sustainable Development Council

In 1994, the government appointed the Sustainable

Development Council of Jamaica (SDC-J), facilitated by the UNDP under the Regional Capacity 21 Project, to mainstream sustainable development in public policy. The SDC-J functioned under the National Planning Council. After two years, however, it became apparent that there was need for a re-evaluation of the role and structure of the SDC-J.

An Interim Council was established in March 2001 under the

chairmanship of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Land and Environment (MLE), with representatives7 from ministries, public sector planning institutions, NGOs, a regional institution and one international development agency.

The interim Council was designed as a central node to network with relevant groups in the private and public sectors. It coordinates activities partly through linkages with other national groups, such as the National Planning Council (NPC), the Council on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management, the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), the National Integrated Watershed Management Council, the National Habitat Committee, the Land Information Council of Jamaica, the National Council on Science and Technology, and other similar bodies engaged in sustainable development.8

The current agenda of the Council includes the following

activities:

• Collecting the best case studies of sustainable development actions

• Developing National Commitments for specific actions to be taken in the near future

• Preparing a Country Profile, 2002

7 See Appendix V. 8 A number of these committees and councils of broad representation were established to prepare strategies and policies to implement the many international conventions.



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The responsibility for the formulation of sustainable development strategy will be centralised in the SDC-J.

b) Public Sector Reform

In 1998, the Cabinet Secretary was named as the head of the Civil Service and also given responsibility for public sector reform. Among the principal goals of the reform is the adoption of a style of governance consistent with sustainable development principles. In particular, the public sector is to be reconfigured to accommodate the effective participation of stakeholders in the development of policies, plans, programmes and projects, and to integrate the social, economic and environmental objectives of the government in public policy. Already, according to the guidelines for the preparation of Cabinet submissions, broad consultation with stakeholders is required before the document reaches Cabinet. The new public sector will be explicitly committed to sustainable development.

The “whole Government” approach to the development of

policies and programmes is being promoted under the reform programme.

Sustainable development has now been mainstreamed as one

of the central “pillars” for modernising the public sector.

c) Institutions

Over the last decade the Jamaican Government has embarked on a number of initiatives geared solely towards the proper management conservation and protection of the natural resources within the context of sustainable development.

The most recent initiative of the government was recognition

that urban and rural planning must be done within the context of the wider thrust of environmental management, and to this end government has established the National Environment and Planning Agency. This new agency represents an amalgamation of the Natural Resources Conservation Authority which has a statutory mandate for the conservation, protection and proper management of the natural resources of Jamaica; the Town and Country Planning Authority which has the statutory mandate to



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ensure the orderly planning of Jamaica and the Land Development and Utilization Commission with a statutory mandate to ensure that prime agricultural lands are kept in agricultural production in the interests of inter alia food security and self sustainability.

In the National Industrial Policy of 1995, the Government committed itself to establish an Environment and Sustainable Development Unit in the Planning Institute of Jamaica to ensure the integration of social, economic and environmental policy. This is currently being implemented.

Recent indications are that the Planning Institute of Jamaica

is preparing itself to provide technical leadership for the process of formulating and articulating a coherent and comprehensive strategy for sustainable development.

Capacity Building

Several major programmes for capacity building in environmental organizations have been carried out since the Rio Summit. The goal of the GoJ/CIDA-funded Environmental Action (ENACT) Programme, for example, is to promote sustainable development through supporting the sound management and use of Jamaica’s natural resources. Its objective is to develop the capacity of key strategic players at the government policy, private sector, community and general public levels to identify and solve their environmental problems, in a sustainable way.

Through ENACT, most Ministries and Agencies have prepared corporate and strategic plans as reference guides to executing sustainable development initiatives. A major environmental training programme for the public sector entitled “Holistic Governance – Sustainable Development in Action”, started in April 2001 has been providing training to all sections of the public sector in key areas. During 2001, approximately 1000 individuals across all ministries and agencies of government and representing varying levels of staff were sensitised to environmental and or sustainable development issues, through workshops, seminars, meetings etc.



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Legislation Several pieces of legislation have helped to decrease human impact on the environment, the most remarkable of which is the declaration of parks and protected areas and an environmental protection area in the years following the Rio Summit. The NEPA leads the campaign in this regard, preparing also guidelines and standards to aid sustainable development efforts.

Progress has been made in enacting the requisite provisions in

legislation to support new policy initiatives. Among the most important developments were:

1) the enactment of legislation to empower the Natural

Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA) to manage and conserve Jamaica’s natural resources, and

2) the implementation of the permit and licence system.

Regulations were also promulgated to govern the use of declared national parks, marine parks and protected areas.9

In furtherance of environmental protection and conservation, the Endangered Species (Protection and Regulation of Trade) Act, 2000 was enacted to support implementation of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). There are also four major pieces of legislation being revised at this time – the NRCA Act, and the laws dealing with wildlife protection, watersheds and beach control.

Reviews of legislation have been carried out with a view to

preparing a sustainable development law framework.

As far as enforcement is concerned, a draft Compliance and Enforcement Strategy has been developed from multi-agency meetings, and includes a Memorandum of Understanding for inter-ministerial cooperation. Efforts have also been made to sensitise the judiciary of environmental considerations. 9 The Natural Resources Conservation (Marine Park) Regulations Order, 1993; Natural Resources Conservation (National Parks) Regulations, 1992.



