Chapter 7Part II

Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

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Temperament

• Temperament is an individual’s behavior style and way of responding to the world

• Temperament is influenced by genetics (nature) and interactions (nurture)

• Although considerable evidence indicates temperament is consistent across development, it does not always follow a predictable course

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Temperament Types

• The nine characteristics of temperament according to Thomas and Chess:

6. Intensity of Reaction

7. Threshold of Reaction

8. Distractibility

9. Quality of Mood

1. Activity Level

2. Rhythmicity

3. Approach-withdrawal

4. Adaptability

5. Attention span

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Temperament Types

• The six reliable and nonoverlapping temperamental constructs according to Mary Rothbart and colleagues:

4. Activity level

5. Attention span/persistence

6. Regularity

1. Fearful distress

2. Anger/frustration

3. Positive affect

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Goodness of Fit

• The match between a child’s temperament and the demands of his/her environment– Environment may include family, school, child-care

setting

• Because caregivers cannot change or determine the child’s temperamental style, caregiving styles need to be molded around the child’s temperament

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Temperament – Thomas and Chess

• The three temperament types include:

– Easy, flexible• Behave predictably and respond positively to new situations

– Difficult• Irregular in schedules and bodily functions, slow to adapt to

change, cry longer and louder than other infants, and generally wary of new people or situations

– Slow-to-warm• Active but initially do not respond well to new situations or people

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Temperament

• Temperament theorists believe that temperament has a profound influence on the course of an individual’s development

• Children’s development of conscience and morality also may be related to temperament

• Temperament influences how children respond to their caregivers’ efforts of socialization

• The perception of temperamental qualities in an infant is influenced by cultural factors

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Attachment

• An enduring emotional tie characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure (the attachment figure) particularly under conditions of stress

• Attachment Theory– based on the work of John Bowlby and Mary

Ainsworth– Places great emphasis on the caregiver-child

relationship as a foundation for individual differences

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Attachment Theory

• Attachment is distinct from bonding, which generally refers to the caregiver’s tie to the infant

• Infants use the attachment figure as a base from which they attend to, learn about, and explore their world

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Attachment Theory

• Through attachments, children develop an internal working model

• The internal working model– Child’s general expectations of their own worthiness

and the availability of others– It serves as a model for future relationships– Children differ in the quality of their internal working

models

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The Development of Attachment

• Preattachment Phase

• Attachment-in-the-Making Phase

• Clear-Cut Attachment Phase

• Stranger Anxiety

• Separation Anxiety

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Phases of Attachment

• Preattachment Phase – Birth to 8 weeks– Infants rarely protest when caregivers leave

– Do not distinguish among the various caregivers who attend to them

• Attachment-in-the-Making Phase – 2 to 6 months– Infants may recognize caregivers

– Respond with delight and pleasure

– Do not show these responses to strangers

– Attachment is not fully developed

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Phases of Attachment

• Clear-Cut Attachment – 7 to 12 months– Stranger anxiety emerges

• Wary and fearful reaction to strangers

– Separation Anxiety also emerges• Reflected in an infant’s negative protests that accompany

separation from the attachment figure• Usually peaks between 12-18 months

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Assessing Attachment

• Harlow’s Experiment– Infant monkeys were fed on wire or cloth-covered

mother substitutes

– His findings indicated the infant monkeys showed a clear stronger attachment to the cloth substitute

– The findings suggest physical contact may contribute to attachment

Click on the picture to watch a short video on Harlow’s Experiment

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Assessing Attachment:The Strange Situation

• Mary Ainsworth and colleagues– Developed the Strange Situation– Participants involved:

• Caregiver• Infant between 11 and 18 months of age • Adult stranger

– Eight three-minute episodes involving three sequences:

• Exploration• Separation• Reunion

Click on the picture to view a short video on the Strange Situation

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Secure Attachment

• Pattern in which infants use their attachment figures as a secure base, obtaining comfort from their presence and becoming distressed by their absence

• Involves – High levels of exploration

– Positive affective exchanges between caregiver and child

– Effective soothing of distress

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Avoidant Attachment

• Pattern characterized by conspicuous avoidance of contact or interaction with the caregiver

• Involves– High levels of exploration– Low levels of overt distress at separation– Avoidance of caregiver upon reunion

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Ambivalent Attachment

• Pattern characterized by inconsistent behavior towards a caregiver

• Involves– Low levels of exploration– Intense separation distress – A mix of anger and distress at reunion– Failure to settle quickly at reunion

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Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

• Pattern characterized by a lack of a coherent strategy for handling separation from and reunion with a caregiver

• Involves – Inconsistent behaviors

– Disorganized strategies

• These children are at risk for adjustment problems

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Factors Affecting Attachment: Caregiver Sensitivity

• Sensitive caregiving is an important predictor of the development of secure attachment

• Synchrony– The degree to which caregiver’s and baby’s

behaviors occur together and are coordinated to produce a state of mutual enjoyment and engagement

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Factors Affecting Attachment:Infant Characteristics

• Certain characteristics shape the behavior of caregivers– E.g., cuddly infants foster caregiver sensitivity

• Some infants are at risk because of their characteristics– E.g., blind or deaf infants do not respond in typical

ways, which can impede attachment

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Culture and Attachment

• Attachment is influenced by culture– E.g., in Japan, where

contact and dependency are valued, there are no avoidant infants

D. Greco/Image Works

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Consequences of Attachment

• Children with secure attachment– Have better social skills

– Tolerate frustration better

– Express a wide range of emotions

– Approach situations with interest and pleasure

– Follow directions well

– Show a bias for remembering positive events

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Attachment to Fathers

• There are wide individual differences in involvement in fathers

• Fathers serve as attachment figures in the same manner that mothers do

• How fathers play with their infants appears to be a key feature– Interact as playmate as opposed to protector,

comforter, or care provider

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Day Care

• Patterns of Day Care Use

• Effects of Day Care

• Guidelines for Quality Day Care

• Culture and Day Care

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Patterns of Day Care Use

• About 60% of mothers in the U.S. work outside the home

• More than half of all mothers with infants under age 1 work

• Most infants are cared for by relatives

• Mothers who work full-time are more likely to use day care centers or non-relatives

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Patterns of Day Care Use

• Ethnic differences– African American children are more likely to be cared for

in center-based programs

– Latino children are more likely to be cared for by family members

– Caucasian children are more likely to be cared for by nannies

• These differences reflect income, access to child care arrangements and cultural values

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Patterns of Day Care Use

• Most child care facilities are privately owned and operated

• Requirements for standards of care are minimal

• The following guidelines should be used to judge a program’s quality: – Safety

– Adult/child ratios and group size

– Staff training and program

– Curriculum

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Effects of Day Care

• There are contradictory conclusions– Day care may benefit low and middle-class children

– High quality day care may have positive effects on intellectual and verbal development

– Day care may increase aggression and decrease compliance

– Poor quality day care may affect attachment adversely