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Policies, Plans and Programmes

The major policy instruments encompass a wide range of social, economic and environmental issues and are outlined below.

Poverty Eradication Programmes The Jamaica Human Development Report, 1998 was prepared

by the PIOJ with support from the UNDP. This document developed customised indicators to monitor progress in overall human development, and particularly the eradication of poverty and the mainstreaming of gender in the formulation of policy.

By the end of the 2000/2001 financial year, approximately J$24

billion (US$498 million)10 had been spent on poverty eradication projects and programmes since Rio. Since the mid 1990’s the flagship social programme has been the National Poverty Eradication Programme (NPEP) which can be credited for some of the success in reducing the rate of poverty. The NPEP emphasise strategies of human resource development and employment generation; community empowerment; geographic targeting; safety net and income transfers. Currently, there are approximately 45 projects and programmes operating out of 11 government ministries.

Welfare assistance continues to be high on the agenda for

poverty eradication, but significant focus is being given to initiatives aimed at enabling and empowering groups and individuals who are poor. Among such initiatives are:

♦ The Jamaica Social Investment Fund which provides

infrastructural support to needy communities all over the island and for organisational development and social services;

♦ The Micro-investment Development Agency that has been

providing funding to small and micro-enterprises; ♦ Other programmes and projects such as: the Rural

Electrification Programme, the Catchment Tank 10 1 USD = J$ 48.24



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Rehabilitation Programme, the Jamaica Drugs for the Elderly Programme, the Social and Economic Support Programme, the Food Stamp Programme, and the New Horizons for Primary Schools Project.

The Government is currently undertaking a reform of the Social

Safety Net Programme. One facet of this reform is the Programme of Advancement through Health and Education (PATH) which is intended to improve the targeting mechanisms used to identify the poorest segments of the population, to increase the effectiveness of welfare and related programmes, and to streamline the delivery of services. The principal objective of PATH is to improve human capital development by increasing the access of children in poor families to education thereby breaking the cycle of inter-generational poverty. It also seeks to improve the health status, productivity, and longevity of the poor.

PATH is to be implemented in different phases, the first of which

involves: a) The consolidation of three existing income support

programmes into a unified programme. b) A considerable increase in the level of benefits which will be

disbursed on a phased basis.

With regard to human shelter, Jamaica’s commitments to Habitat led to the preparation of a National Shelter Strategy, a National Housing Policy and a National Habitat Report for the year 2000 which was published in 2001.

In the area of housing development a number of projects are being undertaken to ensure shelter is available to all sectors of the society. Chief among these is the Special Indigent Housing Project which began in 1999 and is coordinated by a unit in the Office of the Prime Minister. The Project involves the construction, repair or rebuilding of the domicile or sanitary conveniences for indigent persons or institutions which house the indigent. The Programme Coordinating and Monitoring Unit (PCMU), in the Office of the Prime Minister is responsible for coordinating the programme.

Another major housing programme is the Programme for

Resettlement and Integrated Development Enterprises known as



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Operation Pride which was implemented to make available government-owned lands at reasonable prices to low income earners for various types of uses. The beneficiaries enter into a legal agreement to undertake the development of infrastructure to an acceptable standard (over a period of time) on an incremental basis.

National Land Policy and Land Management

The Office of the Prime Minister in its capacity as facilitator of policy development and formulation utilised a participatory process to develop a comprehensive National Land Policy which was tabled in the Houses of Parliament in 1996. It identifies the implementation of sustainable strategies, including the regulatory framework, for land resources. The National Land Policy addresses, the following:

establishment of a national networked Geographical

Information Management System; provision of affordable and legally secure access to land

for the majority; development of innovative and more dynamic

approaches to land use planning and development; protection and conservation of scarce and sensitive

resources, while pursuing development initiatives in an environmentally sound manner;

disaster mitigation and preparedness pricing, taxation and incentives for property

development management of taxes acquisition and divestment legal and institution al matter

A comprehensive settlement policy is also in place to guide the use of areas for settlement development. Out of a total of 1150 towns and villages throughout Jamaica, 120 have been chosen for concentrated urban development based on the level of existing infrastructure and services. They consist of 96 district centres, 17 sub-regional centres, 6 regional centres and one nation al centre. This settlement policy is supported by existing development plans and orders which are policy and legal instruments used to guide development. New plans and orders which are policy and legal



19

instruments used to guide development are currently being prepared to replace some of the outdated and non-existent ones.

Land use zoning based on these plans and orders is also used as policy guides for other use of land including industrial, commercial, mining, conservation, tourism etc. Greater enforcement, compliance and monitoring of existing laws and regulations due to lack of adequate technical, human an, financial and other resources are the greatest barriers to achieving better land utilisation and management. The creation of a new Municipal Force and institutional strengthening are the major actions now being taken to address these problems.

The Land Administration and Management Programme

(LAMP) - a GOJ/Inter-American Development Bank programme, aims at promoting the efficient administration and management of land resources in an integrated and sustainable manner. The project has a Land Titling and Cadastral Mapping Component. Within the next two years, 25,000 parcels in St. Catherine (the project area) will be mapped and registered titles prepared for delivery to 50% of landowners in the project area. Digital cadastral maps with reliable geographic location and a legal record of land ownership will also be created.

There are four components to the LAMP project. The Land Registration Component will use modern and appropriate land surveying technologies such as GPS to update a section of the Cadastral Index being prepared and create digital Cadastral maps. This will provide reliable and specific geographic location of properties and record land ownership amongst other things thus facilitating an efficient and streamlined land tenure regularization process. The Cadastral maps will be used as the base to develop and maintain all land and land related information.

The Public Land Management Component will develop

comprehensive computerized systems for the inventory of state lands and buildings, including data on possession, use, land suitability, financial and other relevant matters.

The Land Use and Development Component aims at

reforming the planning process and establishing a participatory approach to development planning. This reformed approach will



20

facilitate the integration of the various components of the development process with environmental, physical and socio-economic considerations as well as inputs from the various sector agencies.

The Land Information Management Component will identify and commence the implementation of several activities in the area of the networked GIS for Jamaica. Activities to be accomplished include the creation of digital base maps for priority urban areas and the establishment of a geodetic infrastructure required for mapping, surveying, marine and air navigation, traffic and fleet management and emergency planning among others.

Education

The policy on education, 2001: “The Way Upward - A Path for Jamaica’s Education at the Start of the New Millennium,” represents the commitment by the GoJ to engage the people of Jamaica in the development of human resources as a primary tool for economic and social development.

National Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainable Development

The National Environmental Education Action Plan is the

national framework document which seeks to harmonise environmental education action towards measurable results related to Jamaican citizens in a sustainable future. It embodies the elements of knowledge, attitudes, and skills together with an orientation which encourages action to achieve improved environmental health in the cause of sustainable development. In terms of environmental education, teacher education syllabuses in Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Studies and Early Childhood Education were re-written to incorporate environmental education for sustainable development (EESD). Some are now being tested in teachers’ colleges. NGOs have also developed programmes to build awareness in schools through the Schools Environment Programme.



21

National Industrial Policy

In the National Industrial Policy of 1995, the government committed itself to establishing an Environment and Sustainable Development Unit in the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) to ensure the integration of social, economic and environmental policy. This has recently been implemented.

Energy Sector Policy Additionally, the Government has pledged to address energy

management issues through the Jamaica Energy Sector Policy. The Jamaica Public Service Company through the implementation of its Demand Side Management Project assists customers in energy conservation. The Energy Sector Policy supports Demand Side Management programmes by reducing or eliminating duties applicable to energy efficient devices.

Tourism Master Plan

The Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development, 2001-

2011, was completed in November 2001. This is the first sectoral plan informed by a holistic approach. It was driven by concern about the fragility of the natural resources essential to the tourism product and the interference of tourist activities with coastal and marine ecosystems. The plan incorporates elements for the preservation of cultural heritage, seeks to facilitate social interaction between Jamaican communities and visitors, and proposes to develop greater linkages between the tourism sector and the other productive sectors in the economy.

An important thrust of the plan will be the further development

of community tourism and the strengthening of small hotels, which are consistent with the national drive for sustainable development in all sectors.

The plan proposes the implementation of a voluntary

environmental management certification programme known as the Blue Flag programme. This programme has been endorsed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO), and rewards “local government and



22

private sector partners for providing safe, clean beaches and marinas.”

There is also the plan for the sustainable development of the

south coast of the island that will incorporate elements of tourism, fishing, and the management of protected areas and the requisite infrastructure.

Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan

Jamaica has established since 1995, a three-year National Environmental Action Plan (JaNEAP), which is reviewed annually. It deals with diverse environmental and sustainability issues, as well as the implementation of commitments under Agenda 21, and the Programmes of Action for SIDS.

Apart from the JANEAP, plans for the management and

development of several different aspects of Jamaica’s environment have been prepared, and there has been one planning exercise that formed part of a regional project on climate change. All of the subjects of the other plans are also integral to sustainable development. See Appendix 4 for a list of plans and programmes.

Environmental Management Systems The government has favoured voluntary compliance to

standards in all spheres of the economy. Thus, firms are encouraged to get ISO 14000 certification11 to make them compliant with the requirements for sustainable development. The recently enunciated Green Paper: Towards a National Policy and Strategy on Environmental Management Systems (EMS) strongly emphasises market incentives to prevent and manage pollution, and in general, encourages environmentally friendly behaviour by individuals, households and productive enterprises as well as the public sector. Hotels are encouraged to seek international certification such as ISO 14000 or Green Globe.12

11 ISO 14000 is an international standard dealing with environmental management systems within businesses. 12 Green Globe certification is an international award measuring the environmental performance of hotels, evaluated by the World Tourism Organisation.



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The USAID funded pilot project Environmental Audits for Sustainable Tourism (EAST) has legitimate claims for success in demonstrating the positive impact of environmental management systems on the bottom line of the hotels. In this example, enhancing the tourism product to stimulate the growth of the industry has been a principal driver. It is here that the use of market incentives to encourage environmentally friendly and socially responsible activities can best be demonstrated.

Other important aspects of policy in the post Rio decade have

been the development of standards for air, water, sewage and trade effluent and a permit and licensing system administered by the National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) for activities impacting on the natural environment. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), permits or licenses are now required for a variety of development activities.

Gender

The Planning Institute of Jamaica developed a Gender Equity Instrument to be used in mainstreaming gender into the Government's project cycle.

The Government has developed Guidelines for Cabinet Submissions which requires that due consideration be given to gender issues in policy development. This should ensure the inclusion of gender considerations in all submissions. To support this, the Policy Unit, Cabinet Office has organized training in gender awareness for policy analysts within the public sector.

Fiscal and Monetary Policies

The focus of policy in the financial sector mirrored the broader policy thrust towards economic consolidation and growth. Some of these policies are:

The GoJ’s Procurement Policy Framework developed in

2000, which directs and guides procurement legislation,



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regulation and operating procedures for the acquisition of goods, services and works;13

Zero-rating of taxation on solar energy components and reducing the customs tariff on finished solar projects; and

The Deposit Insurance Act and other legislative developments – between 1998 and 1999, which protect against loss of depositors’ funds.

PARTICIPATION OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

A goal of Agenda 21 is to foster greater cooperation and

policy integration among international and national institutions in order to rationalise the legal regimes at various levels and to ensure better, more participatory and informed decision-making.

The GoJ has used a participatory approach involving the

private sector, professional bodies, NGOs and other stakeholders to assist in the preparation of policies, plans, projects and programmes. In many instances, members of the international community have also participated. The consultative approach was an innovation of the government of the 1990s. For example, NGOs form a part of the many environmental policy development teams, and sometimes have been involved in the implementation process. Work with environmental NGOs is more pronounced in the rural areas, as they serve as key advisors on issues, and strategies for solving them.

In addition, there have been instances14 where the

government withdrew controversial policy positions on the advice of ad hoc committees of civil society appointed by the government to review the policy proposals, in light of the negative public response to the proposals. While in each case the strong reaction of the public was attributed to lack of sufficient prior consultation with stakeholders by the government, the subsequent response of the government to the recommendations of the ad hoc

13 In the foreword to the document, the Minister of Finance and Planning pointed out that the heavy weight of government expenditures for the procurement of goods and services in the Jamaican economy would stimulate the supply of environmentally friendly goods and services. 14 In one instance the Hope Estates Development slated for land adjoining Hope Gardens was relocated to Long Mountain as a result of NGO advocacy.



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committees indicates a willingness to heed the advice of civil society.

Non-Governmental Organizations To be able to channel the inputs of a broad range of

environmental NGOs, an attempt was made by some of them in the early 1990s to form an NGO Council with representatives from the community of NGOs. The Council has not been very active in recent years, but from time to time it has been used for advocacy around various issues, a most recent one being to formulate an NGO position on a controversial tax on gasoline.

NGO activity levels and capacities have declined in some

areas in the latter part of the decade, predominantly for want of resources. Two recent surveys15 of NGO participation in preparations for the WSSD have identified the decline in NGO activity over the decade. Nonetheless, some of the critical technical work done in formulating environmental and social policies and preparing the several plans mentioned above have benefited from NGO involvement through their professional members.

The National Policy on Protected Areas, the National Land

Policy, the National Industrial Policy and the National Poverty Eradication Programme mentioned earlier are examples of some of the policies and programmes whose development involved the participation of civil society at all stages of policy design, drafting and implementation.

In general, this consultation has been widest and deepest on

environmental issues with the Environmental NGOs, and in particular those with the relevant expertise for each issue. Further, there are several current cooperation agreements (or Memorandum of Understanding) between the government and some NGOs and CBOs to assist with the management of protected areas (e.g., the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park and the Montego Bay Marine Park).

15 Agatha Addy, 2002; Michael Witter, 2002.



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Private Sector The most established consultation process is between the

government and the leaders of the business community on economic policy. The National Planning Council, chaired by the Minister of Finance and Planning, brings together business leaders, government technocrats, professional organisations, NGOs, and other representatives of civil society in a monthly forum for discussion of public policy.

The business community has been increasingly active since

1997 in the promotion of public education on sustainable development and partnership in the implementation of projects such as the promotion of environmental management systems and the preparation of a sustainable development plan for Greater Montego Bay.

The Jamaica Institute of Environmental Professionals

completed the Information Network in support of the private sector training. A Business Council of the Environment was recently formed.

CONSTRAINTS TO IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21 AND LESSONS LEARNT

♦ Funding

The share of public expenditure allocated to sustainable

development activities and programmes rose steadily through the decade of the 1990s and particularly sharply after 1997 [See Figure 1]. In 1992, expenditure on three broad areas of sustainable development – “Environmental protection and Conservation”, Forestry and Wildlife Management” and “Solid Waste Management”, was less than 0.1% of public expenditure. However, the share of public expenditure allocated to these sustainable development activities rose sharply after 1997 to 6.23% in 1998, averaging 3.26% between 1996 and 2001.

Inadequate financial resources have been a major constraint to

programmes such as the NPEP. International funding to the government and all sectors of civil society has played a major role in the realisation of achievements in sustainable development, still Ministries and relevant agencies cite limited financial resources to



27

meet the increasing demands of properly servicing international agreements.

♦ Debt servicing

The Earth Summit was held one year after the government

accelerated the pace of liberalisation of the economy with the deregulation of the foreign exchange market. This was the final major step in the more than a decade long structural adjustment process that had been precipitated by the effects of the oil crisis and national debt crisis at the end of the 1970s.

Three years after the Earth Summit there was a major financial

crisis which led the government to intervene to contain the scope of the “crisis” in the financial sector. The years of efforts towards stabilisation and structural adjustment left Jamaica with a large debt to the multilateral financial institutions. The intervention of the government to save the financial sector drove up the indebtedness of the government to holders of government securities.

Servicing the debt has for several years been the major

component on some 60% of public expenditure leaving the minor share for everything else including the social services. Of the balance, the major share goes to education and health, and to the government’s main social programme, the National Poverty Eradication Programme (NPEP). There has been and will continue to be in the foreseeable future a severe constraint on the availability of public resources on account of this problem.



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-2.00

-1.00

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

1991

/2

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/3

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/4

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/5

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YEAR

Perc

ent,

%

Re-current Capital A+B Linear (Capital A+B) Linear (Re-current)

Figure 1: Sustainable Development Expenditure as a Percentage of Recurrent and Capital Expenditure

♦ Short-term Planning

Another set of constraints derives from tension between short-

term quick-impact programmes to address pressing social needs, and resource commitments to deal with longer-term issues. This tension is rooted in the competitive politics of the Westminster system of government that inclines governments to favour tangible, visible results, quickly. There have been several instances of proposed construction projects to meet the pressing housing needs that have galvanised advocacy campaigns by civil society in defence of environmental protection and sustainable development.

The imminent cut-backs in the market access for the two

main traditional exports, sugar and banana, the inherent fragility of tourism and its susceptibility to shocks from international events and natural forces, and the fierce competition in the region for new



29

industries financed by foreign investment, tend to rivet the attention of policy makers on the economic dimensions of the development challenges. The pressure for a trade-off of long-term sustainable development goals for short-term economic benefits is constant and intense.

♦ Low economic growth

Commitments to three-year medium term macro-economic

programmes under the auspices of the international financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, have been far more successful in stabilising the economy than in generating growth. The policy commitments in the economic programmes restrict public expenditure, even as the fall-out from the liberal economic reforms intensifies the need for an adequate social safety net of benefits to assist the most vulnerable groups in the society.

♦ Inadequate supporting regulatory mechanisms

There has been a costly lag in the establishment of appropriate

regulatory mechanisms to contain the negative aspects of competitive economic behaviour. Even as the lag has allowed the government time to foster the acceptance of the business community to its economic strategies, it has also allowed time and space for the proliferation of unsustainable consumption and production activities, and for environmentally unfriendly activities to persist.

In Jamaica, power has been highly concentrated in the central

government, and this tended to undermine local sustainable development planning and management.16 Many of the international conventions require new legislation. The demands resulting from sustainable development initiatives are constrained by the capacity of the government’s system, which is traditionally and perhaps inherently slow to respond to change, to deal with legislation.

16 See B. Pereira, 2001.



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♦ Crime and Violence Crime and violence within the society are significant barriers

to the achievement of sustainable development, as it affects not only social well being but also economic development. Jamaica's high incidence of crime has resulted in loss of investments, in addition to direct effects on sectors such as tourism from which the country obtains most of its foreign exchange earnings.

♦ Lack of Public Awareness The weak connections between the protection and

conservation of natural resources and the long-term social and economic benefits are easily eclipsed by the exigencies of survival in the immediate. Thus, it is difficult to dissuade poor landless farmers who squat on hillsides from using slash and burn techniques, from the wanton cutting of trees to produce charcoal for household cooking and sidewalk vending of charcoal cooked foods, or desist from the cultivation of steep slopes, when they have no readily accessible options for income generation.

Lessons Learnt

There are many lessons to be learned about implementing

sustainable development strategies and policies from Jamaica’s experience. The traditional organisation of the public sector into areas of specialised responsibilities constrains attempts at holistic approaches required for sustainable development.

The government has enjoyed mixed success with

coordinating committees of representatives from the public sector, the private sector and civil society. However, there is still a challenge to fashion methods or modes of governance to facilitate the preparation and implementation of sustainable development strategies, policies, plans and programmes.

While environmental deterioration, such as deforestation and

land-based marine pollution continue, the society is now more equipped to reverse some of these negative trends. Environmental Impact Assessments are now standard requirements, although there are cases in which developments have been started without an EIA being done. Recent flooding in the eastern end of the island



31

wreaked immense damage that can be traced to the denudation of the hillsides for agricultural purposes and the obstruction of natural waterways by unplanned and illegal construction, incorrect disposal of solid waste and human settlement patterns. The disaster brought the inevitable and immense costs of environmentally unfriendly practices once more into sharp relief.



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CHAPTER 3

NATIONAL PRIORITY ISSUES IN JAMAICA

The following issues may be categorised as national priority issues in the face of growing concerns that if these issues are not strategically dealt with, they may impact on Jamaica's overall sustainable development effort. Poverty

Despite the successes of poverty eradication programmes to date, the two social issues of poverty and unemployment continue to present the government with major policy challenges.

Given the pervasive and serious nature of financial need among the Jamaican population, the issue of poverty becomes a challenge where the basic needs of individuals are met by exploiting the available natural resources. This has far reaching implications for the environment and development.

Crime and Violence

Although the overall number of crimes reported decreased

marginally in 2001 compared with previous years, there were increases in major crimes in the island. Of growing concern has been the fact that most recent incidents of violence have been interpersonal in nature and this makes it harder to control. In 2002, a Crime Plan was signed in Parliament by both the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, indicating political commitment to dealing with crime. Investments in skills development, education and health, and the creation of capacity for people to be able to participate in decisions that affect their lives will increase the quality and quantity of social interactions and create benefits for both present and future generations.



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Illegal Drug Trade

In the ten years since Rio, the Jamaican economy is far more open, but at the cost of serious dislocation in both manufacturing and agriculture, two of the biggest employers of labour. The economic hardships created fertile ground for recruiting Jamaicans to the illegal drug trade, and most perniciously, the transhipment of cocaine from South to North America and the UK. Criminal violence is reported to be the number one concern by polls of Jamaican public opinion, and it is reported by surveys to be a principal deterrent for foreign investment.

Crime and Violence are inextricably linked with illegal

narcotics trading, affecting overall social development programmes. The increasing incidence of illicit drug activities is seen as a very real emerging challenge to sustainable development. Education

Education is critical for national progress. There is a major on-

going programme, the Reform of Secondary Education (ROSE) funded by the World Bank, to upgrade the secondary school curriculum.

The level of illiteracy has implications for many of the social

development programmes to be undertaken. The policy on Education, mentioned earlier takes this into consideration.

Environmental education and Public Awareness are also

critical issues, impacting on human interactions with the environment and on resource consumption. There has to be further efforts towards informing the public on the implications of environmentally acceptable practices and how disregard for the environment can result in disastrous consequences.

Environment education is becoming an aspect of schools

curricula at the secondary level. A further step has been the formation of environmental clubs in many schools and colleges.



34

Climate Change It is predicted that the change in global climatic conditions

will result in increased temperatures, rainfall and sea level rise and more frequent hurricanes, droughts, etc. Climate change will impact not only on biodiversity and natural resources but on social development. The impact of sea level rise on the tourism industry could be profound if it results in increased beach erosion. The island’s two major international al airports are at sea level. Natural Disasters Jamaica is vulnerable to several natural hazards e.g. hurricane, tropical storms, flooding and landslides due to its geographical location. Flooding and landslides are the most recurring hazards. Priority actions must be geared toward disaster mitigation and rehabilitation, and reconstruction in light of the October to November 2001 flood damage in the parishes of Portland and St. Mary. The magnitude of the damage in these two parishes has highlighted the need for proper land use planning and zoning regulations and enforcement.

Capacity Building This issue concerns the development of the full human potential and skills to carry out tasks that are required to achieve sustainable development. Support is needed to enhance management and organisational skills, develop human resources, and thereby build capacity to implement sustainable development planning activities. One area in which there is need for capacity development is in the preparation of drafting instructions for legislation. There are severe constraints to implementation of enforcement activities, and lack of funds hampers the relevant agencies in hiring sufficient field personnel to adequately carry out enforcement activities.



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EMERGING CHALLENGES

HIV/AIDS

The threat of HIV/AIDS acts as a barrier to sustainable development implementation by i) directing resources to other areas and ii) affecting the productivity required to sustain economic growth.

With the Caribbean ranked second in the world behind southern Africa in terms of AIDS infection rate, the issue of HIV/AIDS has become a national priority especially in a country that accommodates a large number of visitors year round. Local programmes such as Jamaica AIDS Support (JAS) to assist those individuals infected with the virus have in recent time been struggling financially The fight against HIV/AIDS and the reorganisation of the public health system are therefore now the major thrusts of policy.

The National HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan 2002-2006, an updated

version of the 1997-2001 medium term plan recently received bipartisan support. It strengthened the national HIV/AIDS effort and sets the framework for the country to act to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS. Broad policy issues on stigma and discrimination, protection of privacy and confidentiality and access to care are addressed by the national plan. Trade

Countries such as Jamaica, with relatively high commodity or manufacturing production costs need to increase skill/knowledge based activities, services, niche markets, product and service differentiation, and add value to goods and services before export.

The goal today should be to build competitive (not

comparative) advantage. Comparative advantage is dependent on costs of labour and materials. Competitive advantage requires diverse skills: knowledge, dynamism, flexibility, innovative ability, marketing, branding, positioning etc.

If we are to develop a competitive advantage, however, we

need to develop the necessary skills, innovative and technological



36


dynamism, decision-making capacity and knowledge networks/business clusters to develop, disseminate and capitalise on information, and thereby support 'techno-preneurialism'. This in turn will require a range of institutional reforms and cultural changes, and a massive investment in education.

Another issue of concern is trade and the environment. The

Doha Declaration17 speaks to “mutual supportiveness of trade and environment” which is in keeping with the tenets outlined in Chapter 2 of Agenda 21. Twenty of the two hundred recognised Multilateral Environmental Agreements have trade implications, including several to which Jamaica is either a signatory or a party see Appendix IV).

The Government, through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade, in response to the post-Doha trade and environment negotiating agenda, has established an inter-ministerial committee to examine the agenda, monitor developments in the WTO Committee on Trade and Environment and formulate the country’s negotiating position on the issues.

NEPA with the assistance of the relevant public sector agencies will be conducting a review of the domestic environmental regulatory framework to assess its impact on trade. The output of this exercise and the discussions arising from the inter-ministerial committee on trade and the environment will provide the basis for a proposed national symposium on the topic involving the public and private sectors and civil society. The symposium will serve as a consultative process thereby sensitising players to the broader issues, creating linkages and informing the country of the negotiating position.

17 World Trade Organisation Ministerial Declaration adopted in Doha, Qatar on November 14, 2001.



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CHAPTER 4

THE WAY FORWARD NEW STRATEGIES FOR A CHANGING CONTEXT

With the shift of international donor attention to Eastern Europe, Jamaica and the rest of the Caribbean are finding it increasingly difficult to access international assistance. This is all the more significant because of the impending loss of preferential access to the markets for the traditional exports, sugar and banana. Further, the entry of Mexico into NAFTA was a major contributing factor to the re-location of much of the export processing of garments that was the mainstay of the Jamaican manufacturing sector in the 1980s. While the post-September 11 performance of the Jamaican tourist sector has been better than anticipated and certainly better than a few of Jamaica’s competitors in the region, there was some slippage due to the fear of air travel.

Though the imperatives for sustainable development persist,

the pace at which the adjustments were anticipated by Agenda 21 and the subsequent Barbados Plan of Action in 1994 was not achieved. It may well be that a longer timetable for the transition is warranted and it certainly is the case that international assistance will be critical to consolidating the gains made in the last decade and forging ahead in the next.

It will be prudent to review the priorities and to refine and

concretise the specific meaning of sustainable development in Jamaica. This in turn requires a centralisation of the leadership of the drive for sustainable development with the requisite policy-making authority and the influence on resource allocation. Because sustainable development cuts across all sectors, line ministries with sectoral responsibilities must to grips with sustainable development issues.

In the re-ordering of priorities, due attention must be given to

enhancing the competitiveness of Jamaican businesses. Without economic growth, the pressure of the poor and vulnerable on the natural resource base will increase. Nor can Jamaica afford a



38

pattern of growth that undervalues natural and human resources, for that will undermine the drive for sustainable development. There is therefore a need to demonstrate to the business community how the adoption of sound environmental practices can improve their bottom line and ultimately increase economic growth.

There is also a need for widespread public education on waste

management. Rapid changes in consumption patterns and the increasing use of non-biodegradable packaging for both local and imported consumer goods have overwhelmed the traditional systems for solid waste disposal. Special efforts have been made to foster recycling and/or export of PET bottles used for soft drinks and other liquids, and the government continues to search for the appropriate mix of sanctions and market incentives to promote the proper disposal of these containers.

A plan for solid waste disposal has been completed and

awaits implementation under the auspices of the Solid Waste Management Act and Authority. In addition, a start has been recently made to correct the discharge of untreated sewage into Kingston Harbour from faulty sewage treatment plants.

THE WAY FORWARD

Jamaica’s path to sustainable development will not be easy as

the challenges outlined above will need to be overcome. The following recommendations will have to guide the proper execution of Jamaica’s growth and development process in a sustainable manner especially as it pertains to the issues considered as critical national issues. In broader terms, achieving sustainable national development will require the following:

Integration of the environmental, economic and social

facets of the decision-making process. More in-depth collaboration and cooperation between

ministries and agencies of the government and a comprehensive reform of the traditional modes of decision making and project, programme and policy implementation.

A full recognition of the fact that government decisions go well beyond the physical impacts of specific projects.



39

An over-arching vision and strategy for sustainable development to make coherent the many initiatives listed in Table 2.

Broadening of the definition of Capacity building and development to include secondments, exposure, networking and reference to and application of case studies to guide new work.

More investment in public and formal education.

Specifically, recommendations for the way forward include a recognition by government and civil society of the following:

Public awareness of larger sustainable development issues is not sufficiently developed to grasp their significance in terms of their concrete impact on daily life and there is therefore an urgent need for an accelerated, nationwide, public education programme. In particular, it is the responsibility of government and major groups to:

Improve early childhood cognitive and social development for all

Improve primary school attendance and learning outcomes

Improve secondary school access, attendance and outcomes

Improve post- secondary access to opportunities for learning and skills development for all

Lifelong, continuous development of the skills necessary for economic, social and political development.

Too often standards are promulgated and policies are

drafted by international consultants. The end result is that these policies are somewhat generic, often modelled after another country, and not sufficiently specific to Jamaica’s reality. The government needs to invest in skills development so that local consultants and responsible government officials can become experts in their field and be hired by the government.

The consultation process needs to be deepened by

more thorough airing of issues and solutions at the level



40

of the farm, the business enterprise and the household. Because of the low level of public awareness and the weak capacities for local action, the consultation processes will be longer, more difficult and hence more expensive. Deepening consultation can only enhance public buy-in to the policies. Deepening the process entails having more substantive consultations, and hence more effective participation by NGOs, Parish Development Committees and other elements of civil society.

There is a need to develop nationally agreed sustainable

development indicators as well as a database to support these indicators. To begin the process, the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN) began a programme of collation of environmental statistics in collaboration with the NEPA.18 Realistic flexible targets and appropriate linkages between national and local priorities have to be set. There is also need to increase public access to information via web pages, cable television, libraries and schools.

The following recommendations are being considered

to guide efforts in respect of poverty eradication: Improve support services available for those

formerly institutionalised to facilitate their reintegration into the society

Expand training opportunities to meet labour market needs

Strengthen the livelihood base of rural communities

Strengthen the livelihood base of poor urban communities

Recommendations to guide efforts in respect of crime

and violence are: Improving community engagement in crime

prevention and strengthen the local capacity for non-violent conflict resolution

18 Jamaica’s Environment 2001 – Environment Statistics and State of the Environment Report.



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Continually improve access to justice and confidence in the justice system for all Jamaicans

Enhancing protection from abuse for citizens and vulnerable groups (e.g. people in institutions, homeless, mentally and physically challenged)

Enhancing the impartiality of the criminal justice system, combating discriminatory norms, values, attitudes and behaviours

Enhancing the wider societal response to restore security.

The following recommendations may be used to guide

the country’s efforts in respect of HIV/AIDS: Increased assistance from international partners,

more so developed countries, as AIDS is a global problem

Improved public awareness/behaviour with respect to lifestyle issues in health (include sexually reproductive health)

Improved counselling and care services available to persons with HIV/AIDS

As it pertains to trade and the environment there needs

to be capacity development but this can only happen if international assistance is given in the following respects:

Assistance in undertaking sector specific and general public sensitisation programmes to identify the synergies between trade and the environment

Assistance in conducting research on the effects of trade and trade liberalisation on Jamaica’s environment

Technical and financial assistance to assess the environmental impact of trade agreements which Jamaica will be engaged (including FTAA, the WTO post-Doha, the Canada-CARICOM, Cotonou).



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THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

Finally, the achievements of Jamaica in pursuit of Agenda 21 have been made with much international assistance. Whether these gains can be consolidated without international assistance at this point is questionable. Years of austerity and the rapid increase in the cost of living have left little margin in the household budget and in the time and energies of people, especially those with technical and management skills, for donations and voluntarism. So long as debt servicing consumes so much of the resources of the public sector, there will be a resource constraint on the ability to pursue a sustainable development strategy.

The business community is severely challenged by global

competition. Until it adjusts to equip itself to seize the new business opportunities to be derived from the adoption of business processes and practices which give due regard to environmental protection and conservation, it too will be unable to contribute significantly to sustainable development.

ODA continues to decline despite pledges from developed

countries at the Rio Summit. Given the current economic crisis in the country, this translates into less available financing for sustainable development efforts. The following are recommendations:

The international community will be more effective and

its efforts more enduring, the greater the emphasis placed on capacity building in the public and private sectors and in organisations of civil society.

Harmonising the requirements for administering

assistance programmes stipulated by all the international donor agencies, across agencies and simplifying them will go a far way in reducing the administrative costs of the recipient organisations and institutions.

The international community will need to build the

capacities of NGO’s for supporting their administrative expenses, meaningful participation in policy-making and implementation if the NGO’s are to survive.



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Jamaica, like most SIDS, will require special and differential treatment under the WTO rules to manage its vulnerabilities and to smooth the transition to a liberal economy engaging globalisation. The smoother the transition, the greater will be the chances for success in the pursuit of sustainable development.



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APPENDIX Table 2: Jamaica’s Progress towards sustainable development since 1992 Earth Summit



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REFERENCES

1. Addy, Agatha. 2002. “Progress Made by Jamaican Non-Governmental Organisations in the Implementation of Agenda 21 for Sustainable Development,” presented to the consultation of NGOs hosted by the Jamaica Conservation Development Trust, February 19, 2002.

2. ENACT “Report on Consultations on the SDC-J”, draft 3. Environmental Action Programme (ENACT). 2001. “Annual

Progress Report”, May 2001. 4. Government of Jamaica. 2001. “Environmental Guide to

Green Procurement”, July 2001. 5. Ministry of Land and Environment. 2000. Jamaica’s National

Report to Habitat, 2000. 6. National Environment and Planning Agency and Planning

Institute of Jamaica. 2001. Country Paper – Jamaica, International Forum on Sustainable Development Strategies, Accra, Ghana, November 2001.

7. National Environment and Planning Agency. 2000. Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan: Status Report 2000.

8. National Environmental Education Committee. 1998. “National Environmental Education Action Plan, 1998-2010”, 1998.

9. Natural Resources Conservation Authority and Ministry of Environment and Housing "Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan, Status Report” 1996.

10. Natural Resources Conservation Authority and Ministry of Environment and Housing. 1995. "Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan"

11. NEPA & STATIN. 2001. Jamaica’s Environment 2001: Environment Statistics and State of the Environment Report

12. Norconsult International A.S.: "Comprehensive Solid Waste Management Study"

13. Pereira, Beverly. 2001. “Policy and Legislative Framework for Local Sustainable Development Planning”, paper (DRAFT) presented to the National Consultation on Local Sustainable Development Planning, November 15, 2001

14. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Economic and Social Survey, annual, 1992-2000.

15. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Jamaica Human Development Report, 1998.

16. STATIN and PIOJ, Survey of Living Conditions, annual



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17. Wade, B. A. 1972. “Benthic Diversity in a Tropical Estuary”, Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. -133:499-515, 1972

18. Wade, B. A. 1976. “The Pollution Ecology of Kingston Harbour, Jamaica”, Scientific Report of the UWI - O.D.M. Kingston Harbour Research Project, 1972-1975, vols. 1-3, 1976

19. Witter, Michael. 2002. “Mid-Term Review of UNDP-Jamaica’s Sixth Cycle”, September 2000.

20. Witter, Michael. 2002. “Report on a Survey of NGOs in Jamaica”, prepared for CSED, March 2002.



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